Bicycle frame

A steel hardtail mountain bike frame produced by Rocky Mountain Bicycles

Steel frame of 2000 LeMond Zurich road racing bicycle mounted on a

workstand

A Triumph step-through, ladies', or open frame

Dursley Pedersen bicycle circa 1910

A penny-farthing photographed in the Škoda Auto Museum in the Czech

Republic

A Brompton folding bicycle

Bicycle in Victorian Plymouth England, with a predecessor of the Starley
diamond-frame

A cantilever bicycle frame

A carbon fiber Trek Y-Foil from the late 1990s

A modern truss frame

A bicycle frame is the main component of a bicycle, onto

which wheels and other components are fitted. The modern
and most common frame design for an upright bicycle is
based on the safety bicycle, and consists of two triangles: a
main triangle and a paired rear triangle. This is known as the
diamond frame.[1] Frames are required to be strong, stiff and
light, which they do by combining different materials and
shapes.

A frameset consists of the frame and fork of a bicycle and

sometimes includes the headset and seat post.[2] Frame
builders will often produce the frame and fork together as a
paired set.

Variations
Besides the ubiquitous diamond frame,[1] many different frame
types have been developed for the bicycle, several of which are
still in common use today.

Diamond …

In the diamond frame, the main "triangle" is not actually a

triangle because it consists of four tubes: the head tube, top
tube, down tube and seat tube. The rear triangle consists of
the seat tube joined by paired chain stays and seat stays.

The head tube contains the headset, the interface with the fork.
The top tube connects the head tube to the seat tube at the
top. The top tube may be positioned horizontally (parallel to the
ground), or it may slope downwards towards the seat tube for
additional stand-over clearance. The down tube connects the
head tube to the bottom bracket shell.

The rear triangle connects to the rear fork ends, where the rear
wheel is attached. It consists of the seat tube and paired chain
stays and seat stays. The chain stays run connecting the
bottom bracket to the rear fork ends. The seat stays connect
the top of the seat tube (often at or near the same point as the
top tube) to the rear fork ends.

Step-through …

Historically, women's bicycle frames had a top tube that

connected in the middle of the seat tube instead of the top,
resulting in a lower standover height. This was to allow the
rider to dismount while wearing a skirt or dress. The design
has since been used in unisex utility bikes to facilitate easy
mounting and dismounting, and is also known as a step-
through frame or an open frame.[3] Another style that
accomplishes similar results is the mixte.

Cantilever …

In a cantilever bicycle frame the seat stays continue past the

seat post and curve downwards to meet with the down tube.[4]
Cantilever frames are popular on the cruiser bicycle, the
lowrider bicycle, and the wheelie bike. In many cantilever
frames the only straight tubes are the seat tube and the head
tube.

Recumbent …

The recumbent bicycle moves the cranks to a position forward

of the rider instead of underneath, generally improving the
slipstream around the rider without the characteristic sharp
bend at the waist used by racers of diamond-frame bicycles.
Banned from bicycle racing in France in 1934 to avoid
rendering diamond-frame bicycles obsolete in racing,[5]
manufacturing of recumbent bicycles remained depressed for
another half century, but many models from a range of
manufacturers were available by 2000.

Prone …

The uncommon prone bike moves the cranks to the rear of the
rider, resulting in a head-forward, chest-down riding position.

Cross or girder …
A cross frame consists mainly of two tubes that form a cross:
a seat tube from the bottom bracket to the saddle, and a
backbone from the head tube to the rear hub.[6]

Truss …

A truss frame uses additional tubes to form a truss.[7]

Examples include Humbers, Pedersens, and the one pictured.

Monocoque …

A monocoque frame consists only of a hollow shell with no

internal structure.[8]

Folding …

Folding bicycle frames are characterized by the ability to fold

into a compact shape for transportation or storage.

Penny-farthing …

Penny-farthing frames are characterized by a large front wheel

and a small rear wheel.[9][10]

Tandem and sociable …

Tandem and sociable frames support multiple riders.

Others …

There are many variations on the basic diamond frame design.

Frames without seat tubes, such as the Trek Y-Foil, the Zipp
2001, the Kestrel Airfoil, and most frames by Softride.
Frames without top tubes such as "Old Faithful" by Graeme
Obree.
Frames that use cables for members that are only under
tension, such as the Dursley Pedersen bicycle pictured, the
Pocket Bicycle, the 2009 Viva Wire, [11] the Wire Bike from
designer Ionut Predescu, [12] or the Slingshot Bicycles fold-
tech series.[13]
Frames with hoops replacing the seat tube, chain stays and
seat stays: called "roundtail"s.[14][15]
The elevated chainstay bicycle was popular in the early 90s.
It featured a rear triangle with elevated bottom frame stays,
negating the need for the chain to be drawn through the rear
frame. This allowed for a shorter wheelbase and improved
handling during technical ascents, at the cost of
compromised integrity and resultant increased bottom
bracket flex (unless reinforced) compared to a frame with
traditional chainstays.[16]
The cycle types article describes additional variations.

It is also possible to add couplers either during manufacturing

or as a retrofit so that the frame can be disassembled into
smaller pieces to facilitate packing and travel.

Frame tubes
The diamond frame consists of two triangles, a main triangle
and a paired rear triangle. The main triangle consists of the
head tube, top tube, down tube and seat tube. The rear triangle
consists of the seat tube, and paired chain stays and seat
stays.

Head tube …

The head tube contains the headset, the bearings for the fork
via its steerer tube. In an integrated headset, cartridge bearings
interface directly with the surface on the inside of the head
tube, on non-integrated headsets the bearings (in a cartridge or
not) interface with "cups" pressed into the head tube.

Top tube …
Bicycle frameset (frame and fork) schematic

The top tube,[17] or cross-bar,[18] connects the top of the head

tube to the top of the seat tube.

In a traditional-geometry diamond frame, the top tube is

horizontal (parallel to the ground). In a compact-geometry
frame, the top tube is normally sloped downward toward the
seat tube for additional standover clearance. In a mountain
bike frame, the top tube is almost always sloped downward
toward the seat tube. Radically sloped top tubes that
compromise the integrity of the traditional diamond frame may
require additional gusseting tubes, alternative frame
construction, or different materials for equivalent
strength.[19][20][21] (See Road and triathlon bicycles for more
information on geometries.)

Step-through frames usually have a top tube that slopes down

steeply to allow the rider to mount and dismount the bicycle
more easily. Alternative step-through designs may include
leaving out the top tube out completely, as in monocoque
mainframe designs using a separated or hinged seat tube, and
twin top tubes that continue to the rear fork ends as with the
Mixte frame. These alternatives to the diamond frame provide
greater versatility, though at the expense of added weight to
achieve equivalent strength and rigidity.[19][20]

Control cables are routed along mounts on the top tube, or

sometimes inside the top tube. Most commonly, this includes
the cable for the rear brake, but some mountain bikes and
hybrid bicycles also route the front and rear derailleur cables
along the top tube. Inside routing, once only present in the
highest price ranges, protects the cables from damage and
dirt, which can e.g. make gear shifting unreliable.[22]

The space between the top tube and the rider's groin while
straddling the bike and standing on the ground is called
clearance. The total height from the ground to this point is
called the height lever.

Down tube …

The down tube connects the head tube to the bottom bracket
shell. On racing bicycles and some mountain and hybrid bikes,
the derailleur cables run along the down tube, or inside the
down tube. On older racing bicycles, the shift levers were
mounted on the down tube. On newer ones, they are mounted
with the brake levers on the handlebars.

Bottle cage mounts are also on the down tube, usually on the
top side, sometimes also on the bottom side. In addition to
bottle cages, small air pumps may be fitted to these mounts as
well.

Seat tube …

The seat tube contains the seatpost of the bike, which

connects to the saddle. The saddle height is adjustable by
changing how far the seatpost is inserted into the seat tube.
On some bikes, this is achieved using a quick release lever. The
seatpost must be inserted at least a certain length; this is
marked with a minimum insertion mark.

The seat tube also may have braze-on mounts for a bottle
cage or front derailleur.

Chain stays …

The chain stays run parallel to the chain, connecting the

bottom bracket shell (which holds the axis around which the
pedals and cranks rotate) to the rear fork ends or dropouts. A
shorter chain stay generally means that the bike will accelerate
faster and be easier to ride uphill, at least while the rider can
avoid the front wheel losing contact with the ground.[22]

When the rear derailleur cable is routed partially along the

down tube, it is also routed along the chain stay. Occasionally
(principally on frames made since the late 1990s) mountings
for disc brakes will be attached to the chain stays. There may
be a small brace that connects the chain stays in front of the
rear wheel and behind the bottom bracket shell.

Chain stays may be designed using tapered or untapered

tubing. They may be relieved, ovalized, crimped, S-shaped, or
elevated to allow additional clearance for the rear wheel, chain,
crankarms, or the heel of the foot.

Seat stays …

Example of a dual-stay seat stay system

The seat stays connect the top of the seat tube (often at or
near the same point as the top tube) to the rear fork dropouts.
A traditional frame uses a simple set of paralleled tubes
connected by a bridge above the rear wheel. When the rear
derailleur cable is routed partially along the top tube, it is also
usually routed along the seat stay.

Many alternatives to the traditional seat stay design have been

introduced over the years. A style of seat stay that extends
forward of the seat tube, below the rear end of the top tube
and connects to the top tube in front of the seat tube, creating
a small triangle, is called a Hellenic stay after the British frame
builder Fred Hellens, who introduced them in 1923.[23] Hellenic
seat stays add aesthetic appeal at the expense of added
weight. This style of seat stay was popularized again in the late
20th century by GT Bicycles (under the moniker "triple
triangle"), who had incorporated the design element into their
BMX frames, as it also made for a much stiffer rear triangle (an
advantage in races); this design element has also been used
on their mountain bike frames for similar reasons.

In 2012, a variation of the traditional seat stay that bypasses

the seat tube and connects further into the top tube was
patented by Volagi Cycles.[24] This frame element added length
to the traditional design of seat stays, making a softer ride at
the sacrifice of frame stiffness.

Another common seatstay variant is the wishbone, single seat

stay, or mono stay,[25] which joins the stays together just above
the rear wheel into a monotube that is joined to the seat tube.
A wishbone design adds vertical rigidity without increasing
lateral stiffness, generally an undesirable trait for bicycles with
unsuspended rear wheels.[26] The wishbone design is most
appropriate when used as part of a rear triangle subframe on a
bicycle with independent rear suspension.

A dual seat stay refers to seat stays which meet the front
triangle of the bicycle at two separate points, usually side-by-
side.

Fastback seat stays meet the seat tube at the back instead of
the sides of the tube.[27]

On most seat stays, a bridge or brace is typically used to

connect the stays above the rear wheel and below the
connection with the seat tube. Besides providing lateral rigidity,
this bridge provides a mounting point for rear brakes, fenders,
and racks. The seat stays themselves may also be fitted with
brake mounts. Brake mounts are often absent from fixed-gear
or track bike seat stays.
Bottom bracket shell …

The bottom bracket shell is a short and large diameter tube,

relative to the other tubes in the frame, that runs side to side
and holds the bottom bracket. It is usually threaded, often left-
hand threaded on the right (drive) side of the bike to prevent
loosening by fretting induced precession, and right-hand
threaded on the left (non-drive) side. There are many
variations, such as an eccentric bottom bracket, which allows
for adjustment in tension of the bicycle's chain. It is typically
larger, unthreaded, and sometimes split. The chain stays, seat
tube, and down tube all typically connect to the bottom bracket
shell.

There are a few traditional standard shell widths (68, 70 or

73 mm).[28] Road bikes usually use 68 mm; Italian road bikes
use 70 mm; Early model mountain bikes use 73 mm; later
models (1995 and newer) use 68 mm more commonly. Some
modern bicycles have shell widths of 83 or 100 mm and these
are for specialised downhill mountain biking or snowbiking
applications. The shell width influences the Q factor or tread of
the bike. There are a few standard shell diameters (34.798 –
36 mm) with associated thread pitches (24 - 28 tpi).

On some gearbox bicycles, the bottom bracket shell may be

replaced by an integrated gearbox or a mounting location for a
detachable gearbox.

Frame geometry
The length of the tubes, and the angles at which they are
attached define a frame geometry. In comparing different
frame geometries, designers often compare the seat tube
angle, head tube angle, (virtual) top tube length, and seat tube
length. To complete the specification of a bicycle for use, the
rider adjusts the relative positions of the saddle, pedals and
handlebars:

saddle height, the distance from the center of the bottom

bracket to the point of reference on top of the middle of the
saddle.[29]
stack, the vertical distance from the center of the bottom
bracket to the top of the head tube.[30]
reach, the horizontal distance from the center of the bottom
bracket to the top of the head tube.[31]
bottom bracket drop, the distance by which the center of the
bottom bracket lies below the level of the rear hub.[32]
handlebar drop, the vertical distance between the reference
at the top of the saddle to the handlebar.[33]
saddle setback, the horizontal distance between the front of
the saddle and the center of the bottom bracket.[34]
 standover height, the height of the top tube above the
ground.[35]
front center, the distance from the center of the bottom
bracket to the center of the front hub.[36]
toe overlap, the amount that the feet can interfere with
steering the front wheel.[37]

The geometry of the frame depends on the intended use. For

instance, a road bicycle will place the handlebars in a lower
and further position relative to the saddle giving a more
crouched riding position; whereas a utility bicycle emphasizes
comfort and has higher handlebars resulting in an upright
riding position.

Frame geometry also affects handling characteristics. For

more information, see the articles on bicycle and motorcycle
geometry and bicycle and motorcycle dynamics.

Frame size …

Commonly used measurements

Frame size was traditionally measured along the seat tube
from the center of the bottom bracket to the center of the top
tube. Typical "medium" sizes are 54 or 56 cm (approximately
21.2 or 22 inches) for a European men's racing bicycle or
46 cm (about 18.5 inches) for a men's mountain bike. The
wider range of frame geometries that now exist has also led to
other methods of measuring frame size.[38] Touring frames
tend to be longer, while racing frames are more compact.

Road and triathlon bicycles …

A road racing bicycle is designed for efficient power transfer at

minimum weight and drag. Broadly speaking, the road bicycle
geometry is categorized as either a traditional geometry with
a horizontal top tube, or a compact geometry with a sloping
top tube.

Traditional geometry road frames are often associated with

more comfort and greater stability, and tend to have a longer
wheelbase which contributes to these two aspects. Compact
geometry allows the top of the head tube to be above the top
of the seat tube, decreasing standover height, and thus
increasing standover clearance and lowering the center of
gravity. Opinion is divided on the riding merits of the compact
frame, but several manufacturers claim that a reduced range
of sizes can fit most riders, and that it is easier to build a frame
without a perfectly level top tube.

Road bicycles for racing tend to have a steeper seat tube

angle, measured from the horizontal plane. This positions the
rider aerodynamically and arguably in a stronger stroking
position. The trade-off is comfort. Touring and comfort
bicycles tend to have more slack (less vertical) seat tube angle
traditionally. This positions the rider more on the sit bones and
takes weight off the wrists, arms and neck, and, for men,
improves circulation to the urinary and reproductive areas.
With a slacker angle, designers lengthen the chainstay so that
the center of gravity (that would otherwise be farther to the
back over the wheel) is more ideally repositioned over the
middle of the bike frame. The longer wheelbase contributes to
effective shock absorption. In modern mass-manufactured
touring and comfort bikes, the seat-tube angle is negligibly
slacker, perhaps in order to reduce manufacturing costs by
avoiding the need to reset welding jigs in automated
processes, and thus do not provide the comfort of traditionally
made or custom-made frames which do have noticeably
slacker seat-tube angles.
Road racing bicycles that are used in UCI-sanctioned races are
governed by UCI regulations, which state among other things
that the frame must consist of two triangles. Hence designs
that lack a seat tube or top tube are not allowed.

A cyclist riding a time-trial bicycle with aerodynamic wheels and aero bars

Triathlon- or time-trial-specific frames rotate the rider forward

around the axis of the bottom bracket of the bicycle as
compared to the standard road bicycle frame. This is in order
to put the rider in an even lower, more aerodynamic position.
While handling and stability is reduced, these bicycles are
designed to be ridden in environments with less group riding
aspects. These frames tend to have steep seat-tube angles
and low head tubes, and shorter wheelbase for the correct
reach from the saddle to the handlebar. Additionally, since they
are not governed by the UCI, some triathlon bicycles, such as
the Zipp 2001, Cheetah and Softride, have non-traditional
frame layouts, which can produce better aerodynamics.

Track bicycles …
Track frames have much in common with road and time trial
frames, but come with rear-facing, horizontal fork ends,[39]
rather than dropouts,[40] to allow one to adjust the position of
the rear wheel horizontally to set the proper chain tension. Also
the seat tube angle is steeper than on road racing bikes.

Mountain bicycles …

For ride comfort and better handling, shock absorbers are

often used; there are a number of variants, including full
suspension models, which provide shock absorption for the
front and rear wheels; and front suspension only models
(hardtails) which deal only with shocks arising from the front
wheel. The development of sophisticated suspension systems
in the 1990s quickly resulted in many modifications to the
classic diamond frame.

Recent mountain bicycles with rear suspension systems have

a pivoting rear triangle to actuate the rear shock absorber.
There is much manufacturer variation in the frame design of
full-suspension mountain bicycles, and different designs for
different riding purposes.

Roadster/utility bicycles …
Roadster bicycles traditionally have a fairly slack seat-tube and
head-tube angle of about 66 or 67 degrees, which produces a
very comfortable and upright "sit-up-and-beg" riding position.
Other characteristics include a long wheelbase, upwards of
40 inches (often between 43 and 47 inches, or 57 inches for a
longbike), and a long fork rake, often of about 3 inches (76mm
compared to 40mm for most road bicycles). This style of
frame has had a resurgence in popularity in recent years due to
its greater comfort compared to Mountain bicycles or Road
bicycles. A variation on this type of bicycle is the "sports
roadster" (also known as the "light roadster"), which typically
has a lighter frame, and a slightly steeper seat-tube and head-
tube angle of about 70 to 72 degrees.

Frame materials
Historically, the most common material for the tubes of a
bicycle frame has been steel. Steel frames can be made of
varying grades of steel, from very inexpensive carbon steel to
more costly and higher quality chromium molybdenum steel
alloys. Frames can also be made from aluminum alloys,
titanium, carbon fiber, and even bamboo and cardboard.
Occasionally, diamond (shaped) frames have been formed
from sections other than tubes. These include I-beams and
monocoque. Materials that have been used in these frames
include wood (solid or laminate), magnesium (cast I-beams),
and thermoplastic. Several properties of a material help decide
whether it is appropriate in the construction of a bicycle frame:

Density (or specific gravity) is a measure of how light or

heavy the material per unit volume.
Stiffness (or elastic modulus) can in theory affect the ride
comfort and power transmission efficiency. In practice,
because even a very flexible frame is much more stiff than
the tires and saddle, ride comfort is ultimately more a factor
of saddle choice, frame geometry, tire choice, and bicycle fit.
Lateral stiffness is far more difficult to achieve because of
the narrow profile of a frame, and too much flexibility can
affect power transmission, primarily through tire scrub on
the road due to rear triangle distortion, brakes rubbing on the
rims and the chain rubbing on gear mechanisms. In extreme
cases gears can change themselves when the rider applies
high torque out of the saddle.
Yield strength determines how much force is needed to
permanently deform the material (for crashworthiness).
Elongation determines how much deformity the material
allows before cracking (for crash-worthiness).
Fatigue limit and Endurance limit determines the durability of
the frame when subjected to cyclical stress from pedaling or
 ride bumps.

Tube engineering and frame geometry can overcome much of

the perceived shortcomings of these particular materials.

Frame materials are listed by commonality of usage.

Steel …

A steel framed 2002 fully rigid (unsuspended) Trek 800 Sport

A frame label of a mangalloy steel bicycle frame

Steel frames are often built using various types of steel alloys
including chromoly. They are strong, easy to work, and
relatively inexpensive. However, they are denser (and thus
generally heavier) than many other structural materials.
Compared to aluminum-based frames, steel frames generally
offer a smoother riding experience.[22] It is common (as of
2018, in hybrid commuter bikes) to use steel for the fork
blades even when the rest of the frame is made of a different
material, because steel offers better vibration dampening.[22]

A classic type of construction for both road bicycles and

mountain bicycles uses standard cylindrical steel tubes which
are connected with lugs. Lugs are fittings made of thicker
pieces of steel. The tubes are fitted into the lugs, which
encircle the end of the tube, and are then brazed to the lug.
Historically, the lower temperatures associated with brazing
(silver brazing in particular) had less of a negative impact on
the tubing strength than high temperature welding, allowing
relatively light tube to be used without loss of strength. Recent
advances in metallurgy ("Air-hardening steel") have created
tubing that is not adversely affected, or whose properties are
even improved by high temperature welding temperatures,
which has allowed both TIG & MIG welding to sideline lugged
construction in all but a few high end bicycles. More expensive
lugged frame bicycles have lugs which are filed by hand into
fancy shapes - both for weight savings and as a sign of
craftsmanship. Unlike MIG or TIG welded frames, a lugged
frame can be more easily repaired in the field due to its simple
construction. Also, since steel tubing can rust (although in
practice paint and anti-corrosion sprays can effectively prevent
rust), the lugged frame allows a fast tube replacement with
virtually no physical damage to the neighbouring tubes.[41] [42]

A more economical method of bicycle frame construction uses

cylindrical steel tubing connected by TIG welding, which does
not require lugs to hold the tubes together. Instead, frame
tubes are precisely aligned into a jig and fixed in place until the
welding is complete. Fillet brazing is another method of joining
frame tubes without lugs. It is more labor-intensive, and
consequently is less likely to be used for production frames. As
with TIG welding, Fillet frame tubes are precisely notched or
mitered[43][44] and then a fillet of brass is brazed onto the joint,
similar to the lugged construction process. A fillet braze frame
can achieve more aesthetic unity (smooth curved appearance)
than a welded frame.

Among steel frames, using butted tubing reduces weight and

increases cost. Butting means that the wall thickness of the
tubing changes from thick at the ends (for strength) to thinner
in the middle (for lighter weight).

Cheaper steel bicycle frames are made of mild steel, also

called high tensile steel, such as might be used to manufacture
automobiles or other common items. However, higher-quality
bicycle frames are made of high strength steel alloys (generally
chromium-molybdenum, or "chromoly" steel alloys) which can
be made into lightweight tubing with very thin wall gauges. One
of the most successful older steels was Reynolds "531", a
manganese-molybdenum alloy steel. More common now is
4130 ChroMoly or similar alloys. Reynolds and Columbus are
two of the most famous manufacturers of bicycle tubing. A
few medium-quality bicycles used these steel alloys for only
some of the frame tubes. An example was the Schwinn Le tour
(at least certain models), which used chromoly steel for the top
and bottom tubes but used lower-quality steel for the rest of
the frame.

A high-quality steel frame is generally lighter than a regular

steel frame. All else being equal, this loss of weight can
improve the acceleration and climbing performance of the
bicycle.

If the tubing label has been lost, a high-quality (chromoly or

manganese) steel frame can be recognized by tapping it
sharply with a flick of the fingernail. A high-quality frame will
produce a bell-like ring where a regular-quality steel frame will
produce a dull thunk. They can also be recognized by their
weight (around 2.5 kg for frame and forks) and the type of lugs
and fork ends used.

Aluminum alloys …
Mountainbike frame made of sections of CNC machined aluminum welded
and bolted together.

Aluminum alloys have a lower density and lower strength

compared with steel alloys; however, they possess a better
strength-to-weight ratio, giving them notable weight
advantages over steel. Early aluminum structures have shown
to be more vulnerable to fatigue, either due to ineffective alloys,
or imperfect welding technique being used. This contrasts with
some steel and titanium alloys, which have clear fatigue limits
and are easier to weld or braze together. However, some of
these disadvantages have since been mitigated with more
skilled labor capable of producing better quality welds,
automation, and the greater accessibility to modern aluminum
alloys. Aluminum's attractive strength to weight ratio as
compared to steel, and certain mechanical properties, assure it
a place among the favored frame-building materials.

Popular alloys for bicycle frames are 6061 aluminum and 7005
aluminum.
The most popular type of construction today uses aluminum
alloy tubes that are connected together by Tungsten Inert Gas
(TIG) welding. Welded aluminum bicycle frames started to
appear in the marketplace only after this type of welding
became economical in the 1970s.

Aluminum has a different optimal wall thickness to tubing

diameter than steel. It is at its strongest at around 200:1
(diameter:wall thickness), whereas steel is a small fraction of
that. However, at this ratio, the wall thickness would be
comparable to that of a beverage can, far too fragile against
impacts. Thus, aluminum bicycle tubing is a compromise,
offering a wall thickness to diameter ratio that is not of utmost
efficiency, but gives us oversized tubing of more reasonable
aerodynamically acceptable proportions and good resistance
to impact. This results in a frame that is significantly stiffer
than steel. While many riders claim that steel frames give a
smoother ride than aluminum because aluminum frames are
designed to be stiffer, that claim is of questionable validity: the
bicycle frame itself is extremely stiff vertically because it is
made of triangles. Conversely, this very argument calls the
claim of aluminum frames having greater vertical stiffness into
question.[45] On the other hand, lateral and twisting (torsional)
stiffness improves acceleration and handling in some
circumstances.
Aluminum frames are generally recognized as having a lower
weight than steel, although this is not always the case. A low
quality aluminum frame may be heavier than a high quality
steel frame. Butted aluminum tubes—where the wall thickness
of the middle sections are made to be thinner than the end
sections—are used by some manufacturers for weight savings.
Non-round tubes are used for a variety of reasons, including
stiffness, aerodynamics, and marketing. Various shapes focus
on one or another of these goals, and seldom accomplish all.

Titanium …

Characteristic weld beads on a titanium frame made by a master craftsman.

Titanium is perhaps the most exotic and expensive metal

commonly used for bicycle frame tubes. It combines many
desirable characteristics, including a high strength to weight
ratio and excellent corrosion resistance. Reasonable stiffness
(roughly half that of steel) allows for many titanium frames to
be constructed with "standard" tube sizes comparable to a
traditional steel frame, although larger diameter tubing is
becoming more common for more stiffness. Titanium is more
difficult to machine than steel or aluminum, which sometimes
limits its uses and also raises the effort (and cost) associated
with this type of construction. As titanium frames are usually
more expensive than similar steel or aluminium alloy frames,
the cost puts them out of reach for most cyclists.

Titanium frames typically use titanium alloys and tubes that

were originally developed for the aerospace industry. The most
commonly used alloy on titanium bicycle frames is 3AL-2.5V
(3.5% Aluminum and 2.5% Vanadium). 6AL-4V (6% Aluminum
and 4% Vanadium) is also used, but it is more difficult to weld,
make tubes of, and machine. Often, the tubes are of 3AL-2.5V
while dropouts and other peripheral sections are made of 6AL-
4V. Experimental frames have been made with commercially
pure (CP, i.e.:unalloyed) titanium, but these proved less durable
for the active riding intended for frames of this cost level.

Extensive butting is also used to create low weight tubes with

acceptable stiffness. The early versions of the Fat Chance
Titanium (1992 and 93 versions) had tubes of different
diameters welded together to create a stiffer bottom bracket
area. The 1994 version had externally butted bottom tubes.
Frame tubes are almost always joined by Gas Tungsten Arc
Welding (GTAW or TIG) welding, although vacuum brazing has
been used on early frames.[46] Some earlier titanium frames
were made with titanium tubes bonded to aluminum lugs, as
e.g. the Miyata Elevation 8000 and the Raleigh Technium
Titanium.

Carbon fiber …

A "Biria unplugged" bicycle from 1996

Nude carbon headtube on a Colnago road bike.

Carbon fiber composite is an increasingly popular non-metallic

material commonly used for bicycle frames.[47][48][49][50]
Although expensive, it is light-weight, corrosion-resistant and
strong, and can be formed into almost any shape desired. The
result is a frame that can be fine-tuned for specific strength
where it is needed (to withstand pedaling forces), while
allowing flexibility in other frame sections (for comfort).
Custom carbon fiber bicycle frames may even be designed
with individual tubes that are strong in one direction (such as
laterally), while compliant in another direction (such as
vertically). The ability to design an individual composite tube
with properties that vary by orientation cannot be
accomplished with any metal frame construction commonly in
production.[51] Some carbon fiber frames use cylindrical tubes
that are joined with adhesives and lugs, in a method somewhat
analogous to a lugged steel frame. Another type of carbon
fiber frames are manufactured in a single piece, called
monocoque construction.

In one series of tests conducted by Santa Cruz Bicycles, it was

shown that for a frame design with identical shape and nearly
similar weight, the carbon frame is considerably stronger than
aluminum, when subjected to an overall force load (subjecting
the frame to both tension and compression), and impact
strength.[52] While carbon frames can be lightweight and
strong, they may have lower impact resistance compared to
other materials, and can be prone to damage if crashed or
mishandled. Cracking and failure can result from a collision,
but also from over tightening or improperly installing
components.[53] It has been suggested that these materials
may be vulnerable to fatigue failure, a process which occurs
with use over a long period of time,[54] though this is often
limited to interlaminar cracks or cracks in adhesive at joints,
where stresses can be well controlled with good design
practices. It is possible for broken carbon frames to be
repaired, but because of safety concerns it should be done only
by professional firms to the highest possible standards.[55]

Many racing bicycles built for individual time trial races and
triathlons employ composite construction because the frame
can be shaped with an aerodynamic profile not possible with
cylindrical tubes, or would be excessively heavy in other
materials. While this type of frame may in fact be heavier than
others, its aerodynamic efficiency may help the cyclist to attain
a higher overall speed.

Other materials besides carbon fiber, such as metallic boron,

can be added to the matrix to enhance stiffness further.[56]
Some newer high end frames are incorporating Kevlar fibers
into the carbon weaves to improve vibration damping and
impact strength, particularly in downtubes and seat- and
chainstays.
Thermoplastic …

An Itera plastic bicycle from the early 1980s.

Thermoplastics are a category of polymers that can be

reheated and reshaped, and there are several ways that they
can be used to create a bicycle frame. One implementation of
thermoplastic bicycle frames are essentially carbon fiber
frames with the fibers embedded in a thermoplastic material
rather than the more common thermosetting epoxy materials.
GT Bicycles was one of the first major manufacturers to
produce a thermoplastic frame with their STS System frames
in the mid 1990s. The carbon fibers were loosely woven into a
tube along with fibers of thermoplastic. This tube was placed
into a mould with a bladder inside which was then inflated to
force the carbon and plastic tube against the inside of the
mould. The mould was then heated to melt the thermoplastic.
Once the thermoplastic cooled it was removed from the mould
in its final form.

Magnesium …
A handful of bicycle frames are made from magnesium, which
has around 64% the density of aluminum. In the 1980s, an
engineer, Frank Kirk, devised a novel form of frame that was
die cast in one piece and composed of I beams rather than
tubes. A company, Kirk Precision Ltd, was established in Britain
to manufacture both road bike and mountain bike frames with
this technology. However, despite some early commercial
success, there were problems with reliability and manufacture
stopped in 1992.[57] The small number of modern magnesium
frames in production are constructed conventionally using
tubes.[58]

Scandium …

Some manufacturers of bikes make frames out of aluminum

alloys containing scandium, usually referred to simply as
scandium for marketing purposes although the Sc content is
less than 0.5%. Scandium improves the welding characteristics
of some aluminum alloys with superior fatigue resistance
permitting the use of smaller diameter tubing, allowing for
more frame design flexibility.

Beryllium …
American Bicycle Manufacturing of St. Cloud, Minnesota,
briefly offered a frameset made of beryllium tubes (bonded to
aluminum lugs), priced at $26,000. Reports were that the ride
was very harsh, but the frame was also very laterally flexible.[59]

Bamboo …

Several bicycle frames have been made of bamboo tubes

connected with metal or composite joinery. Aesthetic appeal
has often been as much of a motivator as mechanical
characteristics.[60][61]

Wood …

Several bicycle frames have been made of wood, either solid or

laminate. Although one survived 265 grueling kilometers of the
Paris–Roubaix race, aesthetic appeal has often been as much
of a motivator as ride characteristics.[62] Wood is used to
fashion bicycles in East Africa.[63] Cardboard has also been
used for bicycle frames.[64]

Combinations …
Giant Cadex bicycle with carbon/aluminum/steel frame

Combining different materials can provide the desired

stiffness, compliance, or damping in different areas better than
can be accomplished with a single material. The combined
materials are usually carbon fiber and a metal, either steel,
aluminum, or titanium. One implementation of this approach
includes a metal down tube and chain stays with carbon top
tube, seat tube, and seat stays.[65] Another is a metal main
triangle and chain stays with just carbon seat stays.[66] Carbon
forks have become very common on racing bicycles of all
frame materials.[67]

Other …

The bicycle types article describes additional variations.

Butted tubing
Butted tubing has increased thickness near the joints for
strength while keeping weight low with thinner material
elsewhere. For example, triple butted means the tube, usually
of an aluminum alloy, has three different thicknesses, with the
thicker sections at the end where they are welded. The same
material can be used in handlebars.

Braze-ons
A variety of small features—bottle cage mounting holes, shifter
bosses, cable stops, pump pegs, cable guides, etc.—are
described as braze-ons because they were originally, and
sometimes still are, brazed on.[68]

Suspension
Many bicycles, especially mountain bikes, have suspension.

See also
Bicycle
Bicycle fork
Glossary of cycling
List of bicycle parts
Motorcycle frame

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External links
Science of Cycling: Frames & Materials from the
Exploratorium
Sheldon Brown's "Revisionist Theory of Bicycle Sizing" - an
explanation of the different ways of measuring frame sizes.
Frame Size Calculator - a simple frame size calculator tool
for road bikes
Metallurgy for Cyclists - discusses frame material
properties in relation to suitability to frame use
BikeCAD program allows you to design your own frame
online.
Frame Sketcher is a simple HTML5 app which allows to
sketch and compare frames online.

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title=Bicycle_frame&oldid=952640014"

Last edited 8 days ago by Meters

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