y

nl
GATE - NOTES - DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

O
R.Dhanaraj

n
May 3, 2020

io
at
1 Calculus

ul
The function is defined symbolically as, y = f (x), in which x is known as
independent variable and y is referred as dependent variable.

rc
1. Algebraic Function The function that involves evolution (extract-
Ci
ing root) and involution (raisng to powers) and four arithmatic oper-
ations, addition,subtraction, multiplication and division, is known as
Algebraic function.
e
p
f (x) = x3 + 1 + 3 x2 − x + 9
at

2. Transcedental Function Function that is not algebraic in form and

riv

involving other basic functions like trignometric, exponential, logarith-

mic etc. is known as transcedental function.
-P

3. Explicit Function A function expressed in the form y = f (x), right

side of the definition containing only x, is defined as explicit function.
IT

4. Implicit Function The function expressed in the form f (x, y) = 0,

both the variables present in the mixed form, is considered as implicit
-M

function.
5. Even Function The given function is said to be even function if
f (x) = f (− x).
RD

6. Odd Function A function is considered to be odd function if f (x) =

− f (− x).
7. Identity Function. A function that is assigned with the same real
By

value x is known as identity function.

f (x) = x

1
 8. Modulus Function. The following function is an example of modulus

y
function.

nl
f (x) = |x| where

O
|x| = x if x ≥ 0
= −x if x < 0

n
io
9. Signum Function. The example of signum function is

|x|

at
f (x) = if x 6= 0
x
= 0 if x = 0

ul
1
It is a combination of modulus function and reciprocal function, .

rc
x
The above can be written as

f (x) =
Ci
1 if x > 0
= 0 if x = 0
= −1 if x < 0
e
at

10. Greatest Integer Function. This function is assigned with the

riv

largest integer less than or equal to x. If n is an integer and x is any

real number between n and (n + 1) then the value of the function is
n. The function is written as f [x].
-P

Let x = 6.57 then f [x] = 6 Let x = 6.91 then f [x] = 6

IT

Let x = 2.01 then f [x] = 2 Let x = 2.65 then f [x] = 2

-M

1.1 Limit of a Function

Let f (x) be a function and the limit of the function is expressed as
RD

lim f (x)
x→a

If the value considered for x is nearer to a, then it is said as x tends to a

and it is symbolically written as x → a. It is to be considered as x 6= a.
By

2
 1. The value of x may approach a by considering values to the left of a

y
or to the right of a. Normally it is expressed as

nl
|x − a| < δ where δ is a very small value.

O
The limit of f (x) is to exist as x → a, the necessary and sufficient
condition is that left-side-limit must be equal to right-side-limit.

n
lim f (x) = lim f (x)

io
x→a − x→a +

at
2. The limit of the function is evaluated and hence the limit of the func-
tion is defined as

ul
lim f (x) = m
x→a
The limit of the function is determined to be m,as the value of absolute

rc
difference between f (x) and m, |f (x) − m| becomes smaller and
smaller as the absolute value of difference between x and a,|x − a|
Ci
becomes smaller and smaller.

3.
e
lim [f (x) ± g (x)] = lim f (x) ± lim g (x)
x→a x→a x→a
at

4.
riv

lim [c f (x)] = c lim f (x) where c is a real constant

x→a x→a

5.
-P

lim [f (x) × g (x) ] = lim f (x) × lim g (x)

x→a x→a x→a

6.
IT

f (x) limx→a f (x)

lim = provided lim g (x) 6= 0
x→a g (x) limx→a g (x) x→a
-M

7. If f (x) ≤ g (x) for all x, then

lim f (x) ≤ lim g (x)

x→a x→a
RD

8.
lim log f (x) = log lim f (x)
x→a x→a
By

9. Consider three functions f (x),g (x),h (x) such that

f (x) ≤ g (x) ≤ h (x) and lim f (x) = lim h (x) = m then lim g (x) = m
x→a x→a x→a

3
 10. Limits of Certain Functions

y
nl
•
sin x
lim = 1
x

O
x→0
•
1 x
 
lim 1 + = e

n
x→∞ x
•

io
ax − 1
lim = loge a

at
x→0 x
•
xn − an
= n an −1

ul
lim
x→a x − a

rc
11. There are three methods used to find the limit of a function and they
are method of factors, method of substitution and method of rational-
ization

• Consider the function f (x) given as

Ci
e
g (x)
f (x) =
at

h (x)
riv

Factorize the functions g (x) and h (x) and simplify. The limit is
determined by substituting the value of x.
• Consider the function f (x) given as
-P

g (x)
f (x) =
h (x)
IT

In the method of substitution, replace x by a + h where h is a

small value. Hence as x → a then h → 0. After the substitu-
-M

tion for x simplify the numerator and denominator. The limit is

determined by substituting h = 0 in the simplified expression.
RD

• Consider the function f (x) given as

g (x)
f (x) =
h (x)
By

Rationalize the given expression and simplify the same. Then the
limit is determined by simplifying the resulting expression for the
specified value of x.

4
 • Consider the function f (x) given as

y
nl
g (x)
f (x) =
h (x)

O
For the specified value of limit it may take any one of the inde-
terminate forms

n
0 ∞
, , 00 , ∞o , ∞ × 0, ∞ − ∞

io
0 ∞
In such case L’Hopital’s rule is used to evaluate the limit. It is de-

at
termined by considering the ratio of first derivatives of g (x) and h (x) .
0

ul
g (x)
f (x) =
h0 (x)

rc
Fir the above ratio if the indeterminate form is there, then ratio
of second derivatives g (x) and h (x) is considered. Hence ratio
Ci
of higher order derivatives are considered till value of limit is
determined.
0 00 000
e
g (x) g (x) g (x) g (x)
f (x) = = 0 = 00 = 000 = ·········
at

h (x) h (x) h (x) h (x)

riv

1.1.1 Examples
E-1
-P

x2 − 4 x + 3
Determine the limit of lim
IT

x→1 x2 + 2 x − 3

x2 − 4 x + 3 (x − 3) (x − 1)
-M

lim = lim
x→1 x2 + 2 x − 3 x→1 (x + 3) (x − 1)
(x − 3)
= lim substitute x = 1
x→1 (x + 3)
RD

1
= −
2
E-2
By

x3 + 1
Determine the limit of lim
x→− 1 x + 1

5
 (x + 1) x2 − x + 1


x3 + 1

y
lim = lim
x→− 1 x + 1 x→− 1 (x + 1)

nl
2


= lim x − x + 1 substitute x = − 1
x→− 1

O
= 3

This problem can be solved by using method of substitution.Substitute x =

n
− 1 + h.

io
x3 + 1 (− 1 + h)3 + 1
lim = lim

at
x→− 1 x + 1 h→0 (− 1 + h + 1)
− 1 + 3 h − 3 h2 + h3 + 1
= lim

ul
h→0 h
2
= lim 3 − 3 h + h substitute h = 0

rc
h→0
= 3

E-3
Ci
e
1 − cos x
Determine the limit of lim
at

x→0 x sin x
x
riv

1 − cos x 2 sin2
lim = lim x 2 x
x→0 x sin x x→0
x 2 sin cos
 x 2 2
-P

tan
= lim 2
IT

x→0 x  
x
1 tan
= lim 2 = 1
x
-M

2 x→0 2
2
E-4
RD

x4 − 4
 
Determine the limit of lim
√ √
x→ 2 x2 + 3 x 2 − 8
By

6
 The expression can be factorized and written as

y
√
√

nl
x2 + 2 x + 2 x − 2


x4 − 4
 
lim
√ √ = lim
√ √
√

x→ 2 x2 + 3 x 2 − 8 x→ 2 x − 2 x + 4 2

O
√

x2 + 2 x + 2 √


= lim
√ √
substitute x = 2
x→ 2 x + 4 2

n
8
=

io
5
The limiting value can be determined by using method of rationalization.

at
x2 + 2 x2 − 2



x4 − 4
 

ul
lim
√ √ = lim √  √ 
x→ 2 x2 + 3 x 2 − 8 x→ 2 (x2 − 8) + 3 x 2

rc
√
Multiply and divide by x2 − 8 − 3 x 2

Ci √ 
x2 + 2 x2 − 2 x2 − 8 − 3 x 2




x4 − 4
 
lim
√ √ = lim
√  √  √ 
x→ 2 x2 + 3 x 2 − 8 x→ 2 (x2 − 8) + 3 x 2 (x2 − 8) − 3 x 2
√ 
x2 + 2 x2 − 2 x2 − 8 − 3 x 2




e
=
at

h i
(x2 − 8)2 − 18 x2
√ 
x2 + 2 x2 − 2 x2 − 8 − 3 x 2




riv

=
(x4 − 34 x2 + 64)
√ 
x2 + 2 x2 − 2 x2 − 8 − 3 x 2




-P

=
(x2 − 32) (x2 − 2)
√ 
2 √

 2

x + 2 x − 8 − 3x 2
IT

= substitute x = 2
(x2 − 32)
8
=
-M

5
E-5
RD

 √ 
x + 1 − x + 13
Determine the limit of lim
x→3 x − 3
By

7
  √   √  √ 
x + 1 − x + 13 x + 1 − x + 13 x + 1 + x + 13

y
lim = lim  √ 
x→3 x − 3 x→3 x − 3 x + 1 + x + 13

nl
" #
(x + 1)2 − (x + 13)
= lim √

O
 
x→3 (x − 3) x + 1 + x + 13
" #
x2 + x − 12


= lim √

n
 
x→3 (x − 3) x + 1 + x + 13

io
" #
(x + 4) (x − 3)
= lim  √ 
x→3 (x − 3) x + 1 + x + 13

at
" #
(x + 4)
= lim √ substitute x = 3

ul
 
x→3 x + 1 + x + 13
7

rc
=
8
E-6 Ci
x4 − 1
 3
x − k3
  
e
If lim = lim , find the value of k
x→1 x − 1 x→k x2 − k 2
at

The limit of left side expression is determined using

riv

 n
x − an

lim = n an − 1
x→a x − a
-P

x4 − 1
 
lim = 4 (1)4 − 1
x→1 x − 1
IT

= 4
Now consider the simplification of the right side expression.
-M

 3
x − k3
 3
x − k 3 (x − k)
 
lim = lim multiply and divide by x − k
x→k x2 − k 2 x→k x2 − k 2 (x − k)
 3
x − k3

RD

lim
x→k x − k
=  2
x − k2

lim
x→k x − k
3k 2
By

=
2k
3
= k
2

8
 x4 − 1 x3 − k 3
   

y
lim = lim
x→1 x − 1 x→k x2 − k 2

nl
3
4 = k
2

O
8
k =
3

n
E-7

io
4 x2 + 5 x + 6
 

at
Evaluate lim
x→∞ 3 x2 + 4 x + 5

ul
 
5 6
 4 + x +

rc
4 x2 + 5 x + 6
 
x2 
lim = lim    substitute x = ∞
x→∞ 3 x2 + 4 x + 5 x→∞  4 5 
3 +
Ci +
x x2
4
=
3
e
E-8
at
riv

Evaluate lim (sec x − tan x)

π
x→
2
-P
IT
-M
RD
By

9
 π
The limit is determined using method of substitution. x →+ h.

y
2

nl
h π  π i
lim (sec x − tan x) = lim sec + h − tan + h
π h→0 2 2

O
x→
2
= lim (− cosec h + cot h)
h→0

n
 
1 cos h
= lim − +

io
h→0 sin h sin h
 
− 1 + cos h

at
= lim
h→0 sin h
2 h
 

ul
− 2 sin
= lim 
 2 
h→0 h h

rc
2 sin cos
2 2
h
=
= 0
h→0
Ci
− lim tan
2
e
E-9
at
riv

Verify the theorem lim f (x) g (x) = lim f (x) lim g (x)
x→a x→a x→a

where all limits exist for the function given here.

-P

   
1 − sin x  cos x 
lim f (x) = lim  π and g (x) = lim  π
π π π
IT

x→ x→ x − x→ x −
2 2 2 2 2
-M
RD
By

10
 The limits for the given functions are determined using substitution.

y
nl
 
1 − sin x 
lim f (x) = lim  π
π π

O
x→ x→ x −
2 2 2
 π 
 1 − sin + h 

n
= lim π 2 π 
h→0 
+ h −

io
 2  2
1 − cos h

at
= lim
h→0 h
h
 
2 sin2

ul
= lim 
 2
h

h→0

rc
h 2
 

= lim 2 
h→0

Ci
sin
2 h
h  4
2
e
= 2 (1) (0) = 0
at

 
riv

cos x 
lim g (x) = lim  π
π π x −
x→ x→
2 2 2
-P

 π  
 cos + h 
= lim 2 
h→0  π π

IT

+ h − 
2 2
− sin h
= lim = −1
-M

h→0 h
Therefore lim f (x) lim g (x) = (0) (1) = 0
π π
x→ x→
RD

2 2
By

11
 Now consider the value of the limit for the product of two given functions.

y
nl
  
1 − sin x   cos x 
lim f (x) g (x) = lim  π π
π π

O
x→ x→ x − x −
2 2 2 2
 π   π  
 1 − sin + h   cos + h 

n
= lim π 2 π  π
2 
π
h→0 
+ h − + h − 

io
 2   2  2 2
1 − cos h − sin h

at
= lim
h→0 h h
 
h

ul
2 sin2 (− sin h)
2
= lim
h2

rc
h→0
h 2  
 
sin 1
= lim 2 
h→0

h 
2 Ci 4
(− sin h)

 2
1
e
= 2 (1) (0) = 0
4
at

Hence lim f (x) lim g (x) = lim f (x) g (x) is verified

π π π
riv

x→ x→ x→
2 2 2
E-10
-P
IT

 
1 1
Given f (x) = x + , x >
2 2
-M

1
= 0, x =
2
1
= 2 x, x <
RD

2
determine whether lim f (x) , exists?
1
x→
2
By

12
 The first function is greatest integer function.

y
nl
 
1
lim f (x) = lim x +
1 1 2
x→ + x→ +

O
2 2
 
1 1
= lim + h +
h→0 2 2

n
= lim [1 + h] = 1

io
h→0

at
Now consider lim f (x) = lim 2 x
1 1
x→ − x→ −

ul
2 2
 
1
= lim 2 − h

rc
h→0 2
 
Ci 1
= lim 2 = 1
h→0 2
1
Since lim f (x) = lim f (x) = 1 limit exists at x =
e
1 1 2
x→ + x→ −
at

2 2
E-11
riv

Find the value of p such that lim f (x) exists, where f (x) is defined by
-P

x→1

f (x) = 2 p x + 3, x < 1
IT

2
= 1 − px , x>1
-M

lim f (x) = lim (2 p x + 3)

x→ 1 − x→ 1 −
= lim {2 p (1 − h) + 3}
RD

h→ 0
= 2p + 3

1 − p x2


lim f (x) = lim
x→ 1 + x→ 1 +
By

n o
= lim 1 − p (1 + h)2
h→ 0
= 1 − p

13
 For the given function to have limit lim f (x) = lim f (x)

y
x→ 1 + x→ 1 −
1 − p

nl
= 2p + 3
2
p = −

O
3
E-12

n
8x − 2x

io
Evaluate lim
x→ 0 x

at
8x − 2x 8x − 1 + 1 − 2x
lim = lim

ul
x→ 0 x x→ 0 x
(8 − 1) − (2x − 1)
x
= lim

rc
x→ 0 x
x
(8 − 1) (2x − 1)
= lim − lim
Ci
x→ 0 x   x
x→ 0
8
= log 8 − log 2 = log = log 4
2
e
E-13
at
riv

ax − ay
Evaluate lim
x→ y x − y
ax − 1
-P

The given function is written in the standard form lim and simplified to find limit.
x→ 0 x
IT

ax − ay ax−y − 1
lim = lim ay
x→ y x − y x→ y x − y
-M

The standard form can be identified through the simplification,

lim implies lim

x→ y (x − y)→ 0
RD

ax − ay ax−y − 1
lim = lim ay
x→ y x − y x→ y x − y
( )
a(x−y) − 1
By

y
= a lim
(x − y)→ 0 (x − y)
= ay log a

14
 E-14

y
nl
ex − 1
Prove that lim = 1

O
x→ 0 x
The above can be proved through the simplification of the given function
reducing to the standard form. Let ex − 1 = y. Hence ex = 1 + y and

n
x = log (1 + y). Now as x → 0, ex → 1. Therefore y → 0.

io
ex − 1
 
y
lim = lim

at
x→ 0 x y→ 0 log (1 + y)
 

ul

 

 1 
= lim
y→ 0  1

rc
 log (1 + y) 
 
y

 

= lim




Ci 1




y→ 0  1
y
 
e
log (1 + y)
 
at

The limit can be defined using the standard form

riv

 x 1
1
lim 1 + = e = lim (1 + x) x
x→∞ x x→0
-P

 

 

ex − 1
 
 1  1
IT

lim = lim = = 1
x→ 0 x y→ 0 
 1 log e
y
 
log (1 + y)
 
-M

E-15
RD

x (ex − 1)
 
Determine the limit of lim
x→ 0 (1 − cos x)
By

15
 x (ex − 1) ex − 1 x2
    

y
lim = lim
x→ 0 (1 − cos x) x→ 0 x (1 − cos x)

nl
 x
x2
  
e − 1
= lim lim
x→ 0 x x→ 0 (1 − cos x)

O
 
 x  2
e − 1  x 
= lim lim
x→ 0 x x→ 0  2 sin2 x 

n
2

io

x 2
 x  
 

e − 1 
4

= lim lim 2

at
x→ 0 x x→ 0 2 x
 sin 2 

 

ul
 2

rc
 
 
ex − 1
   1 
= lim lim 2 
 x 
Ci x

x→ 0 x→ 0  sin 
 2 
x
   
2
e
= (1) (2) (1) = 2
at

1.2 Continuity of a Function

riv

A function f (x) is continuous at a point, the function does not have break
or gap in its value at that point considered. The function f (x) is said to be
-P

continuous at a point x = a if

1. f (a) is defined and

IT

2.
lim f (x) = f (a)
-M

x→a

Note:

lim f (x) may exist without defining the value of the function at x = a
RD

x→a

For continuity of function, its value must be defined x = a.

3. A function is said to be discontinuous at a point if the function is

By

not continuous at that point. The function f (x) is discontinuous at

x = a due to the following:

16
 •

y
lim f (x) exists but lim f (x) 6= (a)

nl
x→a x→a
•

O
lim f (x) does not exist
x→a

• The function f (x) is not defined at x = a.

n
If two functions f (x) and g (x) are continuous and possess real values at

io
x = a then,

at
1. f (x) + g (x) is also continuous at x = a.

ul
2. f (x) − g (x) is also continuous at x = a.

3. f (x) × g (x) is also continuous at x = a.

rc
f (x)
4. is also continuous at x = a provided g (a) 6= 0.
Ci
g (x)
5. If f (x) and g (x) are real functions then consider f {g (x)}. If g (x) is
continuous at x = a and if the function f is continuous at g (a) then
e
f {g (x)} is continuous at x = a.
at

6. Continuity in an Interval.
riv

• A function f (x) is continuous in an open interval (a, b) a <

x < b if it is continuous at every point in (a, b).
-P

• A function f (x) is continuous in an closed interval [a, b] a ≤

x ≤ b if it is continuous at every point in the open interval
IT

(a, b) and it is continuous at the point x = a from right and

continuous at the point x = b from left.
-M

lim f (x) = (a) and lim f (x) = (b)

x→a + x→b −

7. Every polynomial function is continuous everywhere. A constant func-

RD

tion is a polynomial of degree zero. Hence it is also continuous every-

where. The graph of constant function is parallel to x-axis.

8. The functions sin x,cos x, ex and ax are continuous everywhere.

By

9. The functions sin− 1 x and cos− 1 x are continuous in the interval [−1 , 1].

17
 1.2.1 Examples

y
nl
E-1

O
Check for the continuity of the given function

f (x) = x3 , x ≤ 2

n
2
= x + 4, x > 2

io
The function f (x) is continuous at x = a subject to the following:

at
The function must be defined at the specified value. At x = a f (x) = f (a)

ul
At the specified value of x, the value of left-side-limit must be equal to that
of right-side-limit. Also this must be equal to value of the function at the

rc
specified value of x.

lim f (x) =
x→a −
Ci
lim f (x) = f (a)
x→a +

lim f (x) = lim x3

e
x→2 − x→2 −
at

= lim (2 − h)3
h→0
= 8
riv

x2 + 4


lim f (x) = lim
-P

x→2 + x→2 +
h i
= lim (2 + h)2 + 4
h→0
IT

= 8

Also the value of the two expressions is 8 at x = 2. Therefore the condition

-M

for continuity
lim f (x) = lim f (x) = f (2)
x→2 − x→2 +
RD

is satisfied. Hence the function is continuous at x = 2.

E-2

Examine the continuity of the given function at x = 0.

By

2 | x | + x2
f (x) = , x 6= 0
x
= 0, x = 0

18
 Consider the left-side-limit of the function.

y
2 | x | + x2

nl
lim f (x) = lim
x→0 x→0 − x

O
2 | 0 − h | + (0 − h)2
= lim
h→0 (0 − h)
2 h + h2

n
= lim
h→0 −h

io
= −2

at
Now consider the right-side-limit of the function.

ul
2 | x | + x2
lim f (x) = lim
x→0 x→0 + x

rc
2 | 0 + h | + (0 + h)2
= lim
h→0 (0 + h)
Ci
2 h + h2
= lim
h→0 h
= 2
e
at

Since lim f (x) 6= lim f (x) the function is not continuous at x = 0.

x→0 − x→0 +
riv

E-3

Determine the value of k such that the given function is continuous at

-P

x = 1.
x2 − 1
IT

f (x) = , x 6= 1
x − 1
= k, x = 1
-M

Consider the left-side-limit of the function.

x2 − 1
lim f (x) = lim
RD

x→1 x→1 − x − 1

(1 − h)2 − 1
= lim
h→0 (1 − h − 1)
h2 − 2 h
By

= lim
h→0 −h
= lim − (h − 2) = 2
h→0

19
 Now consider the right-side-limit of the function.

y
nl
x2 − 1
lim f (x) = lim
x→1 x→1 + x − 1

O
(1 + h)2 − 1
= lim
h→0 (1 + h − 1)

n
h2 + 2 h
= lim
h

io
h→0
= lim (h + 2) = 2
h→0

at
Since lim f (x) = lim f (x) the function has limit at x = 1.
x→1 − x→1 +

ul
For the function to be continuous at x = 1 lim f (x) = f (1)
x→1

rc
f (1) = lim f (x) = 2 = k Hence k = 2
x→1
Ci
The limit of the given function can be determined using method of factor-
ization as shown here.
x2 − 1 (x − 1) (x + 1)
e
lim = lim
x→1 x − 1 x→1 (x − 1)
at

= lim (x + 1)
x→1
riv

= 2

E-4
-P

At what point the following function is discontinuous?

IT

x + 1
f (x) =
x2 − 5 x + 6
-M

The given function can be factorized and written as:

x + 1
f (x) =
RD

x2 − 5x + 6
x + 1
=
(x − 3) (x − 2)

A function is continuous
By

If lim f (x) = f (a)

x→a

20
 For the given function, it is not defined either at x = 2 or x = 3. Hence

y
the function is not continuous at these two points.

nl
E-5

O
Determine the values of a and b so that the given function is continuous.

n
f (x) = 1, x ≤ 3

io
= a x + b, 3 < x < 5
= 7, 5 ≤ x

at
To solve for a and b two equations involving a and b must be formed. These

ul
two equations are formed using continuity conditions at x = 3 and x = 5.
First consider the continuity condition at x = 3. Consider the left-side-

rc
limit.
lim f (x) = lim 1 = 1
Ci
x→3 − x→3 −

Now consider the right-side-limit.

e
lim f (x) = lim (a x + b)
x→3 + x→3 +
at

= lim [a (3 + h) + b]
h→0
riv

= 3a + b

If the limit is to exist at x = 3 then

-P

lim f (x) = lim f (x)

x→3 − x→3 +
IT

Hence
3a + b = 1 (1)
-M

Now consider the continuity condition at x = 5 and first consider the

left-side-limit.
RD

lim f (x) = lim (a x + b)

x→5 − x→5 −
= lim [a (5 − h) + b]
h→0
= 5a + b
By

Consider the right-side-limit.

lim f (x) = lim 7 = 7

x→5 + x→5 +

21
 If the limit is to exist at x = 5 then

y
nl
lim f (x) = lim f (x)
x→5 − x→5 +

O
Hence
5a + b = 7 (2)

n
The values of a and b are obtained by solving equations 1 and 2. Hence
a = 3 and b = − 8.

io
at
1.3 Differentiability of a Function

ul
Let f (x) be a function and consider a small change in x. Let h be the

rc
change in the value of x so that it becomes x + h. The function is said to
be differentiable if

lim
Ci
f (x + h) − f (x)
exists
h→0 h
e
d
1. The differentiability of a function is denoted by f 0 (x) or [f (x)] or
at

dx
dy
where y = f (x).
riv

dx
dy f (x + h) − f (x)
= lim
dx h→0 h
-P

2. The function is differentiable at the specified value of x, if the left side

IT

derivative is same as the right side derivative. The following expression

defines the condition for differentiability of a function f (x) at x = a.
-M

f (a − h) − f (a) f (a + h) − f (a)
lim = lim
h→0 −h h→0 h

3. The function f (x) is differentiable if f 0 (x) exists.

RD

4. If s function is differentiable at a point then it is continuous at that

point. The converse of this statement is not true. A function may be
continuous at a point and may not be differentiable at the same point
By

dy
5. The geometrical interpretation of first derivative is that it repre-
dx
sents the slope of tangent to the curve y = f (x).

22
 6. The derivative of a function at a point x = a is expressed as

y
f (a + h) − f (a)

nl
lim
h→0 h

O
7.

If g (x) = c f (x) where c is a constant and f 0 (x) exists, then g 0 (x) = c f 0 (x)

n
io
8.

then F 0 (x) = f 0 (x) ± g 0 (x)

at
If F (x) = f (x) ± g (x)

9.

ul
If F (x) = f (x) × g (x) then

rc
F 0 (x) = f 0 (x) × g (x) + f (x) × g 0 (x)

10.
If F (x) =
Ci
f (x)
g (x)
then

g (x) f 0 (x) − f (x) g 0 (x)

e
F 0 (x) =
[g (x)]2
at

11. Leibnitz’s Theorem. This can be used to define the nth derivative
riv

of product of two functions. Let u (x) and v (x) be two functions and
for simplicity they are designated as u and v. The expression for nth
derivative is
-P

dn
(u v) = C0n un v + C1n un−1 v1 + C2n un−2 v2 + · · ·+ Crn un−r vr + · · · + Cnn u vn
dxn
IT

n!
where Crn is number of combination taken r at a time Crn =
r! (n − r)!
-M

n
dn X
(u v) = Crn un−r vr
dxn
r=0
RD

12. Consider a function consists only one term which is of the form f (x)g(x) .
The derivative is defined by taking logarithm of the given function.
n o
Let y = f (x)g(x) log y = log f (x)g(x) = g (x) log f (x)
By

The above expression differentiated with respect to x. This is known

as logarithmic differentiation.

23
 13. Rolle’s Theorem Let f (x) be a function defined in a closed interval

y
(a, b) such that f (x) is continuous in the closed interval (a, b) , deriv-

nl
able in the open interval (a, b) and f (a) = f (b). There exists at
least one value c of x in the open interval (a, b) such that f 0 (c) = 0.

O
14. Lagrange’s Mean Value Theorem. Let f (x) be a function defined
in a closed interval (a, b) such that f (x) is continuous in the closed

n
interval (a, b) i.e., a ≤ x ≤ b and derivable in the open interval (a, b)

io
i.e., a < x < b. There exists at least one value c of x in the open
interval (a, b) such that

at
f (b) − f (a)
f 0 (c) =
b − a

ul
15. Taylor’s Series. Taylor’s series is

rc
(x − x0 )2 00 (x − x0 )3 000
f (x) = f (x0 ) + (x − x0 ) f 0 (x0 ) +
Ci f (x0 ) + f (x0 )
2! 3!
∞
(x − x0 )4 0000 (x − x0 )n n X (x − x0 )n n
+ f (x0 ) + · · · + f (x0 ) + · · · = f (x0 )
e
4! n! n!
n=0
at

The expansion of a function about x = x0 can be defined using the

Taylor’s series. If x = 0, Taylor’s series is referred as MacLaurin’s
riv

series.
x2 00 x3 000
f (x) = f (0) + x f 0 (0) + f (0) + f (0)
-P

2! 3!
x4 0000 xn n
IT

+ f (0) + · · · + f (x0 ) + · · ·
4! n!

1.3.1 Examples
-M

E-1
RD

Check for the continuity and differentiability of function f (x) = | x |

at x = 0.

The given function is defined as f (x) = |x|

= − x, x < 0
By

= 0, x = 0
= x, x > 0

24
 The function is continuous if left-side-limit is same as the right-side-limit

y
and equal to the value of the function at the specified value of x.

nl
lim f (x) = lim f (x) = f (0)
x→0 − x→0 +

O
Consider left-side-limit.

n
lim f (x) = lim − x
x→0 − x→0 −

io
= lim − (0 − h)
h→0

at
= lim h = 0
h→0

Consider right-side-limit.

ul
lim f (x) = lim x

rc
x→0 + x→0 −
= lim (0 + h)
h→0
Ci
= lim h = 0
h→0

Since lim f (x) = lim f (x) = 0 = f (0) the function is continuous

e
x→0 − x→0 +
at

For the function to be differentiable, the left-side-derivative must be equal

to right-side-derivative.
riv

f (x − h) − f (x) f (x + h) − f (x)
lim = lim
h→0 −h h→0 h
-P

Consider the left-side-derivative.

lim f (x) = lim − x

IT

x→0 − x→0 −

f (x − h) − f (x) − (0 − h) − 0
-M

lim = lim
h→0 −h h→0 −h
= −1
RD

Consider the right-side-derivative.

lim f (x) = lim x

x→0 + x→0 +
By

f (x + h) − f (x) (0 + h) − 0
lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
= 1

25
 f (x − h) − f (x) f (x + h) − f (x)

y
Since lim 6= lim
h→0 −h h→0 h

nl
the function is not differentiable at x = 0. Hence the function is continuous
but not differentiable at x = 0.

O
E-2

n
Examine the continuity and differentiability of the given function.

io
f (x) = x, x < 1

at
= 2 − x, 1 ≤ x ≤ 2
− 2 + 3 x − x2 ,

ul
= x > 2

The check for continuity and differentiability have to be done for x = 1

rc
and x = 2. Firs consider point x = 1.

The left-side-limit is defined as:

Ci
lim f (x) = lim x
e
x→1 − x→1 −
lim (1 − h) = 1
at

=
h→0
riv

Now consider right-side-limit.

lim f (x) = lim (2 − x)

x→1 + x→1 +
-P

= lim [2 − (1 + h)] = 1
h→0
IT

Since lim f (x) = lim f (x) = 1 = f (1) the function is continuous at x = 1

x→1 − x→1 +

Now the differentiability of the function at x = 1 is considered. The

-M

left-side-derivative is considered.
f (x − h) − f (x) (1 − h) − 1
lim = lim
RD

h→0 −h h→0 −h
= 1

Right-side-derivative is defined as:

By

f (x + h) − f (x) [2 − (1 + h) − 1]
lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
= −1

26
 f (x − h) − f (x) f (x + h) − f (x)

y
Since lim 6= lim
h→0 −h h→0 h

nl
the function is not differentiable at x = 1. Hence the function is continuous
but not differentiable at x = 1.

O
Next check for the point x = 2. The left-side-limit is defined as:

n
lim f (x) = lim (2 − x)
x→2 − x→2 −

io
= lim [2 − (2 − h)] = 0
h→0

at
The right-side-limit is defined as:

ul
− 2 + 3 x − x2


lim f (x) = lim
x→2 + x→2 +
h i
− 2 + 3 (2 + h) − (2 + h)2 = 0

rc
= lim
h→0

Since lim f (x) =

x→2 − x→2 +
Ci
lim f (x) = 0 = f (2) the function is continuous at

Now check is done for differentiability at x = 2. The left-side-derivative is

x = 2

f (x − h) − f (x) [2 − (2 − h) − 0]
e
lim = lim
at

h→0 −h h→0 −h
= −1
riv

Consider the right-side-derivative at x = 2.

h i
2
f (x + h) − f (x) − 2 + 3 (2 + h) − (2 + h) − 0
-P

lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
= −1
IT

f (x − h) − f (x) f (x + h) − f (x)
Since lim = lim
h→0 −h h→0 h
-M

the function is differentiable at x = 2. Therefore the function is continuous

and not differentiable at x = 1. At x = 2 the function is continuous as
well as differentiable.
RD

E-3

Check for the continuity and differentiability of the given function at x = 1.

By

f (x) = | x − 3 |, x ≥ 1
x2 3 13
= − x + , x < 1
4 2 4

27
 To check for the continuity of the function consider the left-side-limit.

y
 2 

nl
x 3 13
lim f (x) = lim − x +
x→1 − x→1 − 4 2 4

O
 
1 2 3 13
= lim (1 − h) − (1 − h) +
h→0 4 2 4
1

n
lim 1 − 2 h + h2 − 6 + 6 h + 13


=
4 h→0

io
= 2

at
The right-side-limit is defined as:
lim f (x) = lim | x − 3 |

ul
x→1 + x→1 +
= lim | (1 + h) − 3 |
h→0

rc
= 2
Since lim f (x) =
x→1 − x→1 +
Ci
lim f (x) = 2 = f (1) the function is continuous at x = 1

Now the check for the differentiability of the function at x = 1 is considered.

The left-side-derivative is defined as:
e
at

 
1 2 3 13
(1 − h) − (1 − h) + − 2
f (x − h) − f (x) 4 2 4
lim = lim
riv

h→0 −h h→0
 −h 
1
1 − 2 h + h2 − 6 + 6 h + 13


− 2
4
-P

= lim
h→0
 −
 h
1
8 + 4 h + h2


− 2
IT

4
= lim
h→0 −h
h2
-M

h +
= lim 4
h→0 −h
= −1
RD

The right-side-derivative is defined as:

f (x + h) − f (x) | (1 + h) − 3 | − 2
lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
By

| − (2 − h) | − 2
= lim
h→0 h
= −1

28
 f (x − h) − f (x) f (x + h) − f (x)

y
Since lim = lim
h→0 −h h→0 h

nl
the function is differentiable at x = 1. Therefore the function is continuous
as well as differentiable at x = 1.

O
E-4

n
io
1.4 Maxima and Minima

at
A function f (x) is said to be an increasing function, if its value increases as

ul
x increases otherwise it is known as decreasing function.Consider δx as the
increment given to x and corresponding value of the function is f (x + δx).

rc
Hence the condition for an increasing function is

f (x + δx) − f (x) > 0 or

δx
Ci
f (x + δx) − f (x)
> 0 f 0 (x) = 0
dy
dx
> 0

This condition also can be specified in term of the derivative of the function.
e
at

dy
f 0 (x) > 0 > 0
dx
riv

The tangent at the point on the curve represented by the function f (x)
makes an acute angle with positive direction of the x-axis. Similarly, for
the decreasing function, the tangent at a point makes an obtuse angle with
-P

the positive direction of the x-axis. The function considered may be such
that for a set of values of x, the value of the may increase and for next set
IT

of x values it may have decreasing trend. Hence at a particular value of x

the nature of the function may change and at this point the tangent will
be parallel to x-axis. For example sin x is an increasing function between
-M

π π
x = 0 and x = . It exhibits decreasing trend between x = and
2 2
π
x = π. At x = the function neither increases nor decreases and
RD

2
remains stationary. This referred as stationary point. The tangent defined
at the stationary point is parallel to x-axis. Hence at the point where the
function changes its nature, from increasing trend to decreasing trend or
decreasing trend to increasing trend the slope of the tangent is zero.
By

dy
f 0 (x) = 0 = 0
dx

29
 The stationary point may correspond to maximum or minimum value of

y
the function at that position. The function assumes maximum value if the

nl
function changes from increasing trend to decreasing trend otherwise the
value of the function is minimum. At the point of maximum, the slope

O
change its sign from positive to negative and hence second derivative will be
negative. At the point of minimum value the sign of the slope of the tangent
changes from negative to positive and hence second derivative will positive.

n
The conditions for extreme value are:

io
dy d2 y
For maximum value = 0 < 0

at
dx dx2
dy d2 y

ul
For minimum value = 0 > 0
dx dx2

rc
At a point on the curve represented by the function y = f (x) the slope
of the tangent will be zero and on both sides of the tangent the function
Ci
may be increasing or decreasing one. That is the slope continues increase
or decrease after crossing the point at which slope is zero. At this point
second derivative will also become zero and this point is known as point of
e
inflexion. Hence conditions for point of inflexion are:
at

dy d2 y d3 y
= 0 = 0 6= 0
dx dx2 dx3
riv

1.5 Partial Derivatives

-P

The function defined in terms of more than one independent variables is

expressed as
IT

z = f (x, y) z is the dependent variable and x and y are independent variables

The change in the dependent variable will due to both x and y. The change
-M

is defined by differentiating with respect to x by keeping y as constant and

differentiating with respect to y by treating x as constant. At a time differ-
RD

entiation is done with respect to one of the independent variable and hence
it is referred as partial derivative and is represented as
∂z ∂f
or or fx (x, y)
∂x ∂x
By

∂z ∂f
or or fy (x, y)
∂y ∂y

30
 Similarly higher order derivatives are defined.

y
nl
∂2z ∂2f
 
∂ ∂z
= or or fxx (x, y)
∂x ∂x ∂x2 ∂x2

O
∂2z ∂2f
 
∂ ∂z
= or or fyy (x, y)
∂y ∂y ∂y 2 ∂y 2

n
∂2z ∂2f
 
∂ ∂z

io
= or or fyx (x, y)
∂y ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂x

at
∂2z ∂2f
 
∂ ∂z
= or or fxy (x, y)
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y

ul
The sequence of independent variables considered for differentiation will not
influence the final expression.

rc
∂2z ∂2z
∂x ∂y
= Ci
∂y ∂x

1. Homogeneous Function. A function f (x, y) is said to be homoge-

e
neous if the sum of the powers of the independent variables is same
at

for all terms.

f (x, y) = c0 xn + c1 xn−1 y + c2 xn−2 y 2 + · · · + cn y n

riv

is a homogeneous function of order n. The above polynomial expres-

sion can also written as
-P

 y  y 2  y n  y
xn c0 + c1 + c2 + · · · + cn = xn F
IT

x x x x
 
n x
The homogeneous form also can be written as y F .
-M

y
2. Euler’s Theorem. If z is homogeneous function of order n, then
RD

∂z ∂z
x + y = nz
∂x ∂y
Let z is a homogeneous function of x and y and of degree n and z =
f (u), then
By

∂u ∂u f (u)
x + y = n 0
∂x ∂y f (u)

31
 Euler’s theorem for second derivatives is

y
∂2z ∂2z 2

nl
2 ∂ z
x2 + 2 x y + y = n (n − 1) z
∂x2 ∂x ∂y ∂y 2

O
Let z is a homogeneous function of x and y and of degree n and z =
f (u), then Euler’s theorem for second derivatives is

n
∂2u ∂2u 2
2 ∂ u
x2 = F (u) F 0 (u) − 1

io
 
2
+ 2 x y + y 2
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y

at
where
f (u)
F (u) = n

ul
f 0 (u)

3. Let z be a function of x and y, z = f (x, y), then total difference,

rc
total change, in z is

dz =
∂f
∂x
Ci
dx +
∂f
∂y
dy
e
If dz = 0, then
at

∂f
∂f ∂f ∂f ∂f dy dy ∂x
dx + dy = 0 + = 0 = − ∂f
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y dx dx
riv

∂y

The second derivative can be defined using the following.

-P

∂f ∂f
dy p
Let p = q = = −
∂x ∂y
dx q
IT

d2 y
   
d dy d p
= = −
dx2 dx dx dx q
-M

Using the rule for differential for ratio form and the following defi-
nitions, the expression for second derivative can be defined as shown
here.
RD

∂2f ∂2f ∂2f

r = s = t =
∂x2 ∂x ∂y ∂y 2
d2 y
 2
q r − 2 p q s + p2 t

= −
dx2 q3
By

32
 1.5.1 Jacobian

y
nl
Jacobian is used in the evaluation of multiple integral. Consider two func-
tions u and v defined in terms of independent variables x and y, u (x, y) and

O
v (x, y). Jacobian defined as
 ∂u ∂v   ∂u ∂u 
   

n
   
∂ (u, v)  ∂x ∂x   ∂x ∂y 
=   = 
   

io
∂ (x, y)

 ∂u ∂v   ∂v ∂v 
   
 ∂y ∂y 
∂x ∂y
 

at
For 3-D case

ul
 ∂u ∂u ∂u 
 ∂u  
 ∂v ∂w   
 ∂x

∂x ∂x 
  ∂x ∂y ∂z 

rc
  
   
∂ (u, v, w)  ∂u ∂v ∂w   ∂v ∂v ∂v 
=  =

∂ (x, y, z)  ∂y


∂y ∂y Ci



 ∂x



∂y ∂z 



 ∂u ∂v ∂w   ∂w
 ∂w ∂w 
 
e
∂z ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z
 
at

1. If u and v are functions of x and y, then

riv

∂ (u, v) ∂ (x, y)
× = 1
∂ (x, y) ∂ (u, v)
-P

2. If u and v are functions of r and s and in turn r and s are functions of

x and y, then
∂ (u, v) ∂ (u, v) ∂ (r, s)
IT

= ×
∂ (x, y) ∂ (r, s) ∂ (x, y)
3. If the functions u,v and w of three independent variables x,y and z are
-M

not independent, then

∂ (u, v, w)
= 0
∂ (x, y, z)
RD

4. Taylor’s Series. Let the function f (x, y) and its partial derivatives
up to nth order are finite and continuous for all values of x and y.
Also consider h as the increment given to x at x = a and k as the
increment given to y at y = b. Taylor’s series is
By

∂ 2
   
∂ ∂ 1 ∂
f (a + h, b + k) = f (a, b) + h + k f+ h + k f
∂x ∂y 2! ∂x ∂y

33
 ∂ 3 ∂ n
   
1 ∂ 1 ∂

y
+ h + k f + ··· + h + k f + ···
3! ∂x ∂y n! ∂x ∂y

nl
Considering particular case of a = 0, b = 0, h = x and k = y,
Taylor’s series can be written as

O
2 ∂2f 2
   
∂f ∂f 1 2∂ f 2∂ f
f (x, y) = f (0, 0)+ x + y + x + 2xy +y ···
∂x2 ∂y 2

n
∂x ∂y 2! ∂x ∂y

io
1.5.2 Maxima and Minima

at
The conditions for a function defined in terms of two independent variables
is similar to that considered for function with one independent variable.

ul
Consider the function f (x, y)

1.

rc
∂f ∂f
= 0 = 0 or p = q = 0
∂x ∂y Ci
2. 2
∂2f ∂2f ∂2f

× > or r t > s2
∂x2 ∂y 2
e
∂x ∂y
at

This condition also can be defined as follows:

 2 2f 

 ∂ f ∂
riv

 
 ∂x2 ∂x ∂y 

  > 0
 2 2

 ∂ f ∂ f 
-P


 ∂x ∂y ∂y 2 
IT

3.
∂2f ∂2f
< 0 or < 0 For function to be maximum
-M

∂x2 ∂y 2

4.
RD

∂2f ∂2f
> 0 or > 0 For function to be minimum
∂x2 ∂y 2

5. Lagrange’s Method. Let f (x, y, z) be the function defined in terms

By

three independent variables x,y and z and the independent variables

are related by
F (x, y, z) = 0

34
 The stationary value of the given function subject to the given condi-

y
tion among the independent variables is determine by considering the

nl
following equations.
∂f ∂F
+ λ = 0

O
∂x ∂x
∂f ∂F
+ λ = 0

n
∂y ∂y
∂f ∂F

io
+ λ = 0
∂z ∂z

at
F (x, y, z) = 0
The values for x,y,z and λ are determined by solving the above equa-

ul
tions.

rc
1.6 Problems
P-1-G2007-Q69 Ci
sin x
e
lim equals to
x→0 ex x
at

(a) 10 (b) 0 (c) 1 (d) ∞

riv

sin x sin x 1
-P

lim = lim lim x

x→0 ex x x→0 x x→0 e
= 1 ×1 = 1
IT

Answer: (c)
-M

P-2-G2008-Q29
RD

The function f (x) = x2 − 5 x + 6

(a) has its maximum value at x = 2.0

(b) has its maximum value at x = 2.5

By

(c) increasing on the interval (2.0, 2.5)

35
 (d) increasing on the interval (2.5, 3.0)

y
nl
The derivative of the given function is

O
2x − 5 Equating this to zero, value of x is 2.5

Since second derivative is positive the function is minimum at x = 2.5.

n
Also it can be seen that the function value is zero at x = 2 and x = 3

io
and its value is − 0.25 at x = 2.5. Hence the function value is increasing
in the interval 2.5 to 3.

at
Answer: (d)

ul
P-3-G2008-Q1

rc
The function defined by

f (x) = sin x,
Cix < 0
= 0, x = 0
e
3
= 3x , x > 0
at

(3)
riv

(a) is neither continuous nor differentiable at x = 0

(b) is continuous and differentiable at x = 0

-P

(c) is differentiable but not continuous at x = 0

IT

(d) is continuous but not differentiable at x = 0

-M

The given function is checked for its continuity and differentiability in the
specified range of values of x. For continuity the left side limit and right side
limit must be equal to the value of the function for the value of x considered.
RD

Left side limit is

lim sin x = lim sin 0 − h = 0

x→0 h→0
By

Right side limit is

lim 3 x3 = lim 3 (0 + h)3 = 0

x→0 h→0

36
 Since right side limit is same as the right side limit and the same is equal

y
to the value of the function at x = 0. Hence the function is continuous at

nl
x = 0. The function is differentiable at x = 0 if the left side derivative is
equal to right side derivative.

O
f (a − h) − f (a) f (a + h) − f (a)
lim = lim
h→0 −h h→0 h

n
The left side derivative is

io
f (a − h) − f (a) sin (0 − h) − 0
lim = lim

at
h→0 −h h→0 −h
− sinh
= lim = 1

ul
h→0 −h
The right side derivative is

rc
f (a + h) − f (a) Ci 3 (0 + h)3 − 0
lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
2
= lim 3 h = 0
h→0
e
Since the left side derivative is not equal to right side derivative, the function
at

is not differentiable at x = 0. But it is continuous at x = 0.

riv

Answer: (d)

P-4-G2009-Q47
-P
IT

In the interval 1 ≤x ≤ 2 , the function f (x) = eπ x + sin πx is

(a) maximum at x = 1 (b) maximum at x = 2
-M

(c) maximum at x = 1.5 (d) monotonically decreasing

RD

The derivative of the function is

0
f (x) = π eπ x + π cos πx

The derivative will not become zero for the specified interval. The values of
By

the derivative at the extreme values of the interval are:

0 0
f (1) = 69.5570 and f (2) = 1685.4382

37
 Hence the function does not have extreme value in the specified interval.

y
Also the values of the given function at the extreme values of the interval

nl
are:
f (1) = 23.1407 and f (2) = 535.4917

O
Hence the function has maximum value at x = 2.

n
Answer: (b)

io
P-5-G2010-Q37

at
f (x, y) = x2 + y 2 − x y − 3 y

ul
The function has an extreme at the point
(a) (1, 2) (b) (3, 0) (c) (2, 2) (d) (1, 2)

rc
The first and second derivatives of the function with respect to x and y
Ci
are:
0 0
fx = 2 x − y fy = 2 y − x − 3
00 00 00
e
fxx = 2 fyy = 2 fxy = − 1
at

The condition for extreme value is also satisfied.

 00 2
riv

00 00
fxx fyy > fxy

The values of x and y are determined by equating the first derivative ex-
-P

pressions to zero and hence the values are x = 1 and y = 2. Since second
derivative with respect to x or y is positive the function has extreme value
IT

at x = 1 and y = 2.

Answer: (a)
-M

P-6-G2010-Q11
RD

Z 1
dx
The definite integral
−1 x2
(a) does not exist (b) is equal to 2
By

(c) is equal to 0 (d) is equal to -2

38
 The function is defined at x = 0 and hence the given integral does not exist.

y
nl
Answer: (a)

O
P-7-G2011-Q3

n
The function f (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = x21 + x22 + x23 − 2 x1 − 4 x2 − 6 x3 + 14 has its minimum value at

io
(a) (1, 2, 3) (b) (0, 0, 0) (c) (3, 2, 1) (d) (1, 1, 3)

at
The first derivative with respect to x1 , x2 and x3 are respectively:

ul
2 x1 − 2 derivative with respect to x1

rc
2 x2 − 4 derivative with respect to x2
2 x3 − 6 Ci
derivative with respect to
The values of x1 , x2 and x3 are determined by equating these dexpressions
x3

to zero and hence the values are:

e
at

x1 = 1 x2 = 2 x3 = 3

The second derivative with respect to x1 , x2 and x3 are same and is equal
riv

to 2 and the cross derivative are zero.

00 00 00 00 00 00
fx1 x1 = fx2 x2 = fx3 x3 = 2 and fx1 x2 = fx2 x3 = fx3 x1 = 0
-P

Hence the third order determinant formed by the second derivative is posi-
IT

tive.  
2 0 0 
 
0 2 0  = 8
-M

 
0 0 2 

Since the second derivative with respect to the variables are positive, the
function is minimum at x1 = 1 , x2 = 2 and x3 = 3.
RD

Answer: (a)

P-8-G2012-Q32
By

The volume of solid

√ generated by rotating the region between the semi-
circle y = 1 − 1 − x2 and the straight line y = 1 about x-axis, is

39
 y
4 1 3 3 2
(a) π2 − π (b) 4 π2 − π (c) π2 − π (d) π − π

nl
3 3 4 4
The required volume can be obtained using any of the three methods de-

O
scribe in the following.

n
First Method
The circle radius is 1 and its center is at (0, 1). The center is on the y-axis

io
and the line y = 1 is parallel to x-axis, passing through the center of the
circle. Consider a small element of area dx dy in the region between the

at
circle and the line and is at a distance y from x-axis. Assume this element
revolves about x-axis through an angle dθ and hence the length of the solid

ul
generated will be y dθ. Therefore the volume generated will be (dx dy) y dθ.
Hence total volume generated will be sum of volume generated by all ele-

rc
ments considered in the region included between the line through the center
of the circle and the circle. This is expressed through the triple integral as
Ci
Z Z Z
V = y dx dy dθ
e
Consider one complete revolution. The limits for x are specified with con-
at

stants and the limits for y are expressed in terms of x. Hence the integral
defining the required volume can be written as
riv

Z 1 Z 1 Z 2π
V = √ y dx dy dθ
−1 y=1− (1 − x2 ) 0
-P

The region is symmetry about y-axis and carrying out the integration with
respect to θ, the expression for the volume generated is written as
IT

Z 1 Z 1
V = 4π √ y dy dx
0 y=1− (1 − x2 )
-M

Integrating and simplifying the resulting expression, the volume generated

is
4
V = π2 − π
RD

3
Second Method
The required volume can be determined using procedure followed in the
application integral calculus. The volume solid generated by the region
By

included between curve defined by y = f (x) and the x-axis is expressed as

Z
V = π y 2 dx

40
 The region to be considered for the present problem is that bounded between

y
the line y = 1 and the circle. The center of the circle is at (0, 1) and touches

nl
the origin. The radius of the circle is 1. Hence the required volume is defined
by difference between two volumes. The first volume is that of the cylinder

O
generated by the line y = 1 while revolving about x-axis and the volume is
V1 = π × 12 × 2 = 2 π. The second volume is the one generated by the
revolution of the region between the circle and x-axis while revolving about

n
x-axis. This is determined through the following procedure.

io
Z
V2 = π y 2 dx

at
Z 1  p 2
= π 1 − 1 − x2 dx

ul
−1
Z 1  

rc
p
= 2π 2 − 2 1 − x2 − x2 dx Due to symmetry about y-axis
0
 
V2 =
10
3
π − π 2 Ci
Hence the required volume is
e
at

V = V1 − V2
 
10 2 4
V = 2π − π − π = π2 − π
riv

3 3
Third Method
-P

The volume can be determined directly using Pappus theorem. The theorem
states that the volume of solid generated by an area while revolving about an
axis which does not intersect the region is defined by the product of the area
IT

of the region and the distance covered by the centroid of the region from the
line of revolution
-M

π × 12
   
4 4
V = 2π 1 − = π2 − π
RD

2 3π 3
Answer: (a)

P9-G2012-Q31
By

1
The nth derivative of the function y = is
x + 3

41
 (−1)n n! (−1)n+1 n! (−1)n (n + 1)! (−1)n n!

y
(a) (b) (c) (d)
(x + 3)n+1 (x + 3)n+1 (x + 3)n (x + 3)n

nl
Consider the first three derivatives of the given function.

O
dy 1 d2 y 2 d3 y 6
= − = = −
dx (x + 3)2 dx 2
(x + 3)3 dx 3
(x + 3)4

n
From these expressions the nth derivative expression can be written as

io
dn y (− 1)n n!

at
=
dxn (x + 3)n + 1

ul
Answer: (a)

rc
P10-G2013-Q3

At x = 0, the function y = |x| is

Ci
(a) continuous but not differentiable
e
at

(b) continuous and differentiable

riv

(c) not continuous but differentiable

(d) not continuous and not differentiable

-P

Refer Example E-1 of Section 1.3.1.

IT

Answer: (a)
-M

P11-G2015-Q24

The function y = x3 − x has

RD

(A) no inflection point (B) one inflection point

(C) two inflection points (D) three inflection points

By

Answer: (B)

42
 P12-G2015-Q38

y
nl
For a parabola defined by y = a x2 + b x + c, a 6= 0, the coor-
dinates (x , y) of the extremum are

O
√ !
b2 − 4 a c −b − b2 + 4 a c
 
−b
(A) + ,0 (B) ,
2a 2a 2a 2a

n
2
 
−b − b + 4 a c

io
(C) , (D) (0 , c)
2a 4a

at
The first derivative of y is equated to zero to obtain the value for x.

ul
dy b
= 2ax + b = 0 x = −
dx 2a

rc
Second derivative is 2 a and is not zero. Hence y has extreme value for the
above value of x. Substitute for x in the expression for y to define it as

y =
Ci
− b2 + 4 a c
4a
e
Answer: (C)
at

P13-G2016-Q16
riv

Let x be a positive real number. The function

-P

1
f (x) = x2 + has its minima at x = ——
x2
IT

For extreme value of function, first derivative must be zero. Using this the
value of x can be determined as shown in the following.
-M

1 x4 + 1
f (x) = x2 + =
x2 x2
df 5
2x + 2x
RD

= = 0
dx x4
2 x5 − 2 x = 0
x x4 − 1


= 0
x = 0, ±1, ±i
By

The sign of second derivative at the selected value of x will decide the nature
of function, that is minimum or maximum. For the function to be maximum

43
 the second derivative must be negative and if it is positive then the function

y
is minimum. The second derivative is

nl
2 x4 + 3


d2 f
=

O
dx2 x4
Among the values of x determined, 0 , ± 1 , ± i , the possible value of x

n
for the function to be minimum is x = 1, since it is given in the problem
that x is a positive real number.

io
Answer: x = 1

at
P14-G2018-Q2

ul
x2 y2

rc
Consider the function f (x, y) = + − 5. All the roots of this function
2 3

(A) form a finite set of points.

Ci (B) lie on an elliptical curve.

(C) lie on the surface of a sphere. (D) lie on a hyperbolic curve.

e
at

The function can be written as

riv

x2 y2 x2 y2
f (x, y) = + − 5 + = 1
2 3 10 15
-P

This euqation represents an ellipse and roots this equation, values of x and y, represent
co-ordinates of a point. Hence they lie on the elliptical curve.
IT

Answer: (B)
-M

P15-G2019-Q1

The maximum value of the function f (x) = x e−x (where x is real) is

RD

1
−
1 2 e 2
(A) (B) (C) (D) ∞
e e2 2
By

44
 The extreme value of given function is found by first determining value of x

y
by equating its derivative to zero.

nl
df 1
= e−x − x e−x = e−x (1 − x) = 0 e−x = = 0 x = ∞
ex

O
dc

or x = 1 The second value of x is considered as the first value of x gives zero value

n
for the given function, as shown in the following.
x

io
f (x) = x e−x = x It takes the indeterminate form ∞ ∞ for x = ∞
e

at
Using L’Hopital’s rule its value for x = ∞ can be determined.
Derivative of numerator is 1 Derivative of denominator is ex .

ul
x 1
f (x) = x e−x = x = x = 0 for x = ∞
e e

rc
Maximum value of the given function is determined for other value of x = 1

f (x) = x e−x =
x
=
1
Ci
e x e
e
Answer: (A)
at

P16-G2019-Q14
riv

1
A function f (x) is defined by f (x) = (x + |x|) .The value of
2
-P

Z 1
f (x) dx is – – – (round off 1 decimL PLce)
−1
IT

P17-G2019-Q15
-M

The value of following limit is – – – (round off to 2 decimal places).

θ − sin θ
lim
θ→0 θ3
RD

0
The given function takes indeterminate form 0 . Hence its values is deter-
mined using L’Hopital’s rule.
f (θ) = θ − sin θ g (θ) = θ3
By

0
θ − sin θ f (θ) f (θ)
lim = lim = lim 0
θ→0 θ3 θ → 0 g (θ) θ → 0 g (θ)

45
 If the indeterminate form is for ratio of the first order derivative, then the

y
ratio of higher order derivative is considered till it becomes determinate

nl
form. For the given function it takes determinate form for the ratio of third
order derivative.

O
0 0 00 00
f (θ) = 1 − cos θ g (θ) = 3 θ2 f (θ) = sin θ g (θ) = 6 θ

n
000
000 00 θ − sin θ f (θ)

io
f (θ) = cos θ g (θ) = 6 lim = lim 000
θ→0 θ3 θ → 0 g (θ)

at
θ − sin θ cos θ 1
lim 3
= lim = = 0.1667
θ→0 θ θ→0 6 6

ul
Answer: 0.16 to 0.17

rc
P18-G2020-Q1 Ci
dy
For f (x) = |x| with denoting derivative, the mean value theorem
dx
e
is not applicable because
at

(A) f (x) is not continuous at x = 0 (B) f (x) = 0 at x = 0

riv

df df
(C) is not defined at x = 0 (D) = 0 at x = 0
-P

dx dx
IT

P19-G2020-Q2

e− λ (x − µ)2
For the function f (x) = √ , where λ = , and
-M

σ 2π 2 σ2

σ and µ are constants, the maximum occurs at

RD

√
(A) x = σ (B) x = σ 2π (C) x = 2 σ2 (D) x = µ
By

P20-G2020-Q32

A closed curve is expressed in parametric form as x = a cos θ and

46
 22

y
y = b sin θ , where a = 7 m and b = 5 m . Approximating π = ,
7
which of the following is the area enclosed by the curve.

nl
(A) 110 m2 (B) 74 m2 (C) 36 m2 (D) 144 m2

O
The closed curve corresponding to the parametric form is an ellipse.
x2 y2

n
+ = 1 Area of ellipse is A = πab a = 7m b = 5m
a2 b2

io
22
A = πa b = × 7 × 5 = 110 m2

at
7
Answer: (A)

ul
AP1

rc
The distance between the origin and the point nearest to it on the sur-
Ci
face z2 = 1 + x y is
r
3 √
e
(A) 1 (B) (C) 3 (D) 2
2
at

Let the point on the surface be P (x, y, z). The distance of P from origin is
riv

p2 = x2 + y 2 + z 2 = x2 + y 2 + x y + 1 f (x, y) Using equation to the given surface

If the point P is to be near to the origin, then the distance must be minimum.
-P

Hence the above expression is minimized.

∂f
= 2x + y = 0
IT

∂x
∂f
= 2y + x = 0 Solving these two equations x = y = 0
∂y
-M

(4)
 2   2   2 2
∂2f ∂2f ∂2f ∂ f ∂ f ∂ f
−
RD

2
= 2 2
= 2 = 1 2 2
> 0
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
Since the second derivative positive the distance is minimum for x = 0 and
y = 0. Corresponding values for z are z = ± 1. Hence the distance is 1.
By

Answer: (A)

47