Stimulus piece

This study examined ecstasy use in 30 college students who participated in one of four 60-minute
focus groups.
To obtain a sample, fliers were posted on a large university campus, inviting individuals who had
used ecstasy on at least one occasion to anonymously contact the researcher via telephone or e-
mail using a fictitious first name if they were interested in participating in a focus group about
ecstasy. Four focus groups of six to 10 individuals were held in a private room on campus.
Upon entering the room for the focus group, each participant was instructed to write the fictitious first
name they had used during the telephone screening on a name-tag. Participants were instructed to
only use their fictitious first name during the session to protect their identity.
After completion of a brief survey, the guidelines for the hour-long group discussion were reviewed.
Participants were told that they could speak about their personal experiences or what they knew
about other substance users, but they could not disclose anyone's true identity. The researcher
asked specific questions and permitted group members to respond to each other. The amount of
time allotted to each topic varied based on group feedback and the judgment of the researcher. The
researcher introduced six main topics, but discussion was not limited to these topics. Responses
were written down by both the researcher and a trained research assistant.
Most participants had a basic understanding of the effects that ecstasy has on the brain and bodily
functions. Participants reported positive effects on mood, social pressure, curiosity and boredom. 
They also reported a desire for an altered state of mind, desire to escape, desire to have fun, and
the ease of use of ecstasy in comparison to other drugs as reasons for initiating ecstasy use.
Participants described their experiences of both the positive and negative effects (physical and
psychological) that they attributed to their use of ecstasy. The majority was unaware of specific types
of problems ecstasy could potentially cause and discounted its potential harm.
At the conclusion of the group discussion, the researcher provided participants with a list of mental
health resources and an informational handout about ecstasy containing a list of websites pertaining
to substance use.
Reference
Levy, K. B., Ogrady, K. E., Wish, E. D., & Arria, A. M. (2005). An In-Depth Qualitative Examination of
the Ecstasy Experience: Results of a Focus Group with Ecstasy-Using College Students. Substance
Use & Misuse, 40(9-10), 1427-1441. doi:10.1081/ja-200066810

Questions
1a. Identify the method used and outline two characteristics of the method.
This study used a focus group. A focus group is a group interview which is facilitated by a
researcher. It is an efficient way of collecting information from several participants at the same time.
In addition, by listening to other participants, this may inspire participants to say something that they
would not have said on their own. The conversation may bring up memories or help them to define
their opinions. It may help them to be more honest about their experience with drugs.
1b. Describe the sampling method used in the study.
A self-selected sample was chosen for this study. With the controversial nature of the topic studied,
it is important that participants choose to reveal this "private" part of their lives. The method used is
efficient and does not require any previous knowledge or contact with the target population. A self-
selected sample responds to a request for participants, based on interest in the study.
1c. Suggest an alternative or additional research method giving one reason for your choice.
One additional method might be a survey.  This would give the researcher more specific information
about individual's ecstasy use and their thoughts on it. It would also avoid the conformity effect that
could happen as a result of a group interview where they may not want to disagree publically with
members of the focus group.
2. Describe the ethical considerations that were applied in the study and explain if further ethical
considerations could be applied.
There are several ethical considerations that are discussed in the study.  Anonymity of the data was
clearly kept.  The participants only used a fake name and were never actually identified. In addition,
the focus groups were not recorded; the responses were written down by the researcher and an
assistant with the hope of confirming the data. It was also made clear that they should not disclose
information about someone else.
In addition, the researchers debriefed the participants, explaining to them both the findings and then
discussing with them the potential negative outcomes of ecstasy use.
Other ethical considerations include informed consent, the right to withdraw and undue stress or
harm. The researchers should have clearly explained the goals of the study and how the information
would be used.  The participants had to agree to take part in the study.  As the study was made up
of volunteers, we can assume that consent was gained.  In addition, they should know that they may
withdraw at any point in the study.  This includes during the debriefing; after having the discussion,
they may conclude that they do not want their information included in the study.  Finally, they have to
make sure that the members of the group are protected from harm.  This is difficult because
although they are anonymous, they are on a campus where there is a potential for the other
members of the focus group to come into contact with them again.  It would be important for the
researchers to have a confidentiality agreement which is signed by the members of the group so that
they would not use this information in any way to harm another member of the study.
3. To what extent could you generalize the findings of this study?
There is some question about whether this study could represent the population from which the
sample was drawn.  As this was a volunteer sample, it is possible that a certain type of ecstasy user
would volunteer.  The sample may be made up of mostly extroverted individuals who are very
confident and satisfied with their ecstasy use. It could even be that they see ecstasy use as part of
their social identity.  In this case, it may not represent all ecstasy users on that campus and not be
fully generalizable.
In addition, psychologists consider inferential generalization.  Can this information be transferred to
other student communities? To other types of drugs? In order to do this well, it is important that
psychologists document the nature of the sample population so that readers of the study can
determine the extent to which the findings may be transferred to other samples. In this study, it
would be important to know the age, culture and socio-economic status of the participants. It would
also be important to know what type of university culture the students come from. Is it a liberal arts
school? A medical university? A highly competitive, well-known university? This type of information
would help readers to determine whether the populations are similar enough to potentially generalize
the findings.
Finally, the psychologists could employ theoretical generalization - that is, they could use their
findings to generate more theory.  For example, that young people are more likely to discount the
negative effects of a drug; or that a certain culture may be more likely to do so.
Questions
1a. Identify the method used and outline two characteristics of the method.
This is a naturalistic, overt, non-participant observation. Naturalistic observations have high
ecological validity; the participants are observed carrying out normal behaviour without any
manipulation of variables by the researcher. In an overt observation, there is no use of deception
and because it is a non-participant observation, the researcher does not interfere with the behaviour
of the participants.
1b. Describe the sampling method used in the study.
The researcher uses a sample of opportunity.  Hockey teams that exist at the university are asked to
participate in the study.  An opportunity sample is a non-random sample in which the researcher
uses a sample that already exists. In this case, the sample is easily obtained and the researchers
would have had good familiarity with the characteristics of the sample. 
1c. Suggest an alternative or additional research method giving one reason for your choice.
A questionnaire could be given to hockey players to see what they believe sparks aggressive
behaviour.  This would allow easy collection of data and would look more holistically at a hockey
player's performance, rather than just three games.
2. Describe the ethical considerations that were applied in the study and explain if further ethical
considerations could be applied.
Informed consent was obtained, not just from the players but from their coach as well.  They would
have had their rights explained to them, including their right to withdraw from the study.  As the
games were recorded, it is important that the players are aware of this as well as how the
recording will be used.  It is important that the anonymity of the players is maintained; they should
not be identified by name or by number. There was no deception in the study, but a debriefing must
still be done.  This will allow the researchers to share their findings as well as give the participants
one more chance to withdraw their data. Although aggression is shown in this study, it is a
naturalistic observation.  So, there is no "undue" stress or harm as the stress that they experience is
not more than they would in any competitive match.
3. To what extent could you generalize the findings of this study?
The sample is fairly large for a university, so it most likely that the results may be generalized to the
population from which the sample was drawn. However, with only three games observed, the
findings may be premature.  Although there were several teams observed, the limited number of
matches means that it is difficult to generalize the findings. It is not clear to what extent the study
could be transferred to other findings; the characteristics of the team would have to be well
described and then the results of the study could be transferred to other hockey teams. 
Characteristics that might affect the results are the reputation of the teams, the opposition (was it a
long-term rivalry?) or the competition required to qualify for the team. In addition, these were male
varsity teams.  We cannot generalize to female hockey teams.  We cannot generalize to professional
hockey teams. It would also be difficult to generalize the aggression to other sports as the
operationalization of the aggression is very specific to the sport.

Questions
1a. Identify the method used and outline two characteristics of the method.
The researchers used a focus group interview.  Focus groups are very efficient. Several interviews
are carried out at the same time. In addition, since the goal was to carry out several sessions in
order to see if there was a consistency of response to the questions, using focus groups really cut
down on the amount of time and the number of researchers necessary to carry out the research.
Secondly, focus groups help to prompt discussion. One-on-one interviews may feel less naturalistic,
less like a free conversation about a topic. Focus groups are high in ecological validity and the
participants may get ideas from each other that they would not have thought of in a one-to-one
setting. This may help the researchers to obtain richer data.
1b. Describe the sampling method used in the study.
The researchers used a stratified sampling technique. Participants were selected non-randomly
according to some fixed percentage. In stratified sampling you want to represent the major
characteristics of the population by sampling a proportional amount of each - that is, you want the
characteristics of the group to reflect the proportion of those characteristics which exist in the target
population. For instance, if you know that 20% of the population has an advanced degree, 50% has
an undergraduate degree, 20% has a vocational degree and 10% has a high school education, then
you want a sample that has that same distribution of education level.  The reason for using a
stratified sample is so that the researcher can more easily generalize the findings to the target
population. If the sample reflects Swiss society, then it is likely that the findings will reflect the
general behaviour of the Swiss community.
1c. Suggest an alternative or additional research method giving one reason for your choice.
The researchers could carry out a survey.  This would allow the researchers to collect more data
more efficiently. It would also be a highly standardized process which would be easier to analyse
than the focus group interviews.
Both structured and unstructured interviews would also be possible.  Structured one-on-one
interviews may allow participants to speak more honestly, avoiding conformity effects or social
desirability effects that may occur in a focus group.  An unstructured interview would avoid
potentially "leading questions" from the interviewer and allow the participant to decide the direction
of the discussion.  This may help the researcher to obtain unexpected data which would not have
been obtained if there were a set of standardized questions.
2. Describe the ethical considerations in reporting the results and explain ethical considerations that
could be taken into account when applying the findings of the study.
When reporting the findings, it would be important that the identities of the participants could not be
determined.  It is important that names are not used in the report, but it is also important that the
characteristics of the individual would not be described which would help to identify him/her.  In
addition, the community itself should not be identified, especially in this case where the community
could be rather small. It is also important in the debriefing that the results are shared and that the
participants have a chance to withdraw their data.  Finally, it is important that the report takes an
objective stance, and not appear to ridicule or judge the behaviour of the participants in the study.
When applying the findings, it is important to recognize the nature of the sample.  In order to apply
the findings to another community, it would have to be similar in traits to the sample that was
studied.  The researcher should be careful not to assume that the findings can be generalized to all
populations. It is also important that if the findings were used as a basis for an educational
campaign, that the results not be overstated in order to support a specific agenda. Finally, the
findings should not be used to allow political or business groups to target the community studied. 
However, the results could be used to them provide education or outreach to the community to help
them to prevent further environmental damage to their community.
3. Discuss how the researcher might avoid bias in this study.
To avoid bias, the researcher might use reflexivity.  Personal reflexivity asks the researcher to reflect
on his own biases and how they may have affected the study. Whenever "issues" are studied, one
has to question the motivation of the researcher. It is possible that the researchers are very pro-
environmentalist and are very concerned about global warming.  This may mean, then, that they
may be more critical of those who do not change their behaviour. They may read into comments
about the "difficulty of changing behaviour" as a "reluctance to change behaviour." They may also
mistake the expression of interest as being "alarmed." The researchers should disclose this
information as the interpretation of the transcripts is highly subjective and their personal biases could
have an effect on their conclusions.
Another way to control bias is to consider the method that is being used.  Could a different approach
have brought about a different understanding of the topic? In this case, the researchers may reflect
on the use of the models and the expert. It could be that the reactions of the group were less about
their own feelings about climate change and more about the models that were presented. This,
however, was accounted for by having five different meetings in which different models were
presented.  It could be that the group was responding to the expert. Feelings that the expert was
arrogant, overly confident or patronizing could lead the group to take a contrary opinion and be more
argumentative. If the expert seemed to hesitate or express doubt, then this could account for the
response from the participants. Many of these ideas could have been communicated on a non-
verbal basis to the participants. Finally, the use of a group interview has its disadvantages. The
researcher should consider how conformity effects or power hierarchies within the group may have
affected individual responses. It is important that the researcher reflects on the extent to which these
factors could have played a role in the findings.

Stimulus piece
The following study by Hyland et al (2009) is a quasi-experiment using a longitudinal telephone
survey of nationally representative samples of smokers and non-smokers aged 18 years or older in
Scotland and the rest of the UK.
The aim of the study was to evaluate how Scotland's smoking ban impacted the lives of the average
person in Scotland compared to the rest of the UK, where these laws were not yet in place. The goal
was to look at exposure to secondhand smoke, attitudes toward the smoking ban and frequency of
going to pubs and restaurants.
The study carried out a telephone survey with a sample of 705 Scottish smokers and 417 non-
smokers. In addition, surveys were carried out with 1027 smokers and 447 non-smokers in the rest
of the UK where smoking in public places was not regulated at the time. Respondents were recruited
by telephone numbers selected at random from the population of each country with the goal of
representing all geographic districts.
Respondents were interviewed before the Scottish law (February to March 2006) and 1 year later
after the law (March 2007).
The results showed a significant decline in smoking in pubs, restaurants and workplaces compared
to the UK. In addition, support for the smoking ban increased to a greater extent in Scotland than in
the rest of the UK. Although the self-reported frequency of going to pubs and restaurants was similar
in Scotland and the rest of the UK, non-smokers in Scotland showed a significant increase in their
frequency of going to pubs. There was no clear difference in smoking cessation observed - although
this could be due to the length of the study. One year may not have been enough time to notice such
effects of the law.
The researchers concluded that the Scottish smoking ban has been successful in decreasing
secondhand smoke exposure while at the same time having no significant negative effect on pubs
and restaurants.
Hyland, A., Hassan, L. M., Higbee, C., Boudreau, C., Fong, G. T., Borland, R., . . . Hastings, G.
(2009). The impact of smoke-free legislation in Scotland: Results from the Scottish ITC Scotland/UK
longitudinal surveys. The European Journal of Public Health, 19(2), 198-
205. doi:10.1093/eurpub/ckn141

Questions
1a. Identify the method used and outline two characteristics of the method.
The researchers used a quasi-experimental method. This means that although there was an
independent variable, it was not manipulated by the researcher.  In this, the IV was the imposition of
the smoking ban.  One group (Scotland) had the IV and the other group (UK) served as the control. 
As the place where one lived determined the group they were in, the participants could not be
randomly allocated to conditions.  This is a second characteristic of quasi-experiments.
1b. Describe the sampling method used in the study.
The sample is a geographically stratified sample.  Each geographic district in Scotland and the rest
of the UK wasrepresented.  From each district telephone numbers were randomly selected to be in
the study. This may have been done by a random number generator or by pulling phone numbers
out of a hat. As the numbers were randomly selected, this increases the probability that the sample
is representative and thus the results may be generalized to the population from which the sample
was drawn.
1c. Suggest an alternative or additional research method giving one reason for your choice.
An alternative measure would be to carry out focus group interviews prior to the smoking ban and
then again a year later. The face to face experience, as well as being part of a group, is more natural
than a phone interview and may result in more trust of the researcher, and potentially more "honest"
responses.  It also would allow the participants to interact with each other.  This would potentially
lead to responses which an individual might not think of in a phone survey - or it may also legitimize
their own thoughts and give them the "permission" to share ideas that may be perceived as
politically incorrect or socially undesirable.
2. Describe the ethical considerations that were applied in the study and explain if further ethical
considerations could be applied.
Since the study was a phone survey, the researchers would have to obtain informed consent in
order to carry out their research.  They would have to inform the participants about the nature of the
study, how the results would be used and their rights as participants, including the right to withdraw
from the study at any time.  The researchers would also have to guarantee that their personal
information would not be revealed in any publication and that their results would be anonymized. It
would be important that the researchers debrief the participants about the study, sharing their
findings. This also allows the participants to ask any questions, and if they feel that they would like to
withdraw their data, there is an opportunity to do so.
3. To what extent could you generalize the findings of this study?
As the sample was randomly selected from each geographic division of the two areas of the UK -
and the sample size was relatively large - it can be assumed that the sample is representative of the
population.  This means that we can generalize to the larger population of both Scotland and the rest
of the UK.  However, it would be difficult to generalize the findings to other populations. Cultural
dimensions such as power distance, socioeconomic status and accessibility of cigarettes could all be
variables which may affect the effectiveness of a smoking ban in a different country.  Although you
could generalize cautiously to other countries, it would be best to look at studies of other countries. 
If there are several studies from different countries with the same results (which there are), then we
can generalize the findings more confidently about smoking bans in general.

Stimulus piece
Sherman (1975) carried out a non-participant naturalistic observation to study the phenomenon of
group glee in preschoolers. Group glee was defined as "joyful screaming, laughing and intense
physical acts" which quickly spread in the group. Sherman made video recordings of 596 preschool
classes taught by 36 student teachers over a period of two years. The schools were chosen because
of their relationship with the teacher education program at Sherman’s university.
Each day, three separate groups of children from each class were taken from the free play area to
participate in a directed lesson. Each lesson was scheduled for 20 minutes. A stationary video
camera with a wide-angle lens was used to video-record the session. The children were divided into
age groups but were mixed with respect to sex and race.
Lessons contained a variety of activities such as story readings, simple construction, teacher
demonstrations, singing, dancing, role-playing, and general discussions. When the activity was
completed, the children left the room and return to the larger free play area.
Two independent researchers separately viewed the same 10 videotaped lessons. Of the 596
videotaped lessons, 241 (40.4%) contained one or more separate and independent incidents of
group glee. A total of 633 incidents were recorded in these lessons. Nearly 44% of the incidents
involved total group participation.
Using a pre-defined coding system, the researchers found that group glee was often the result of
suspense, taboo-breaking, physical stimulation or simply moments of unstructured play.  They also
observed that group glee was sustained when the teacher joined in with the students.
Sherman, Lawrence W. An Ecological Study of Glee in Small Groups of Preschool Children. Child
Development, 1975, 46, 53-61.

Questions
1a. Identify the method used and outline two characteristics of the method.
This study is a naturalistic non-participant observation. The study is naturalistic because it takes
place in the natural pre-school setting. This is done in order to have high ecological validity. There is
no change in the environment which may result in a change in normal behaviour by the preschool
students. In addition, it is non-participant. This means that the researcher is not interacting with the
children. This prevents reactivity on the behalf of the children. Having the researcher present could
affect the children's behaviour resulting in demand characteristics. The fact that the researcher is not
present in this situation is another way to promote high ecological validity.
1b. Describe the sampling method used in the study.
The researchers used a sample of opportunity.  They used student teachers' classrooms that were
linked to their university.  This was a non-random sample that allowed the researchers to easily
obtain the sample. 
1c. Suggest an alternative or additional research method giving one reason for your choice.
The researchers could build on this study by carrying out an experiment.  The experiment would take
a specific type of activity - for example, one that involves physical activity, to see to what extent this
would lead to group glee.  This would help to establish a cause and effect relationship between the
two variables. In addition, the researcher could interview or give a questionnaire to the teachers to
determine what they believe leads to this behaviour in children.  This could then be compared to the
findings of the observations to see if the perceptions of the teachers match the observed behaviour
of the children.  This would make the results more credible.
2. Describe the ethical considerations that were applied in the study and explain if further ethical
considerations could be applied.
There are several ethical considerations for this study.  First, consent would have to be obtained, but
this is complicated because young children are being observed. The researcher would first have to
get the study approved by an ethics board.  Then they would have to obtain consent from both the
school and the parents of the children.  As part of the informed consent, the goals of the study would
have to be shared with the parents and school - and the rights of the children would have to be
explained.  For example, the use of the video would have to be explained and how the film will be
used.  The film should not be used in a way that would reveal the identities of the children.  The
children should remain anonymous. Parents who are not willing to have their children participate
have a right to withdraw from the study at any time. There is no deception in the study, but the
parents should still be debriefed on the findings of the study. As this is a naturalistic observation, the
children should not experience any undue stress or harm.
3. To what extent could you generalize the findings of this study?
Group glee is a phenomenon that we see in young children, so the goal would not be to generalize
this to other age groups.  The goal would be to generalize the results to other groups of pre-
schoolers. The sample size is quite large, so it makes it more possible to generalize the results to
the population from which the sample was taken. In order to "transfer" the findings to other
populations, some considerations would have to be taken.  First, the other population would have to
have access to preschool education.  If preschool education is only for those with wealth, then the
sample would be very different and it would not be possible to simply generalize the findings.  In
addition to socioecomomic factors, the homogeneity of the group, the number of children in the
classroom and the experience of the teachers could all play a role in whether the findings can be
generalized.  Finally, if there are other studies that show similar findings, then it makes the case for
generalization stronger.

Stimulus piece
Students who are enrolled in academically challenging schools face a multitude of stressors related
to increased academic demands in addition to the developmental and biological challenges that are
a normal part of adolescence. Suldo et al (2008) carried out a case study of one school’s IB program
to see how students cope with stress.  The school responded to an advertisement by the researcher,
looking for an IB school that had been teaching the program for at least five years but fewer than ten
years. The school was a state-run school but with a rigorous testing program in order to be
accepted.
Forty-eight students from the school’s International Baccalaureate (IB) diploma program were
randomly selected to participate in eight focus groups, in which participants were grouped by level of
anxiety. In addition, several students carried out one on one interviews with the researchers. The
researchers also observed several IB HL classes in order to see how students dealt with stress in
the classroom.
Before participating in the focus group, anxiety level was determined by participants’ self-report on
the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) Anxiety Problems scale.
Participants ranged in age from 15 to 18 years. The low anxiety group consisted of 25 students, 52%
of whom were female. The above-average anxiety group consisted of 23 students (83% female).
A single researcher facilitated each 45- to 75-minute focus group while another member of the
research team recorded the interviews as well as took field notes. The researcher explained the
purpose of the meeting and then posed discussion questions about stress and coping. Participants
were asked to describe what they did in response to stress, including behaviours that were effective
in helping to cope with the stress. Then, participants were asked to identify reactions to stress that
were not effective in helping them cope.
Observations were carried out during the students’ classes to see how they coped with stress. In
particular, it was observed how students used time in order to make progress on IA’s or other
assessments.
Researchers identified different coping strategies that corresponded to one’s normal level of anxiety.
Active problem-solving and avoidance of demands were reported most often among all IB students
in this investigation. Students with above-average levels of anxiety discussed seeking social support
more often, whereas students with low anxiety more frequently discussed avoiding demands,
reducing one’s workload, and seeking positive emotions. Students with low anxiety tended to be
more productive with their use of time in the classroom.

Questions
1a. Identify the method used and outline two characteristics of the method.
A case study is a long-term study of an individual or group that is carried out by a combination of
research methods. It is also usually long-term in nature. Unlike an experiment which may give an
example of a single response to stress, this study allows the researchers to observe how the
students respond to stress over a period of time. Any particular day may be more stressful than
another, so it is important that a longer period is observed. In addition, case studies have high
ecological validity. This study is done in the school under day-to-day conditions. This means that
there are no variables which are controlled and the situation is not artificial.
Finally, case studies use method triangulation. In this case, the researchers carried out participant
observations, one-on-one interviews and a focus group. Each of these methods has its own
strengths and limitations. By using several research methods to gather data, the researcher can see
if the behaviour of the students is consistent across all the methods - in other words, the researchers
want to know that it was not the method alone that resulted in the findings that they obtained.
1b. Describe the sampling method used in the study.
The sampling method for this study is a bit complex.  First, it is a self-selected sample. The
researchers put out an ad looking for a school that had certain characteristics.  Thus, it was also a
purposive sample.  Once the school was chosen, then the sample used from the population was
randomly selected.  The text does not explain how.  This could have been done by a random
number generator, for example. 
1c. Suggest an alternative or additional research method giving one reason for your choice.
A questionnaire could be used that would ask the participants about how they deal with stress.  This
could be useful as it allows the participant to reflect more than in a one-on-one interview situation.  If
the questionnaires were coded so that the researcher could know which group the individual
belonged to (high or low anxiety) without knowing who it actually was, it could also then control for
demand characteristics and perhaps allow for a more "honest" response.  Finally, questionnaires
allow the researchers to efficiently collect data without then having to transcribe the responses, as
would have to be done after an interview.
2. Describe the ethical considerations that were applied in the study and explain if further ethical
considerations could be applied.
The researchers would have had to obtain informed consent from the school, the parents and the
students. As part of that, they would have to know that they had the right to pull out of the study at
any time, and that their data would be anonymized. The researchers did not deceive the students;
they were told that this was a study of stress. There was no undue stress or harm in the study. 
Students were observed in their natural environment, so they did not experience any more stress
than they usually would on a normal day of school. Finally, the researchers would have to debrief the
students.  In the debriefing they would have to explain the findings of the study and also give them
the chance to withdraw their data. They should also provide advice to the students on how to
manage their stress.
3. To what extent could you generalize the findings of this study?
There are three ways in which the findings of this study can be generalized. First, the findings can be
generalized to the population from which the sample was taken. It can be assumed that the trend
that was seen in the forty-eight participants in this sample represent to some extent the other
members of the school community as the students were chosen randomly from the IB student
population. The second way is what is called "transferability." The findings of this study could be
generalized to a school that is similar. It would have to be, for example, an IB school of similar size
with a similar student population. It would not be appropriate to generalize the findings to a large
urban public school, a non-IB school or an international school. Finally, the findings could be
generalized to support a theory. In this case, it could be used to support the theory that one's coping
strategies are based on one's normal level of anxiety. If there are several case studies that all come
up with the same interpretation, this helps to support a theory.

Stimulus piece
A group of researchers conducted a case study to help counsellors develop effective interventions to
assist female victims of domestic violence in developing countries. To carry out the study, a hospital
in a small local community in a West African country was asked to identify women who had suffered
from or were suspected of suffering from domestic violence. Counsellors were sent to discuss the
research the research goals with the women and in the end, 20 women agreed to participate in the
study. Most of these women lived in arranged marriages and had children. The researchers used
focus group interviews to collect data. The interviews were videotaped and later transcribed for
analysis.
About two-thirds of the women reported that their husband abused them almost daily. The violence
was physical, verbal, emotional and sexual. The violence was sometimes encouraged by the
husband’s family. All the women found that the violence was unacceptable but few of them had ever
talked about it before. They suffered from the violence and abuse but nearly all wanted to maintain
their marriage. The reasons for this were for example economic, or fear of social stigma, fear for
their lives or for fear of losing their children.
The researchers suggested a number of possible strategies to avoid violence in the families based
on this study. The best way to help and support the victims would be to target the abusive partners
for individual therapy and counselling to stop the violence, but family therapy involving the extended
family and couples counselling were also suggested as strategies.
Generally, the perpetrators of violence refused to talk about the violence or receive counselling.
They were supported in their decision by family and friends. Couples counselling proved somewhat
successful for the upper-class families, who were afraid of the social stigma of a legal solution and
did not want to involve the extended family. During counselling, the couples were told to follow a
code of conduct prohibiting violence, and they were taught how to better communicate. They also
got the opportunity to discuss gender role expectations and possible ways of resolving conflict
without violence. However, for most women, the solution of individual therapy was the only option.
The individual therapy helped them to solve one problem at a time.
A follow-up of home visits was conducted to find out if violence had stopped and if attitudes about
domestic violence had changed. Only a small percentage of the women reported violence after the
intervention had begun. Half of the women were no longer living with their husbands at the end of
the intervention but the separations were reported to be friendly in nearly half of the cases.

Questions
1a. Identify the method used and outline two characteristics of the method.
The study was a case study. A case study uses method, data and/or researcher triangulation.  More
than one research method is used with the goal of confirming the results and establishing credibility.
In addition, case studies are usually holistic.  They look at many aspects of the lives and behaviour
of the participants and not simply on a single variable. Case studies are also naturalistic; they do not
manipulate variables under controlled conditions to establish cause and effect relationships, but
instead collect qualitative and quantitative data in an uncontrolled, natural environment.  Finally,
case studies are often longitudinal so that researchers can observe changes in behaviour over time.
1b. Describe the sampling method used in the study.
An opportunity sample was used. The women were selected through the local hospital's records. 
They were then approached in order to obtain consent.
1c. Suggest an alternative or additional research method giving one reason for your choice.
Structured interviews could be given in which the women would discuss the effectiveness of the
intervention.  These interviews would be standardized, asking the same questions to all participants. 
This would allow for easier comparison and analysis than more unstructured interviews. 
2. Describe the ethical considerations that were applied in the study and explain if further ethical
considerations could be applied.
Consent was obtained from the participants.  It is assumed that they were told the goals of the
research and what their rights would be.  They should have had the right to withdraw at any time. As
with all research, the confidentiality of the participants is an important consideration. This becomes
more difficult when the data is collected via focus group interviews. In writing the report, it is
important not only that the individuals' names are not used, but that there is no information in the
report that could "give away" their identities. As the interviews were videotaped, it is important that
these films are not made public - and that the identities of the individuals are protected.
It is also important that the psychologist keep a professional relationship with the women in the
group. Although it is often difficult, the psychologist should not allow his/her personal feelings about
the cases to influence behaviour which could complicate the situation for the women. In spite of the
supportive relationship that can result between an interviewer and interviewee, the researcher
should not force the respondent to reveal more than she is comfortable with.  This could result in
undue stress or harm.  Finally, the women should have been debriefed at the end of the research,
allowing them to withdraw their data but also to be presented with the findings of the study.
3. To what extent could you generalize the findings of this study?
It would be difficult to generalize the findings to the population as the population is not really clear.  It
is difficult to know how many women are actually in abusive relationships in the community; since
the women were obtained through hospital records, it is possible that there are other women that are
not represented in the sample since they did not go to the hospital or were not identified as being
abused in the community.  This could be because of the nature of the abuse or because of specific
personality traits of the women.
As with any case study, one has to establish the transferability of the findings. This can be
accomplished by a full description of both the participants and the situation. The findings from this
group would be most transferable to a group of women who also were in arranged marriages.
Although there could be some relevance to romance-based marriages, it is questionable if the
motives for staying in the marriage would be the same. In addition, the fact that this is a non-
Western country could very well mean that cultural dimensions - such as collectivism and power-
distance - could play a significant role in the findings. The more similar a situation to which this study
would be compared, the more likely the results may be generalized.
Finally, if there are other case studies that have similar findings in different populations, then the
researchers could generalize the findings with more confidence.

Stimulus piece
Africa is the site of many refugee camps where people displaced by war are taken care of by non-
governmental agencies such as the Red Cross, UNICEF or the UNHRC.  These agencies are often
responsible for providing programs and services to improve refugees’ quality of life and health in
these temporary camps. Pavlish (2007) carried out a study of Congolese refugees living in displaced
persons’ camps in Rwanda.  The research used unstructured interviews to examine the life
experiences as told by male and female Congolese refugees residing in a refugee camp in Rwanda.
Two Congolese community health workers were asked by the researchers to select potential
participants from various categories, such as frequent visitors to the health clinic, marginalized
groups in the camp or families with children.
During the first interview, the researcher asked participants to describe memories and anecdotes
about significant events and people in participants’ past and present lives, as well as stories about
their ordinary days. The participants were allowed to tell their stories and anecdotes; the researcher
would ask for clarification when it was needed to assist with understanding. The researcher might
also ask for more detail.
The second interview was conducted within three days of the first interview. During the second
interview, the researcher first reviewed the topics participants described during their initial interview.
The researcher then asked the participant for additional information and anecdotes about those
topics.
The interviews were transcribed and a systematic content analysis was conducted. The interviews
were separated by gender.
The researcher found that women’s experiences showed themes of leaving the good life behind,
worrying about their daughters, feeling ambivalent about marriage and lacking hope. Men’s
experiences revealed themes of leaving the good life behind, having no peace in the heart and
fearing the future.  Listening to refugee voices provides an opportunity for organizations to create
services that pertain closely to refugees’ life experiences.

Questions
1a. Identify the method used and outline two characteristics of the method.
The researchers used unstructured interviews.  Unstructured interviews have a goal, but they do not
have a list of questions which must be answered.  This means that the questions develop in a
conversation with the participant and the final interview may be very different between one
participant and another.  Another characteristic is that questions tend to be open-ended; this allows
the interviewee to decide how the question should be answered.  A final characteristic is that
unstructured interviews are more naturalistic, having higher ecological validity.  The interview is
more like a normal conversation, rather than responding to a long list of questions.
1b. Describe the sampling method used in the study.
The sample was taken from a sample of opportunity;  the camp existed and the researchers chose
participants from the camp.  The sample was also purposive. The researchers were looking for
specific traits and then asked people working in the camp for NGOs to select people with these traits
that could take part in a study of life in the camp.  The health workers did not know the actual goal of
the study, so they should have been more objective in choosing the participants in the sample.
1c. Suggest an alternative or additional research method giving one reason for your choice.
Another possible approach would be to use a focus group.  This would allow the researchers to get
information from more members of the camp in a shorter period of time.  It would also allow the
participants to hear others and potentially enrich their own personal responses.
A questionnaire would probably not be a very good choice here as it is highly probable that there
would be literacy issues.
A case study would also be possible.  This would allow the researchers to see change over time;
however, it would also be very time consuming to study a large number of people and it may not
allow for as much generalization as a series of individual interviews.
2. Describe the ethical considerations that were applied in the study and explain if further ethical
considerations could be applied.
The researchers would have to get consent from the participants.  As the participants are
Congolese, there could be language difficulties between the participants and the researchers.  It
would be necessary to make sure that informed consent was given in a language that they
understood well enough to understand their rights and the goals of the study.  There was no
deception in the study.  There was no undue stress or harm; however, it would be important that if a
participant did not want to go into more detail on a topic, that the researcher did not pressure them to
answer the question. It would be important for the research to demonstrate empathy, rather than
objectify the participants.  The results would have to be anonymized to protect the identities of the
participants and they would have to have the right to withdraw their data.  Finally, the researchers
would have to debrief the participants at the end of the study; they would have to explain the findings
and how those findings would be used.
3. To what extent could you generalize the findings of this study?
It is questionable whether the findings can be generalized to the population from which the sample
was drawn. We do not know from the description above how the aid workers chose the participants
for the study.  Although there were certain traits that were required to be interviewed, because of the
way that the participants were chosen, we cannot generalize to the population.  In addition, we have
no clear knowledge of the size of the sample.
The goal of the researchers is to collect data to generalize to other displaced people centres. In
order for it to be "transferable," it would be essential for the researchers to clearly describe the
situation and conditions of the camps. The extent to which another camp would be similar to this
situation would determine the extent to which some generalization would potentially be possible. For
example, if the Congolese have fled because of attempted genocide, then this is different from a
camp in which people are fleeing hunger or political chaos.  The religion, socioeconomic status or
culture of the sample could also influence the findings. The more similar that this sample is to other
populations in refugee or displaced persons' camps, the more confidently you can generalize the
findings.

Stimulus piece
Macksoud & Aber (1996) carried out a case study on children in a Lebanese neighbourhood
following the end of the Lebanese civil war. The researchers wanted to see how different types of
trauma experienced during the war affects the development of children.
A sample of 224 Lebanese children (10–16 years old) was interviewed.  The sample was drawn from
three communities that had witnessed high levels of violence during the war. To obtain participants,
an ad was put into the local newspaper. The ad promised that all participants would have a
psychological examination and receive treatment advice.  The interviews used standardized
questions to measure the children’s level of war exposure, mental health symptoms and Post-
Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). In addition, parents were interviewed to employ data
triangulation. In addition, the researchers observed the children in different social situations including
interactions at school, on the playground, and at home with their families.
The number and type of the children's war traumas varied with their age, gender, father's
occupational status and mother's educational level.
Results indicated that on average a Lebanese child had experienced five to six different types of war
related traumatic events during his or her lifetime, and some events were experienced several times.
Exposure to shelling or combat, displacement, extreme poverty and witnessing violent acts were the
most common traumatic experiences faced by the children. As predicted, the number of war traumas
experienced by a child was positively related to PTSD symptoms. In addition, the type of trauma
may also affect their problem-solving skills, ability to adapt, or general mental health. For example,
children who lost a family member became victims of violent acts, witnessed violent acts, and/or
were exposed to shelling or combat exhibited more PTSD symptoms. Children who were separated
from parents reported more depressive symptoms. Children who were displaced from their homes
demonstrated more concern for their futures. Lastly, children who were separated from parents and
who witnessed violent acts, in fact, showed more pro-social behavior.

Questions
1a. Identify the method used and outline two characteristics of the method.
A case study is an in-depth study of an individual or a group. Case studies often rely on several
different methods (method triangulation) - interviews, observations, surveys, etc. A case study also
often makes use of school records, reports from friends and family, or archival information like
diaries. (data triangulation).  Case studies also look at an individual or group more holistically,
looking at a range of variables, rather than a single variable. It would be appropriate for this study
because the researchers are looking to describe the wide range of behaviour exhibited by the
children and determine if there are any trends. It is also appropriate because it does not rely solely
on the self-reported data of the children, but includes observations and information from families and
schools. Although case studies often look at an individual or group over a long period of time
(longitudinally), that was not the case in this study.
1b. Describe the sampling method used in the study.
The sample was a voluntary sample in that there was an advertisement placed in the newspaper. 
However, the communities in which the advertisements were placed were chosen by the
researchers based on the "level of violence" that was experienced. It is not clear from the stimulus
piece how this was determined.  As an incentive for participation, the participants were promised a
psychological examination and advice.  This may lead to ascertainment bias - that is, the sample
may result in a bias where the participants are made up of families with concerns for their child's
mental health and exclude children that do not seem to have any problems and perhaps were more
resilient.
1c. Suggest an alternative or additional research method giving one reason for your choice.
Based on the findings of the study, the researchers may want to give a questionnaire to the wider
community or to other communities in Lebanon in order to determine the extent to which the results
could be generalized.  A questionnaire would be a quicker way to gather a large amount of data -
and it would allow the participants to be anonymized.  Other possibilities would be to simply do focus
groups with families or to carry out naturalistic observations in schools to observe children's
behaviours.
2. Describe the ethical considerations that were applied in the study and explain if further ethical
considerations could be applied.
This study is a bit problematic because children are the participants.  However, the goal of the study
is to help understand and potentially treat children whose psychological well being has suffered
because of war.  Consent would have been needed from the parents.  Since this was a volunteer
sample, consent would have been rather easily obtained.  Consent would have to include the
guarantee of anonymity for the children and family and a clear understanding of how the information
would be used. Considering that this was a community that had recently experienced conflict, if
anonymity were not guaranteed, there could be problems for the families.  The families would have
the right to withdraw at any point and they would have to be debriefed at the end of the study.  In this
case, as promised, they would have to give the families advice based on the findings with regard to
their children.  The questions asked during the interviews could ask the participants to recall
traumatic memories from the war.  Although this is not a problem since the individuals were informed
that this would be part of the study before they began, if a participant were hesitant to share about
the experience, the researcher should not apply pressure for the individual to discuss the memory.
The researchers should also be empathetic to the participants and recognize if and when the
interviews are too stressful for the children and then terminate the interviews so that the child does
not experience undue stress.
3. Discuss how the researcher may avoid bias in this study.
The researchers could practice reflexivity. Reflexivity involves the researcher documenting his or her
beliefs, attitudes, values, theoretical position and reactions to the study and assessing the likely
impact of these on the collection and analysis of data. It is particularly important here because of the
political nature of the study. The researcher should identify if s/he is Lebanese, had children affected
by the conflict, or is politically active on one of the sides of the conflict. It is important that the
researcher discloses this information as well as reflects on how this may have played a role in
his/her interpretation of the data. It is possible that a researcher who is heavily invested in the
conflict may not be objective and may experience researcher bias - for example, seeing symptoms
of PTSD where none is to be found.
The sample is problematic and may be a result of researcher bias.  Having chosen these
communities based on their "level of conflict during the war" could be subjective.  Also, promising
treatment may also bias the sample.  These choices by the researcher may have resulted in more
extreme cases being chosen for the study. Choosing a more objective sampling method may have
lowered the chance of bias.
Another way to avoid bias is to use researcher triangulation.  This is when there are several
researchers that carry out the study individually and then the data is compared.  In this case, several
researchers could carry out the observations of then compare their notes to see if their observations
are similar.  The tests could also be given blindly so that the researcher does not know which child's
test is being scored.  In this way, they are not "reading into" responses based on their experience
with the child. Finally, the researcher could share their interpretations with the parents to see if they
feel that they fairly represent their child's behaviour.  By trying to establish the credibility of their
findings, the researcher lowers the potential for bias. 

Stimulus piece
The placebo effect has been a common topic of investigation in sports psychology. For example,
athletes were led to believe that they had received anabolic steroids, carbohydrates or caffeine and
consequently performed better than baseline or control groups. The focus in placebo research in
sport is on the role of belief as a psychological factor in performance. Sports psychologists have
argued that many technologies, products or substances which seem to have an effect on athletes’
performance have no clear biological basis but may simply be the result of the placebo effect.
The aim of this qualitative study was to investigate athletes’ experience of placebo effects in
competition. The three researchers were all sports psychologists and had all previously been
professional athletes. The snowball sample consisted of 7 American males and 7 females (N=14)
from different sports. Each participant received a brief description of the placebo effect.
The researchers used structured interviews to collect data. All participants were asked (1) if they
believed that performance could be influenced by the placebo effect or by similar false beliefs and
(2) if they had ever experienced a moment in sport in which a false belief affected their performance.

A little more than half of the participants said they believed that the placebo effect had influenced
their performance. They could recall an event in which a form of placebo effect or false belief had
positively influenced their performance. An analysis of their responses identified factors such as
rituals (for example, shaving one’s legs before a swimming competition), false beliefs based on
receiving a substance (for example, receiving a drug that one believes can enhance performance) or
false beliefs based on misperception (for example, a coach saying: You have already done this so
you can do it again).

For example, a weightlifter explained that he was fooling himself into believing that he was lifting less
on the bench-press and that this helped him to a better performance. The participants all pointed to
the important factor of expectations in performance. The belief in the efficacy of a substance, training
procedures or rituals was seen as the most important factor in the placebo effect. Many of the
participants said they believed that performance could be manipulated by the placebo effect.

The researchers concluded that the power of belief ought to be taken into consideration when
preparing athletes for competition. They suggest that the placebo effect could perhaps interact with
the biological system to increase performance in a natural way but that more research is needed.

Based on Beedie, C.J. Placebo effects in competitive sports: Qualitative data. Journal of Sports, Science and Medicine
(2007), 6, 21-28.

Questions
1a. Identify the method used and outline two characteristics of the method.
A structured interview. A structured interview is highly standardized, asking all interviewees the
same questions. The amount of information gained in this type of interview, however, is limited.  The
interview does not allow the researcher to ask additional questions and probe more deeply.  Such
interviews are said to have high reliability.
1b. Describe the sampling method used in the study.
This is a snowball sample. This sampling technique is done by "spreading the word" among a group
of friends that a study is being done. This saves time for the researcher, and it also helps to build up
a rapport. If one of the athletes trusts the researcher, then his or her recommendation to other
athletes to join the study is a great first step in establishing the trust necessary for an open and
honest interview.
1c. Suggest an alternative research method giving one reason for your choice.
A semi-structured interview would allow researchers to go into more depth with regard to the
athletes' experience, giving a great amount of data.  A focus group might also be used which would
prompt the athletes to give responses that they may not recall if they are asked in a one-on-
one interview.
2. Describe the ethical considerations that were applied in the study and explain if further ethical
considerations could be applied.
The researcher would have to obtain informed consent from all participants.  They should be
informed about the goal of the study as well as how the information will be used.  The identities of
the athletes should be anonymized and information about them should be written in a way that does
not allow them to be identified.  They should also be debriefed when the research has finished and
the interpretation of the data shared. It does not appear that the interviews were recorded, so this is
not a concern.  There is no clear evidence of undue stress or harm.  The participants should have
been informed that they could withdraw from the study at any point.
3. To what extent could you generalize the findings of this study?
It is difficult to generalize these findings for several reasons. First, the sample of athletes is not only
very small, but they all knew each other.  Snowball samples often lead to samples that have very
similar characteristics and thus are not representative of the larger population.  In addition, the
athletes were not all from the same sport.  This means that it is very difficult to draw a conclusion
about "swimmers" or "weightlifters" based on the findings.  Finally, the sample is all American.  As
the United States is an individualistic culture that focuses on achievement and individual decisions, it
is not clear to what extent this dimension may have influenced the results of the study - compared to
a collectivistic culture.
The research could be generalized to theory - meaning that from this a theory could be generated
which could be tested in other groups of athletes. It is questionable whether this could be transferred
to another situation - for example, placebo in a work environment or in schools.  As these situations
have some significant differences, it would appear doubtful.  There is some degree of competition
and "best scores" in both fields, but it is questionable whether a placebo would play a role as the
focus is not on one's physical ability.

Stimulus piece
Cheang (2002) studied a group of older adults at a fast food restaurant in Honolulu. Before he was
able to begin the study, he obtained permission from the manager under the conditions that he 1)
appear to be a paying customer, 2) not conduct any formal interviews or surveys on the premises,
and 3) not interfere with the flow of business.
The researcher spent the first two weeks simply observing the behaviour of the regular customers.
He then decided to focus on a specific group of about 26 adults, one of the larger groupings that
came there frequently and was diverse with regard to gender and age.
The researcher sat at a table and eventually began talking to one of the group members. He was
eventually introduced to other members of the group. They were friendly, but at first, viewed him as
an outsider. He showed up every Tuesday and Thursday, and sometimes Friday, and soon became
part of the group.
He observed the group in the setting for 2 or 3 days a week for 9 months. His initial observations
entered discretely on index cards. To write longer notes, he went into a telephone booth or the
restroom. The group soon became accustomed to his jotting notes on cards and paid little or no
attention to it, returning quickly to the ongoing activities. His notes focused on the topics of
discussion and the nature of the interaction among this group of friends. By the fifth month, several
themes of behaviour and experiences emerged: sociability, play, and laughter. Findings suggest
that: (a) older adults congregate at this fast-food restaurant to be with their buddies “to play”; (b) the
group is fun for members and there is a lot of laughter; and (c) group membership in this restaurant
provides structure, meaning, and opportunities for these older adults to engage in personal
expression.
In month 6 he shared his observations and the themes with group members and interviewed them
with regard to their perceptions of the themes that were generated from his field notes.  They agreed
with him that this was, indeed, how they felt about their frequent visits and the time they spent
together.
Cheang, Michael (2002), "Older Adults' Frequent Visits to a Fast-Food Restaurant: Nonobligatory Social Interaction and the Significance of
Play in a Third Place," Journal of Aging Studies, 16 (August), 303-21.

Questions
1a. Identify the method used and outline two characteristics of the method.
This is a naturalistic, participant observation. Naturalistic observations have high ecological validity.
It is in a natural environment so people should be acting as they would in "the real world."  In
addition, there is no control over variables. This means that no cause and effect relationship can be
determined, but also there are several variables that could influence the study. For example, the
number of customers could increase because of seasonal changes and the behaviour of the group
could change.
This is also a participant observation. In a participant observation, the researcher joins the group that
is being observed, rather than observing from a distance. This allows the researcher to get a better
understanding of what is happening in the group. It allows him to ask questions and clarify
situations.  It also allows him to develop empathy for the group that is being studied.
1b. Describe the sampling method used in the study.
This is a sample of opportunity - that is, the sample already existed.  The researcher went into a
McDonalds and observed the customers over time and then decided to focus on a specific group. 
This is a non-random selection of participants.  This was done because of the size of the group, as
well as the fact that they were frequent visitors to the restaurant, guaranteeing that the researcher
would be able to collect a significant amount of data.
1c. Suggest an alternative or additional research method giving one reason for your choice.
The researcher could use a questionnaire, a focus group or structured interviews.
A questionnaire would allow the researcher to get data from each individual about their reasons for
being part of the group.  It would be an efficient way to do this, collecting a lot of data over a short
period of time. However, as the observation in this study took place over several months, a
questionnaire would only give a snapshot of information for that particular day and may not
represent the overall reasons why someone would be a member of this group.
A focus group would allow the participants to share their thoughts in a normal discussion format and
it would be possible to confirm in the group whether reasons for joining the group are commonly
shared or individual justifications.  This could, of course, also lead to conformity effects.
Structured interviews would allow the researcher to hear individual voices without potential
conformity effects that could potentially result from a focus group. Structured interviews are also
highly standardized, making it easier to analyse the data as all participants would be asked the same
questions.
2. Describe the ethical considerations that were applied in the study and explain if further ethical
considerations could be applied.
There are two chief concerns with this study. First is the use of deception. Although consent was
obtained from the restaurant, there was no informed consent from the group members. They
believed that the researcher was their friend. However, as this took place in a public space,
researchers are not required to obtain informed consent. Secondly, the debriefing was essential
here. The researcher had to reveal the deception. He also then had to give the participants the right
to withdraw their data. It is questionable whether there could be "undue stress or harm" as a result of
feeling deceived.  As part of the organization of this study, the researcher would have had to get the
study approved by an ethics panel.  It is clear that the panel did not feel that undue stress would
result from the study. It would be important for the researcher to maintain the anonymity of the
participants in the group.  This includes not only that the names of the participants could not be used
- i.e., that pseudonyms would be used - but also that details would not be used that would reveal the
identity of an individual.
3. Discuss how a researcher could ensure that the results of the study are credible.
There are a few ways that credibility could be ensured.  First, we see that the researcher shared his
findings with the participants with regard to his findings. When the participants confirm that this is, in
fact, a major reason why they come to McDonald's so regularly, this establishes credibility.  It is not
only that the researcher "reveals" what he found, but that they agree that the findings represent their
behaviour.  Secondly, the researcher's field notes could be given to another researcher to analyse. 
This would help to remove bias and increase the credibility of the interpretations.  Finally, the
researcher could use researcher triangulation.  By using more than one researcher, either together
or on different days of the week, data collection could be compared to see if the information that is
actually noted is consistent.

Stimulus piece
From Social Identity Theory and previous research on homeless people, it was hypothesized that the
identity strategies used by the homeless would differ as a function of longevity of homelessness: the
short- term homeless would be less likely to identify themselves as homeless, while the longer-term
homeless would identify themselves as homeless.
A covert participant observation was used for the study. The data were collected by the researcher
in her role as a regular volunteer helper at a night-shelter. Only questions that would occur naturally
were asked, and care was taken not to cause distress. In addition, participants remained
anonymous. Hence, there were no `foreseeable threats to their psychological well-being, health,
values or dignity.’
The researcher had acted as a volunteer at the shelter for two years. She knew many of the
homeless at the shelter prior to the study. For the fieldwork, a total of 26 hours was spent conversing
with homeless individuals over a three-month period. Observations and conversations were
recorded in a journal at home immediately after each session. The researcher spoke to each
participant on at least two occasions during the fieldwork period, but many of them had known the
researcher before the study period. If it appeared that the participant wanted to speak with the
researcher, then she would sit down with them and allow the participant to direct the conversation;
conversation could last from 15 minutes to over an hour. In rarer instances, the researcher would
speak with more than one participant at a time or overhear conversations between the homeless or
between the homeless and other volunteers. In addition, the researcher made note of how the
participants interacted with the other people at the shelter.
At the end of the fieldwork period, the contents of the journal were organized into self-report portraits
about each person. Their comments were then analyzed individually to ascertain whether they
identified with a group label or group members. The amount of time that each participant had been
homeless was based on self-report.
Findings supported that those who had not been homeless for long saw themselves as “temporarily
having difficulties,” but did not identify themselves as homeless, and did not develop relationships
with those who had been homeless for a longer time.
Source: Farrington, A & Peter Robinson. Homelessness and Strategies of Identity
Maintenance; Journal of Community Appl. Soc. Psychol. 9: 175±194 (1999).

Questions
1a. Identify the method used and outline two characteristics of the method.
A covert participant observation.  The researcher did not get consent for the observation; she did so
"covertly' to avoid demand characteristics. Another characteristic is that the researcher is interacting
with the participants - that is what is meant by a "participant" observation. The method also has high
ecological validity since the participants are studied in their actual environment. The participant
observation also allows the researcher to develop empathy for the participants, which may or not be
an advantage in this case. Finally, the method allows for clarification at the time that comments are
made. This would not be the case if she were looking at hours of film coverage of homeless
conversations. She is able to steer the conversation to a certain extent, but she has to be careful to
not unduly influence the nature of the conversation.
1b. Describe the sampling method used in the study.
The sample was an opportunity sample - that is, it already exists.  The shelter where the researcher
worked was already known to her and the clients were regulars with whom she already had a
relationship.
1c. Suggest an alternative or additional research method giving one reason for your choice.
An alternative method would be to run focus groups based on the amount of time someone has
been homeless. This would get rid of the ethical concern that there is no consent obtained in this
study - and it would allow the researcher to get more direct answers to her questions.  She would
then be able to triangulate the data to see if it concurs with the data from the observational study.
2. Describe the ethical considerations that were applied in the study and explain if further ethical
considerations could be applied.
The researcher notes that the anonymity of the homeless participants was preserved in this study. It
is important to protect the identities of the participant so that there would be no "threats to their
psychological well-being, health, values or dignity." Anonymity means that the participants would not
be identified by name, nor would information be provided that would allow them to be identified. 
Since they were not told that they were part of a study, they were deceived.  This was done to avoid
demand characteristics and get the most "honest" possible answer from the participants. In order to
improve the ethical standard, informed consent should be gained.  The researcher would not have to
tell them exactly what she is investigating, but this would let them know that they are in a study and
have the right to withdraw.  It is not clear from the study whether they had a debriefing.  This should
be done to explain to the participants the goals and results of the study - and allow them to withdraw
their data if they feel that they don't want their responses included.
3. Discuss how the researcher in the study could avoid bias.
There are two ways that the researcher could avoid bias. First, the research should use researcher
triangulation.  Since the data was recorded after she left the center and relied on memory, it is open
to bias.  Having other researchers observing as well means that the data could be compared to
makes sure that it is credible and not biased by the researcher. This is particularly true of an
inductive content analysis. Such data analysis is highly subjective. Did she work as part of a team in
order to carry out the analysis, or did she work on it by herself? Why were such choices made, and
how may it affect the interpretation of the data?  In addition, the notes that she took could be
analyzed by other researchers.  Secondly, she could practice reflexivity which is when the
researcher reflects on her own role in the study. Especially in a covert participant observation, it is
important for the researcher to consider how her own involvement in the study may have affected
her findings. The text says that she knew many of the homeless participants prior to the study. It is
important to consider how the relationship which had developed with the members of the population
may have affected the study. Did she respond differently to those whom she knew vs. those she did
not? Did she ask leading questions?

Shopping in the Czech Republic

Noting that teenagers are likely to adapt quite quickly to the recent phenomenon of shopping as a
leisure time activity in the years since the fall of Communism in Central and Eastern Europe,
Spilkova & Radova (2011) conducted a study in the Czech Republic to try and understand the
meaning of “hanging out” in shopping malls. Previous research had indicated that 60% of Prague’s
teenagers spent their free time participating in sports or creative activities. The researchers wanted
to see if this was changing.
The researchers conducted their study in a three-level shopping mall located outside of the centre
with more than 200 shops, an entertainment zone and sports facility. The second phase of research
was carried out at another mall that is more centrally located in a wealthier area of Prague.
The pilot study consisted of participant observation and semi-structured interviews of 14 - 17-year-
old teenagers. It became clear that the teenagers had trouble identifying their motivation to be in the
mall in their leisure time. Questions focused on what they did in the mall and why, as well as their
feelings about the mall environment.
It was found that the teenagers tended to move in small groups with a favourite table in the food
court, usually near the escalator with a good view. Generally, groups arrived early afternoon as
single-gender but after some hours began to mix, usually coming straight after school and later on
weekends because of chores at home. Most of those interviewed came every day and girls tended
to stay longer than boys. In addition, the researchers found that Facebook was used to set up
meetings and the mall was used as a kind of testing ground for recent Facebook friends to meet.
While boys went to the shops less often, very little purchasing was done by either gender, which is a
substantial difference from similar research findings in the United States. The teenagers reported
that their main reasons for being in the mall were to socialize and to be in a safe place where
nobody was telling them what to do. The overall conclusion was that the main purpose of being in
the mall was to support identity formation through talking and marking out the space as their own.
Spilkova, J. and Radova, L. (201). The formation of Identity in Teenage Mall Microculture: A Case Study of Teenagers in Czech Malls.
Sociologický časopis/Czech Sociological Review, 47:3
Questions
1a. Identify the method used and outline two characteristics of the method.
A case study was used in this study. A case study uses more than one research method - in this
case, observations and interviews.  This is called method triangulation.  The goal of a case study is
to make sure that the results are the same in both research methods, establishing credibility. In
addition, case studies look at a specific group of people without having the goal of generalizing to a
larger population. Finally, case studies usually take place over a longer period of time - that is, they
are longitudinal.
1b. Describe the sampling method used in the study.
The study uses opportunity sampling - that is, the sample that exists in the malls at the time of the
study.  This means that the group that is studied is transient and it may be difficult to recreate the
sample. Although it is a sample of opportunity, it is also purposive.  Only 14 - 17-year-olds were
observed and interviewed.  This is because the question being researched was focused on this age
group.
1c. Suggest an alternative or additional research method giving one reason for your choice.
The researcher could use a focus group in order to get feedback on how the teenagers use their free
time.  This would mean that the conversation would be more "natural" and thus may result in
responses that may not occur if it were just a one-on-one interview.  When people hear other
people's comments, it may prompt responses that they would not think of on their own. Using a
focus group is also more efficient in that data is collected from several people at one time.
2. Describe the ethical considerations that were applied in the study and explain if further ethical
considerations could be applied.
As the observations were done covertly, there was no informed consent granted by the participants. 
The interviews then obtained consent and after the interview, the researchers would debrief the
participants, guaranteeing the confidentiality of their information and explaining how the information
will be used. The participants also would have to have the right to withdraw their data.
3. Discuss how a researcher could ensure that the results of the study are credible.
Especially because this is a study of teenagers by professional researchers, it is important that
credibility is established. It is important for the readers of the study to know that the teenagers
agreed with the conclusions drawn by the researchers and that they feel that the conclusions reflect
what they said in their interviews. The fact that observations were done is a form of triangulation.
This also helps to establish whether the participants' responses to the interviews were in line with
their actual behaviours. This also increases the credibility. If the credibility is high, we can conclude
that the results are not due to the fact that an interview was the method chosen, but in fact
represents the attitudes of teenagers in Czech malls.

Stimulus piece
Schizophrenia has been found to be one of the most stigmatizing conditions. Most research on
stigma has looked more at public opinions about the disorder, rather than at the views of those living
with schizophrenia. Aiming to explore stigma from the perspective of people with schizophrenia, a
focus group study was carried out at the four centers in Germany. For each of the centers, three
separate focus groups were established. One with people suffering from schizophrenia, one with
their relatives and one with mental health professionals. 83 individuals participated in the study.
Participants were recruited through letters of invitation that were distributed through the centers’ out-
patient department.
Focus groups consisted of 8 – 12 participants. The moderator asked the group the following opening
question: What has changed for you after you first developed schizophrenia? Tell me concrete
incidences and stories that you have experienced. The focus of the discussion was concrete
stigmatization experiences, ideas about the causes of stigmatization and suggestions for anti-stigma
interventions.
The focus group sessions were audio and video recorded and transcripts were coded using an
inductive method. Once the focus groups of those living with schizophrenia had been analyzed, a
content analysis was carried out on the transcripts of relatives and mental health professionals.
Results revealed several dimensions of stigma, including changes in interpersonal interaction,
discrimination in the workplace and inequity in access to health care. For most of the patients, the
diagnosis of schizophrenia had resulted in a reduction of social contacts. Relatives, too, observed
how friends of the patient usually stayed away, did not come to see them at hospital or often avoided
speaking with them. While the patients’ experience of stigma is dominated by the hurt they
experience through the loss of social contacts and the fact that the illness shapes people’s
perception of them, relatives feel that patients are particularly discriminated against through deficits
in the quality of the treatment they receive, especially compared with health services available for
patients with physical illness.
Source: Schulze, B, M. Angermeyer. Subjective experiences of stigma: A focus group study of
schizophrenic patients, their relatives and mental health professionals. Social Science & Medicine 56
(2003) 299 - 312.

Questions
1a. Identify the method used and outline two characteristics of the method.
The study used a focus group method; focus groups are "group interviews" where a facilitator asks
questions and keeps the group on task, but works as a normal conversation among a group of
people.  A second characteristic is that focus groups tend to help the researcher understand if an
idea or concern is of one participant or whether it is a common concern for participants. This is
because when a participant hears what another person says, they may agree, but they would have
come up with that idea on their own in a one-on-one interview.
1b. Describe the sampling method used in the study.
The participants were invited from an opportunity sample.  The sample is from three different
centers.  An opportunity sample is a sample that already exists in some form and fits the
characteristics sought by the researcher. From the opportunity sample, people were identified by
administration as appropriate to the study and then sent letters asking them to volunteer.
1c. Suggest an alternative or additional research method giving one reason for your choice.
An alternative research method would be a case study.  A case study would look at one (or more)
people living with schizophrenia in depth over a period of time.  This would then allow researchers to
determine if feelings of stigma were persistent over time, over whether this changed over time.  It
could be that thoughts on stigma were the result of conformity effects in the focus group, or that
there were recent events in the lives of individuals that influenced their responses.  This would be
controlled for in a longitudinal case study.
2. Describe the ethical considerations that were applied in the study and explain if further ethical
considerations could be applied.
Informed consent would have to be gained from all participants, explaining the goals of the study
and how the informatoin would be used.  The anonymity of the participants would have to be
guaranteed.  As the focus groups were both video and audio recorded, it is essential that the
researchers clarify how these recordings will be used so that the participants are not in any way
compromised.  The researchers did not deceive the participants in any way, but they would still need
to be debriefed and informed of the results.  Additionally, they would have to have the right to
withdraw from the study at any time. 
3. To what extent could you generalize the findings of this study?
The study cannot be generalized to a large extent.  First, the study takes place by obtaining
participants from four centers by "invitation." It is questionable as to why these particular patients
were chosen.  It was not a random selection, so there could be biased in the sample which makes it
difficult to generalize to the population of patients from the individual centers.  However, there were
roughly 30 participants from each center; therefore, depending on how large the out-patient pool was
for each of the centers, the number of participants may increase the possibility of generalizing the
findings.
In addition, the study was done in Germany.  Germany is an individualisitic culture with rather small
family sizes.  This could have an influence on an individual's feelings about stigma and feeling
alone.  Germany also follows a medicalized model of mental illness, which may influence their
approach to people with the disorder; this may differ from other countries.  Because the symptoms of
schizophrenia are rather different from many other disorders - and the stereotypes and
misunderstandings about the disorder more extreme than many other disorders, it may be difficult to
transfer the results to draw conclusions about stigma with regard to other disorders such as
depression, anxiety disorders or eating disorders.
Finally, the results could be generalized to support theories of stigma in mental illness.  Using this
study in combination with other similar studies done on different populations, this could be used to
help support the theory that the labeling of an individual with a diagnosis has negative social and
personal consequences.

Stimulus piece
Bond & Peterson (2001) conducted research into the link between stress and unhealthy behaviour.
The researchers conducted a number of unstructured interviews as a pilot study with both men and
women aged between 30 and 50 in a small town in the Mid-West of the USA. The major textile
industry of the area had closed three years earlier resulting in substantial unemployment for women.
The interviewers chose a purposive sample (N=30) with 15 males and 15 females who had lost their
jobs. In order to be in the study, the participant had to have worked at the company for at least ten
years and have at least one child living at home. The interviews were conducted over a period of
four weeks by five interviewers that had been trained in advance. The participants were asked to
elaborate on coping strategies following the news that they had lost their jobs.
The interviews were audiotape recorded.
The interview transcripts were then subjected to inductive content analysis to find ways of coping.
The researchers found that some of the participants indicated positive feelings about having more
time with their families and that the amount of daily stress had diminished.
Some participants reported stress and problems with identity as a consequence of losing their jobs
and some of them coped with stress through unhealthy behaviours such as consumption of high-
calorie food, alcohol, and other drugs. Some of the women experiencing stress were more likely to
report symptoms related to hypertension, anxiety, depression and they were also more likely to
report weight gains. Women especially reported feeling the effects of stress on their physical health
more than men. Women also reported that they found good support talking to other women about
the situation whereas men did not report talking about their problems to others. Men were more
likely to engage in physical activities such as playing football or hunting with their friends. They also
reported that they had an increase in alcohol intake following the loss of work.

Questions
1a. Identify the method used and outline two characteristics of the method.
Unstructured interviews are more "in-depth" than structured interviews. They are more like a
conversation. The interviewer works from a list of general topics but greater freedom is given to
explore areas of interest or pursue a topic which is brought up by the interviewee.
Some of the advantages of unstructured interviews are that the interviewer may obtain information
that would have been missed with a more rigid interview schedule. It tends to be more comfortable
for the interviewee, who feels that they are on equal footing with the interviewer. It also tends to be
more credible because the interviewee is able to guide the interview in areas that are meaningful to
him/her.
There are, however, also disadvantages. For example, there are problems of reliability. Such
interviews are difficult to replicate. In addition, in the study above, it makes it difficult to compare the
data of so many participants. Finally, some argue that the respondent is too much in control of the
interview and that valuable information may be lost, or it may take too long to obtain the information
most relevant to the researcher.
1b. Describe the sampling method used in the study.
The researchers used a purposive sample - this is a sample in which participants must have certain
characteristics in order to be included. In this case, they had to have worked for the company for at
least ten years and have at least one child at home when they were fired.  This allows the
researcher to draw conclusions with regard to certain variables (identity with the workplace and
family responsibilities) which may end up being confounding variables in a study in which a
purposive sample was not used.
1c. Suggest an alternative research method giving one reason for your choice.
An alternative method would be to use a focus group.  This allows for more interviews to be
conducted in a shorter period of time.  It also allows people to discuss the issue, so it is more
naturalistic.  Finally, it allows people to hear other participants' responses, which may prompt them
to say something that they would have otherwise forgotten.
2. Describe the ethical considerations that were applied in the study and explain if further ethical
considerations could be applied.
The researchers had to get informed consent for the interviews.  This means that the participants
should be informed of the nature of the interviews and what the researcher will do with the
transcripts.  In addition, they should be informed of their right to withdraw at any point in the study.
Since the interviews were recorded, it is important that their anonymity is guaranteed and that they
know how those recordings will be used.  If the audio tapes were public, it could have a negative
effect on their public image or potentially their ability to find new work. The researchers would also
have to make sure that there was no undue stress or harm - that is, if a participant is uncomfortable
talking about something, they should not be pressured to answer. Finally, they should be debriefed
on the findings - and they should be given some guidance as to how to improve their coping
strategies if appropriate.
3. To what extent could the results of this study be generalized?
The results can most likely be generalized to unemployed parents in the community who had worked
at the mill for ten years or more.  Although the numbers are relatively small, the sample is most likely
representative of that demographic.  It would be difficult to generalize this to all unemployed parents
because there are many variables that may play a role in the ability to generalize.  For example,
level of education, level of income lost, severance pay/unemployment benefit, extended family size
for support (potentially an issue of individualistic vs collectivistic cultures).  It is also doubtful that this
could be generalized to other situations.  A loss of a job is personal, but not as personal as the loss
of a loved one or a home in a natural disaster, although there may be some similarities.  Thus,
theoretical generalization could be applied where a theory could be generated on how parents deal
with loss, then carrying out further research to test the theory in other examples of loss.