The Uppsala model vs.

the network approach

in the process of internationalization

Łukasz Dragun
Politechnika Białostocka, Wydział Inżynierii Zarządzania
e-mail: [email protected]

Paulina Olszyńska
Politechnika Białostocka, Wydział Inżynierii Zarządzania
e-mail: [email protected]

Paulina Niewińska
Politechnika Białostocka, Wydział Inżynierii Zarządzania
e-mail: [email protected]

Martyna Wilczewska
Politechnika Białostocka, Wydział Inżynierii Zarządzania
e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract

In the recent decades, along with the phenomenon of international cooperation growing
dynamically and the fast progress in the field of new technologies, there has been a no-
ticeable interpenetration of markets. The result of said changes is the tendency for over-
coming or even erasing barriers which leads to connection of domestic markets into
a single, global market. This phenomenon is known as internationalization. Nowadays it is
one of the most frequently recurring elements of corporate strategies, which is why it is
worth taking a closer look at. The process of internationalization is often rather complex,
which means it’s a multi-stage process. In order to systematize and identify the processes
that lead to internationalization, specialized models have been established. These models
systematize carried out operations, determine their character and, primarily, shed light on
intricate business processes which take place in companies. Therefore, the purpose of this
article is to characterize basic internationalization models of small and medium-sized

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enterprises and relate them to the Uppsala model, which will determine its significance in
the process of internationalization.

Key words
company internationalization, process, Uppsala model, network approach

Introduction

Internationalization is a relatively new concept, although its first definition

emerged in the 50s or 60s. Along with the development of globalization and in-
creased frequency of entering into contracts by international corporations, interna-
tionalization had been accelerating and slowly coming into prominence. While
analyzing the literature related to the internationalization, it can be noted that terms
“internationalization” and “international exposure” are used interchangeably. In
order to systematize aforesaid concepts, it is necessary to refer to works listed in
the bibliography. In the dictionary of the Polish language internationalization is
described as “international exposure, recognition of one as international”
[Szymczak, 1978, p. 801]. Over the years the definition has evolved and currently,
authors characterize it in various ways. Selected examples are displayed in the
table 1.
In addition to the concept of internationalization, the article will determine the
term “modelling”. According to the dictionary of the Polish language to model, in
general, is to impart an intentional shape and form. Whereas in scientific terms, to
model is to create models of a real-life phenomena in order to analyze them. After
the key definitions we may proceed and discuss the main part which are basic
models of internationalization.
The categorization of said models according to their distinguishing characteris-
tics allowed to classify them into four groups: the Uppsala model, eclectic para-
digm, network approach and strategic approach [Fonfara, 2009, pp. 13-14]. In this
article two of them, Uppsala model and network approach, were described and
compared.

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Tab. 1. Definitions of internationalization

Author Definition

J. Johanson, J.R. Vahlne (1977) The consequence of gradual adjustment to evolving entrepre-
M. Jarosiński (2013) neurial environment, both external and internal

L. Merlin (1992) Internationalization of company is the process of evolutionary

M. K. Witek-Hajduk (2010) changes causing the increase of company’s engagement in foreign
markets, which is a function of increased expertise on these mar-
kets

G. Gierszewska, B. Wawrzyniak Expansion of organisation’s operations by moving from domestic

(2001) market onto foreign markets

J. Rymarczyk (2004) Any kind of commercial activity undertook abroad by the organi-
M. Jarosiński (2013) sation

M. Strzyżewska (2005) Internationalization consists in geographical expansion of compa-

M. K. Witek-Hajduk (2010) ny’s operations

K. Barłożewski (2017) (1) Internationalization means ‘every form and range of connect-
ing different operations of the company to foreign markets’.
(2) The concept of internationalization is interpreted as the choice
of particular internationalization strategy, including selection of
target markets, way of entering said markets, time and scale of
entering, level of resources engaged, network relations formed.
Source: Own elaboration based on related literature [Barłożewski, 2017, p. 17], [Jarosiński, 2013,
p. 15, 18], [Johanson, Vahlne, 1977, p. 26], [Gierszewska, Wawrzyniak, 2001, p. 18], [Rymarczyk,
2004, p. 19], [Przybylska, 2005, pp. 73-92], [Witek-Hajduk, 2010, p. 18], [Merlin, 1992, pp. 99-118],
[Strzyżewska, 2005, p. 419].

1. The Uppsala model

Amongst different conceptions of companies’ internationalization, Uppsala

model is, by far, the most prominent. It has been created by the Uppsala University
academics in the 1970s (Johanson, Wiedersheim-Paul, 1975; Johanson, Vahlne,
1977, p. 26) [Limański, Drabik, 2017, pp. 182-183]. Uppsala model is the most
developed and influential theoretical framework describing the process of compa-
ny’s internationalization and it is also referred to as the conventional model of in-
ternationalization [Gorynia, Jankowska, 2007, pp. 22-23]. The critical variable of

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the model is how long the company’s been present in the international market and
international experience associated with said time, and the effect is growing inter-
national involvement developing over a period of time [Szymura-Tyc, 2015, pp.
17-18].
Uppsala model is based on the concept of empirical knowledge. The model
suggests that a company’s demeanor in the process of internationalization depends
on its practical knowledge. It has also been accepted that enterprises initially de-
velop their operations on local markets and, along with the expanding knowledge
eagerly expand to foreign markets. It has to be noted that the selection of these
markets is determined by the so-called ‘psychological distance’ [Hadryś, 2011,
p. 110]. This distance is a combination of different factors which result in impedi-
ments related to the flow of information between two sides. ‘Psychological dis-
tance’ can manifest itself in cultural, linguistic and economic differences [Pawęta,
2014, p. 164].

Fig. 1. Uppsala model: 2014 version

Source: Wach K. (2017). Evolution of the Uppsala model of internationalization: towards non-
linearity of internationalization of firms, Cracow University of Economics Faculty of Economics and
International Relations Department of International Economic Relations, Cracow, p. 167.

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The model of enterprise internationalization illustrated above implies that there

is a substantial correlation between current state of knowledge in the field of a
foreign market and the resource utilization in said market, between decision-
making process in terms of enhancing the degree of involvement and current level
of activities occurring on this market. The model also established that the company
strives toward increasing long-term profits and keeping risk retention on a fairly
low level during all stages of the internationalization process [Przybylska, 2018,
pp. 27-28].
“In the Uppsala model four stages have been discerned:
• irregular export activity – sporadic export,
• export through independent intermediaries (agents),
• establishing a subsidiary (branch) of sales department,
• establishing a subsidiary (branch) of production department” [Kozioł-
Nadolna, 2012, p. 240].

Fig. 2. Uppsala model scheme of company’s internationalization

Source: Radke-Kozłowska H. (2015). Network internationalization of company as a form of interna-
tional expansion, Studia Ekonomiczne. Zeszyty Naukowe Uniwersytetu Ekonomicznego w Katowi-
cach, University of Economics in Katowice, Katowice, p. 196.

The four stages displayed above represent four variables which ought to be in-
terpreted in connection with an additional variable – the number of foreign markets
[Radke-Kozłowska, 2015, p. 196]. The three arrows indicate three prospects of
company’s development, which are:
• geographical diversification, mainly aimed at export operations, whose key
task would be to secure new markets,

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• increase in internationalization, happening when given enterprise, while

searching for new markets to enter, simultaneously attempts to escalate
engagement on particular markets,
increase in market involvement, when the enterprise does not acquire new
markets, but rather concentrates on developing forms of internationaliza-
tion [Radke-Kozłowska, 2015, p. 196].

Fig. 3. The process of enterprise’s internationalization in the Uppsala model

Source: Przybylska K. (2018), BORN GLOBAL – a new generation of small enterprises, Cracow, p. 24.

The irregular export activity, which is the first stage of the internationalization
process according to the Uppsala mode, means that at this stage, the company does
not export; the enterprise does not ship their products and resources abroad. Addi-
tionally, the enterprise virtually does not collect any information on foreign mar-
kets. The second stage, export through independent intermediaries, indicates that
the enterprise enters the early phase of engagement of resources and gathers infor-
mation on different factors that have an impact on sales effectiveness on a particu-
lar foreign market [Gorynia, Jankowska, 2007, pp. 22-23]. The transition towards
considerably more advanced stage of internationalisation is associated with the
phenomenon of psychological distance, described previously, and not with the
insufficient size of foreign market. The next stage in the process of internationali-
zation based on the Uppsala model is establishing a sales subsidiary. During this
stage, the enterprise is considerably more interested in gaining knowledge on

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 Łukasz Dragun, Paulina Olszyńska, Paulina Niewińska, Martyna Wilczewska

a determinant of sales and an essential level of commitment of their resources on

a given market [Gorynia, Jankowska, 2007, pp. 22-23]. The fourth and final stage
is establishing the production subsidiary. This stage requires a comparatively high-
est level of knowledge on the expansion market and is associated with highest level
of commitment of company’s resources abroad [Gorynia, Jankowska, 2007, pp. 22-
23]. All of the stages described above differ in terms of resource commitment and
knowledge on expansion markets. Greater resources commitment is conditional on
greater level of knowledge on expansion markets [Gorynia, Jankowska, 2007,
pp. 22-23].

Tab. 2. Advantages and disadvantages of the Uppsala model

DISADVANTAGES ADVANTAGES

insufficient knowledge on foreign markets complete autonomy of operations conducted abroad

necessity of possessing resources required sole control over resources utilized on foreign mar-
for expansion kets

risk posed by entering the foreign market gradual process of entering foreign markets

high cost of transportation minimal risk

tariff and non-tariff barriers internationalization progresses gradually with the

advance of knowledge
Source: Own elaboration based on Gorynia M., Jankowska B. (2007). The internationalization theo-
ries of the firm: a short review, Gospodarka Narodowa Nr 10/2007, p. 22. Ratajczak-Mrozek M.
(2013). The internationalization of polish high-tech companies and their cooperation with foreign
firms, Gospodarka Narodowa 1-2, p. 56.

2. The network approach

Modern-day enterprises increasingly more choose not to operate on a market

truly independently, but rather establish a network of relations with entities from
their sector, forming a network of connections [Ratajczak-Mrozek, 2009, p. 7;
Gudanowska 2017, p.183, Tomaszuk 2017, p.701]. This solution contributes to
increasing the means of expansion on foreign markets in a certain way. It shows
how resources, operations and market competitors affect the scale of international-
ization both from the perspective of individual companies and corporate groups. In
other words, a network is capable of securing support of international operations,
although the research on enterprises’ development policies within networks is nec-

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 The Uppsala model vs. the network approach in the process of internationalization

essary [Buczkowski, Kłysik-Uryszek, Kuna-Marszałek, Świerkocki, 2015, p. 31;

Nazarko 2019, p. 342; Urban, Rogowska 2019, p. 129].
‘Relations’ are the determining factor in the network approach. While the con-
nections between organizations, three types or relations, as well as their features,
can be distinguished. The functions of each relation type are determined based on
the source of the influence, while the relations indicate the target of said influence.
[Fonfara, 2009, p. 13].
The relations, which consist of establishing relations, carrying out cooperative
operations and integrating the resources, result in networks between cooperating
establishments being created. Due to the possibility of establishing international
cooperation with numerous entities, networks be arranged in different setups, they
all include company’s transformation both on the domestic and foreign market.
The exemplary variant of network relations was provided in the Figure 4.

Fig. 4. The configuration of company’s network relations in the process of internationalization

Source: Ratajczak-Mrozek M. (2009). The international network approach, Marketing i Rynek No.3,
p. 10.

The first configuration contains basic relations between domestic company and
its partners, which together call a foreign business network in the target expansion
market into being. In the second configuration, relations that may be formed with
foreign network (but not with target expansion market), were displayed. In a way,
they act as an intermediary in the process of reaching the objective pursued, and, in

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most instances, have an impact on parties that can see benefits derived from coop-
eration with the said organization. The third configuration is oriented towards set-
ting up a network of relations with company’s domestic partners. The efforts pro-
vide more distinct functioning found on different pillars at the very beginning of
stepping into internationalization process. They reduce the risk of failure, as well
as influence the increase of the internationalization rate.
Even though the idea of cooperation which opens opportunities appears as an
encouraging one, there are some aspects that weigh negatively on its image. The
analysis of some advantages and disadvantages of network approach are displayed
in the table below.

Tab. 3. Advantages and disadvantages of the network approach

DISADVANTAGES ADVANTAGES

limited means of international cooperation extended means of international coop-

eration

conflicting interest of enterprises which hamper mutual support of members operating

cooperation within one network

dependency on other enterprises, lack of individual membership of a particular group which

activity motivates to active participation

imminence of individual’s domination determining presence of reference units from which

the status of different participants in network circula- enterprises can learn and gain experi-
tion ence

interrupted communication as a result of multilateral increased labour efficiency

nature of relations
Source: Own elaboration based on Fonfara K. (2009), Istota i zakres procesu internacjonalizacji firmy,
in: K. Fonfara (red.), Zachowanie przedsiębiorstw w procesie internacjonalizacji. Podejście sieciowe,
PWE, Warsaw, pp. 11-26.

3. Comparison of the Uppsala model and network approach in the pro-

cess of internationalization

In order to carry out further analysis, it is necessary to point out the differences
between the Uppsala model and the network approach. Even though the network
approach resemble to Uppsala model in its main premises, is has different terms of
reference and logic of the operation [Radke-Kozłowska, 2015, p. 200].

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The process of internationalization offers numerous possibilities which can be

applied in different ways. Internationalization depends on company’s peculiarities,
available resources and ability to integrate with other business teams. It is recom-
mended to thoroughly analyze the characteristics of the models according to which
internationalization is going to be formed, prior to the start of international cooper-
ation. In the Table 4 below, comparison of main characteristics of the Uppsala
model and the network approach were displayed.

Tab. 4. Comparison of Uppsala model and network approach – characteristics

Characteristics Uppsala model Network approach

Model’s type behavioural model behavioural model

Model’s character dynamic dynamic

theory of gradual internationali-

Group of theories network theory
zation of the company

Source of foreing mar- exchange of information within

own experiences
kets know-how business network

continuous interaction, long-term

Cycle of model cause and effect
cooperation

objective knowledge, experi- experience of cooperation withing

Kinds of knowledge
ence-based knowledge the network of relations

Barriers psychological distance legal obligations, interdependence

Direction of expansion foreing markets foreing markets

Activity completely autonomus having regard to environment

cumulative nature, progressive, membership of created network of

Type of learning process advancement is based on com- interaction
pany’s individual experience

Proceedings of interna- linear course phenomenon of evading,

tionalization change of expansion pace
Source: Own elaboration based on related literature [Radke-Kozłowska, 2015, p. 200], [Witek-
Hajduk, 2010, p. 29], [Pietrasieński, 2014, pp. 19-20], [Karasiewicz, 2013, pp. 133-134, 143],
[Ratajczak-Mrozek, 2009, p. 10].

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Conclusion

None of the internationalization theories are capable of fully explaining the be-
havior of an enterprise which is able to operate on foreign markets. Often, some
level of dependency between different approaches or theories is inevitable and
necessary to explain the phenomena occurring within the studied area. The instance
of this dependency is the Uppsala model and the network approach. When it comes
to the network approach, the result of company’s internationalization is its business
relations with customers, suppliers, competitors, advisors; they help the company
move outside the domestic market [Radke-Kozłowska, 2015, p. 200]. In the Upp-
sala model the process of company’s internationalization is related to its possession
of proper practical knowledge. The higher said knowledge is, the more willingly
companies enter foreign markets and their ‘psychological distance’ lowers.
The models described above are quite significant in the process of internation-
alization. The patterns of internationalization presented in them allow to under-
stand their course and structure. In addition, they present ways in which enterprise
can participate in the industrialization process. In the discussed models, thanks to
the gained and organized knowledge, it is very easy to determine the achieved level
of internationalization and the direction in which the company should proceed to
maximize its potential.
After carrying out a thorough analysis of internationalization models described
above, it has been determined that following them brings measurable benefits to
the company. First of all, it is necessary to mention determining a stage and re-
searching a course of internationalization, analyzing immediate and external envi-
ronment, risk-minimizing efforts. Uppsala model and network approach are not
interchangeable, they vary in some aspects which determine particular causes of
use. Therefore, matching one of them to the particular company is dependent on
specific nature of company’s operations, as well as the ability to become engaged
in foreign markets.

Acknowledgements

This research was supported by the project ‘Strengthening smart specialisation by

fostering transnational cooperation (GoSmart BSR)’ which has received funding
from the European Union Interreg Baltic Sea Region Programme 2014-2020,
https://gosmartbsr.eu/

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 The Uppsala model vs. the network approach in the process of internationalization

ORCID iD

Łukasz Dragun: http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6768-6818

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w procesie internacjonalizacji

Streszczenie

W ostatnich dziesięcioleciach, wraz z dynamicznie rosnącym zjawiskiem współpracy mię-

dzynarodowej i szybkim postępem w dziedzinie nowych technologii, zauważalna jest prze-
nikanie się rynków. Rezultatem tych zmian jest tendencja do pokonywania, a nawet usu-
wania barier, co prowadzi do połączenia rynków krajowych w jeden globalny rynek. Zjawi-
sko to znane jest jako internacjonalizacja. Obecnie jest to jeden z najczęściej powtarzają-
cych się elementów strategii korporacyjnych, dlatego warto przyjrzeć się bliżej. Proces
internacjonalizacji jest często dość złożony, co oznacza, że jest to proces wieloetapowy.
W celu usystematyzowania i identyfikacji procesów prowadzących do internacjonalizacji
ustanowiono specjalistyczne modele. Modele te usystematyzują przeprowadzane opera-
cje, określają ich charakter, a przede wszystkim rzucają światło na skomplikowane procesy
biznesowe zachodzące w firmach. Dlatego celem tego artykułu jest scharakteryzowanie
podstawowych modeli internacjonalizacji małych i średnich przedsiębiorstw i odniesienie
ich do modelu Uppsali, który określi jego znaczenie w procesie internacjonalizacji.

Słowa kluczowe

umiędzynarodowienie przedsiębiorstwa, proces, model Uppsala, podejście sieciowe

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