Assignment

Submitted by: Syed Arslan 027 Group leader

Group Members

Group Members
Raja Bilal Roll Number 085
Muhammad Zain Roll Number 117
Kashan Tarar Roll Number 035
Ali Hamza Roll Number 036
Syed Arslan Roll Number 027
ALI YAR Roll Number 043

TEST OF Hypothesis
 Definitions of hypothesis

A hypothesis is a conjectural statement of the relation between two or more

variables”. (Kerlinger, 1956)

Hypothesis is a formal statement that presents the expected relationship

between an independent and dependent variable.”(Creswell, 1994)

Types of Hypothesis

 Simple Hypothesis.
 Complex Hypothesis.
 Empirical Hypothesis.
 Null Hypothesis (Denoted by "HO")
 Alternative Hypothesis (Denoted by "H1")
 Logical Hypothesis.
 Statistical Hypothesis.

Nature of Hypothesis
The hypothesis is a clear statement of what is intended to be
investigated. It should be specified before research is conducted and
openly stated in reporting the results.
This allows to:
Identify the research objectives
Identify the key abstract concepts involved in the research
Identify its relationship to both the problem statement and the literature
review A problem cannot be scientifically solved unless it
is reduced to hypothesis form It is a powerful tool of advancement of
knowledge, consistent with existing knowledge and conducive to further
enquiry
Nature of Hypothesis are as follows

 It can be tested – verifiable or falsifiable

 Hypotheses are not moral or ethical questions
 It is neither too specific nor to general
 It is a prediction of consequences
 It is considered valuable even if proven false
An Example…
Imagine the following situation:
You are a nutritionist working in a zoo, and one of your responsibilities is
to develop a menu plan for the group of monkeys. In order to get all the
vitamins they need, the monkeys have to be given fresh leaves as part
of their diet. Choices you consider include leaves of the following
species: (a) A (b) B (c) C (d) D and (e) E. You know that in the wild the
monkeys eat mainly B leaves, but you suspect that this could be
because they are safe whilst feeding in B trees, whereas eating any of
the other species would make them vulnerable to predation. You design
an experiment to find out which type of leaf the monkeys actually like
best: You offer the monkeys all five types of leaves in equal quantities,
and observe what they eat.
There are many different experimental hypotheses you could formulate
for the monkey study. For example:
When offered all five types of leaves, the monkeys will preferentially feed on
B leaves.
This statement satisfies both criteria for experimental hypotheses. It is a
•Prediction: It predicts the anticipated outcome of the experiment
•Testable: Once you have collected and evaluated your data (i.e.
observations of what the monkeys eat when all five types of leaves are
offered), you know whether or not they ate more B leaves than the other
types.
Incorrect hypotheses would include:
When offered all five types of leaves, the monkeys will preferentially eat the
type they like best.
This statement certainly sounds predictive, but it does not satisfy the
second criterion: there is no way you can test whether it is true once you
have the results of your study. Your data will show you whether the
monkeys preferred one type of leaf, but not why they preferred it (i.e., they
like it best). I would, in fact, regard the above statement as an assumption
that is inherent in the design of this experiment, rather than as a
hypothesis.
When offered all five types of leaves, the monkeys will preferentially eat B
leaves because they can eat these safely in their natural habitat.
This statement is problematic because its second part ('because they can eat
these safely in their natural habitat') also fails to satisfy the criterion of
testability. You can tell whether the monkeys preferentially eat baobab
leaves, but the results of this experiment cannot tell you why.
In their natural habitat, howler monkeys that feed in B trees are less
vulnerable to predation than monkeys that feed on A, C, D, or E.

This is a perfectly good experimental hypothesis, but not for the

experiment described in the question. You could use this hypothesis if
you did a study in the wild looking at how many monkeys get killed by
predators whilst feeding on the leaves of A, B etc. However, for the
experimental feeding study in the zoo it is neither a prediction nor
testable.

When offered all five types of leaves, which type will the monkeys eat
preferentially?

This is a question, and questions fail to satisfy criterion #1: They are not
predictive statements. Hence, a question is not a hypothesis.
Types of Hypotheses
SIMPLE HYPOTHESES
A relationship between two variable
 Independent variable
 dependent variable

COMPLEX HYPOTHESES
A relation between two or more independent variable or two or more
dependent variable

EMPIRICAL HYPOTHESES
This is based on evidence which is produced by experiment

NULL HYPOTHESES
Designated by: H0 or HN Pronounced as “H oh” or “H-null”
The null hypothesis represents a theory that has been put forward, either
because it is believed to be true or because it is to be used as a basis for
argument, but has not been proved. Has serious outcome if incorrect
decision is made!
ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESES
Designated by: H1 or HA the alternative hypothesis is a statement of what a
hypothesis test is set up to establish. Frequently “alternative” is actual
desired conclusion of the researcher!
LOGICAL HYPOTHESES
A logical hypothesis is a proposed explanation possessing limited evidence.
Generally, you want to turn a logical hypothesis into an empirical hypothesis

STATICAL HYPOTHESES
A statistical hypothesis is an assertion or conjecture concerning one or more
pollution

EXAMPLE
In a clinical trial of a new drug, the null hypothesis might be that the new
drug is no better, on average, than the current drug.

We would write H0: there is no difference between the two drugs on average.

The alternative hypothesis might be that:

The new drug has a different effect, on average, compared to that of the
current drug.

We would write H1: the two drugs have different effects, on average.
The new drug is better, on average, than the current drug.

We would write H1: the new drug is better than the current drug, on
average.
We give special consideration to the null hypothesis…

This is due to the fact that the null hypothesis relates to the statement
being tested, whereas the alternative hypothesis relates to the statement
to be accepted if / when the null is rejected.

The final conclusion, once the test has been carried out, is always given in
terms of the null hypothesis. We either 'reject H0 in favor of H1' or 'do not
reject H0'; we never conclude 'reject H1', or even 'accept H1'.
If we conclude 'do not reject H0', this does not necessarily mean that the null
hypothesis is true, it only suggests that there is not sufficient evidence
against H0 in

Favor of H1; rejecting the null hypothesis then, suggests that the
alternative hypothesis may be true.

Formulating a hypothesis is important to narrow a question down to one that

can reasonably be studied in a research project.
The formulation of the hypothesis basically varies with the kind of
research project conducted:

 QUALITATIVE
 QUANTITATIVE

Can also be divided

into: Theo
ry
Tentat
e
Patteiv hypothesi
rn s
DeductivObser
atio
e v n

Inducti Theo
ve ry
Hypothe
sis Obser
atio
v n
Confirmati
Qualitative Approach on
The use of Research Questions as opposed to objectives or hypothesis, is
more frequent.
Characteristics
Use of words- what or how.
Specify whether the study: discovers, seeks to understand, explores or
describes the experiences.
Use of non-directional wording in the question.
These questions describe, rather than relate variables or compare groups.
The questions are under continual review and reformulation-will evolve and
change during study.
The questions are usually open-ended, without reference to the literature or
theory.
Use of a single focus.

The rule of Qualitative research

Kleining offers four rules for a scientific and qualitative process of
approaching understanding to reality.
Rule (refers to subject / researcher)
Prior understandings of the phenomenon to be researched should be seen as
provisional and should be transcended with [the discovery of] new
information with which they are not consistent.(1982: 231)

Quantitative Approach
In survey projects the use of research questions and objectives is more
frequent
In experiments the use of hypotheses are more frequent

Represent comparison between variables

Relationship between variables
Characteristics
The testable proposition to be deduced from theory.
Independent and dependent variables to be separated and measured
separately.
 To be either writing-questions, or objectives or hypotheses, but not a
combination.
Consider the alternative forms for writing and make a choice based on the
audience for the research

Generation of Research Hypothesis

Problem statements become research hypotheses when
Initial Ideas
Often vague and general

Initial Observations Search of existing research literature

Statement of Problem l

Operational Definition
contract

Research hypothesis
(a specific deductive prediction)

Example:
Consider the example of a simple association between two variables, Y and X.

 Y and X are associated (or, there is an association between Y and X).

 Y is related to X (or, Y is dependent on X).
 As X increases, Y decreases (or, increases in values of X appear to effect reduction in values
The first hypothesis provides a simple statement of association between Y and X. Nothing is indica
the
association that would allow the researcher to determine which variable, Y or X, would tend to cau
variable
To change in value. The second hypothesis is also a simple statement of association between Y an
time it may
Be inferred that values of Y are in some way contingent upon the condition of the X variable.
The third hypothesis is the most specific of the three. Not only does it say that Y and X are related
is
dependent on X for
its value, but it also reveals something more about the nature of the association between the two v

Testing & Challenging

The degree of challenge to the hypothesis will depend on the type of problem and its importance.
from just seeking “a good enough” solution to a much more rigorous challenge.

The term “challenging” may include

 Verification
 Justification
 Refutability
 Validity
 Rectification
 Repeatability
 Falsification

There are two possibilities

1. Nothing Happened the Null Hypothesis - Ho

2. Something Happened the Alternative Hypothesis - H1

Hypothesis testing is a four-step procedure:

 Stating the hypothesis (Null or Alternative)

 Setting the criteria for a decision
 Collecting data
 Evaluate the Null hypothesis
Two types of mistakes are possible while testing the hypotheses

Type I Error:
A type I error occurs when the null hypothesis (H0) is wrongly rejected.
For example, A type I error would occur if we concluded that the two drugs produced different effe
fact there
Was no difference between them?
Type II Error:
A type II error occurs when the null hypothesis H0, is not rejected when it is in fact false.
For example: A type II error would occur if it were concluded that the two drugs produced the sam
that is, there
is no difference between the two drugs on average, when in fact they produced different ones.

To generalize:
Decision
Reject H0 Don't reject H0

H0 Type I Error Right Decision

H1 Right Decision Type II Error

A type I error is often considered to be more serious, and therefore more

important to avoid, than a type II error.
Summary
Research questions and hypotheses become “signposts” for explaining the purpose o
the study & guiding the research

A hypothesis is an explanation, tentative and unsure of itself, for specific phenomena

which you have questions.
A well-crafted hypothesis very often suggests the best way to perform the research a
you clues as to your research design.
There are different types of hypotheses.
deductive
inductive
Research Hypothesis can either be non-directional or directional. There exists a hypo
that is opposite of the positively stated one, i.e. the null hypothesis

Thus to conclude it would be fitting to say “hypothesis is perhaps the most powerful
has invented to achieve dependable knowledge” – Fred Kerlinger…

Case Processing Summary

N %
Cases Valid 20 100.0
a
Excluded 0 .0
Total 20 100.0
a. Listwise deletion based on all variables in the
procedure.

Reliability Statistics
Cronbach's
Alphaa N of Items
-.127 5
a. The value is negative due to
a negative average covariance
among items. This violates
reliability model assumptions.
You may want to check item
codings.