AST 0112

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Noticias:

DUE TO CORONAVIRUS OUTBREAK AND THE

CONSEQUENT “ESTADO DE CATÁSTROFE”, VISITS TO
OBSERVATORY SANTA MARTINA ARE SUSPENDED.

We are very sorry for the inconvenient

 Theme Our Sky

1. Celestial Sphere
2. Diurnal Movement
3. Annual Movement
4. Lunar Movement
5. The Seasons
Constellations and
named stars were our
earliest means of
“organizing” the cosmos.
Polynesian, Viking, and
European sailors
navigated by them.

Objects in the sky are so

far away that we do not
perceive depth. The
astronomers of ancient
Greece imagined that the
stars were attached to a
perfect, crystalline,
celestial sphere.

Today constellations are

official regions on the
night sky, although we
often identify via the stars
within them.
In reality, stars can be very far from each other, although they appear close on the sky.

The background stars appear to be “fixed” with respect to one another, implying they
must be very distant and are not moving so fast (relatively speaking!).
Constellations appear today roughly as they did 2000 years ago. But this is subject to
change based on stars relative radial (distance plane) and tangential (sky plane)
velocities.
Positions on the sky = angular distance measurements.
“Back of the envelope” calculation…

Roughly how many stars can

you see on the sky?

A. How many stars in this constellation?

~40
B. How much area is a constellation on
the sky? (recall zodiac)?
30° diameter => π(15°)2 ~ 700 deg2
C. How many degrees on the sky
SA=4π(rsky)2 => 2π rsky = 360° => rsky = 57.3° => SA = 41253 deg2
D. How many stars on the sky?
40 * 41253 / 700 ~ 2400
Celestial Sphere
When observing the sky,
we see
 A few 1000’s of stars
 The Sun moves daily
 Day and night
 Stars remain “fixed” with respect to each other
 The Sun also moves annually on sky
 The Moon has phases and moves on sky
 Eclipses and occultations
 Movements of the Earth
“Fast” movements
 Rotate on its axis 24h
 Orbit around the Sun 365.25d
Secular variations
 Precession of its axis 26800y
 Nutation of its axis 18.6y
 Ellipticity and inclination variations
Drag of other bodies to Earth
 Movement of the Sun
 Rotation of our Galaxy
 Movement of our Galaxy
 Movements of the Earth
1. Rotation 2. Orbit
1000 km/h or more around 100,000 km/h around the Sun,
the axis, with one rotation with one orbit taking 1 year
taking 1 day

4.Rotation of Milky Way

Galaxy
3. Local Solar Motion 800,000 km/h around the Galactic
70,000 km/h relative to nearby stars center, with one rotation taking 230
million years

5.Cosmic Flow
300,000 km/h towards Andromeda, 631 km/s with
Local Group towards the Great Attractor

6.Cosmic Expansion
More distant galaxies are moving away
faster the farther they are, with the
most distant ones moving away faster
than the speed of light.
 Angular Measurements
 Full circle = 360° (degrees)
 1° = 60' (minutes of arc, or arcminutes)
Angular size of the
 1' = 60" (seconds of arc, or arcseconds) Sun and the Moon: 30'

1°

1'

Full circle = 360°

1"
 Angular Measurements
For some astronomical applications, we find it more convenient to measure angles in
hours, minutes and seconds rather than degrees, arcminutes and arcseconds (!)

 Full circle = 24 hours = 360° (degrees) ➠1h = 15° 1h = 15°

 1h = 60m (minutes of time)

 1m = 60s (seconds of time)

1h
=
15
°
1m
’
Fu

1s
ll
ci
rc
le
=
24
h
Diurnal (Daily) Movement
Returning to the celestial
sphere, it has the following
properties:
 It is imaginary!
 It is centered on Earth.
 Although objects are at
various distances from
Earth, each is projected
onto the sphere.
 The positions of celestial
objects on the sphere can
be specified by 2 angles.
 The Coordinate System on Earth
The poles and equator are defined by Earth’s rotation.

Latitude measured
from equator

Longitude
measured from an
arbitrary time prime
meridian
(Greenwich)
 Celestial Coordinate System
We also define an absolute
reference frame:
➠1h = 15° Celestial N and S pole,
➠1h = 15° Celestial Equator,
➠1h = 15° Extend Earth
pole/equator out to the sky

1 complete turn of sky = 1

sidereal day = 23h 56m

If we want to observe a star from

Note: N is up by convention Earth for 6 hrs, how can we do that?
If we want to observe a star from
Earth for 24 hrs, how can we do that?!
 Celestial Coordinate System
The celestial sphere rotates around the extension of the Earth’s
polar axis
Finding the Celestial North and South Pole is easy:
 Projection types
Miller Gall-Peters Mercator

Winkel-Tripel Mollweide Eisenlohr

Beware of 2D full-sky (or land) maps!

 Local Coordinates: Horizon System
Ze
ni Some Definitions:
th zenith: the direction directly
er

overhead.
id

nadir: the direction diametrically

ia

opposite to the zenith.

n

N great circle: the intersection of

W a sphere with a plane passing

through its center
horizon: the great circle midway
between zenith and nadir. An
observer can only see stars
E above the horizon

S meridian: the great circle

passing through the observer's
zenith, and north and south
points on the horizon. It bisects
the sky into East and West
or

N noon: Sun is on the meridian

iz
o
Local Coordinates: Horizon System
Zenith Altitude
At any given moment, the
position of a celestial object can
be identified by:

N Altitude: the angle from the

horizon along the vertical circle
W to the object. Measured in
degrees!
Azimuth: the angle from the
north point of the horizon
clockwise to the foot of the
E vertical circle through the
S object. Measured in degrees!

Both the altitude and azimuth

of a celestial object change
during the course of the night
(think of planets and the
Azimuth Moon).
Local Coordinates: Horizon System
Zenith Altitude
Examples:
1. All objects on the horizon
have an altitude of 0º.
N
2. Objects below the horizon
W have negative altitudes
(from 0º to −90º)

3. Objects above the horizon

have positive altitudes
E (from 0º to +90º)
S 4. Objects due North, East,
South or West have
azimuth of 0º, 90º, 180º,
270º respectively.

Azimuth
 The Diurnal “Motion” of the Stars

The motion of stars relative to The motion of stars relative to The motion of stars relative to
the horizon at the North Pole the horizon at the equator the horizon at ~45 deg latitude

ge !
6 0 o ima
m i c 3
o ra
an
The Diurnal “Motion” of the Stars

An image of the Cerro-Tololo Inter-American Observatory near La Serena.

 Atmospheric Effects

The atmospheric reflection means that even when the Sun is below the
horizon, it can still be light out. We call this period Twilight, and there are
several distinctions (civil, nautical, astronomical) as shown above.
We require the Sun to be well below the horizon to start astronomical
observations (recall 1h = 15°!)
 Atmospheric Effects

Atmospheric refraction (more details during “light” lecture) also enables us to see at a little bit
more than one celestial hemisphere at one time! Due to the density structure of the Earth’s
atmosphere (lower density with higher altitude), light from the Sun (or a star) is bent, on
average, by about 34' at the horizon at sea level, making the Sun (or star) appear above the
horizon when it is geometrically below the horizon.

Sidenote: If the Earth were flat, the Sun appear to set well before it actually does.
 Annual Movement
Earth’s orbit around the Sun => orbit only deviates from circle by 1.5%
 Annual Movement
The ecliptic marks the path of the Sun on the celestial sphere
 Annual Movement

 1 revolution = 1 sidereal year = 365.245 d.

 Plane of the Earth’s equator: Celestial Equator
 Plane of the Earth’s orbit: Ecliptic
 The inclination of the ecliptic with respect to the Earth’s
Equator is 23.5°
 This means the Earth’s axis of rotation is inclined with
respect to the axis of the ecliptic.
 The inclination of the axis of the Earth rotation dictates
length of day vs. night and seasons.
 Annual Movement: The Seasons
 Northern summer is southern
winter!
 ➠1h = 15° The seasons cannot be
due to Earth’s distance from
the Sun.
 ➠1h = 15° They result from the
changing height of the Sun
above the horizon.
 Changes in the surface
illumination of Earth are
causing the seasons!

In the Southern hemisphere:

Winter solstice: Sun is lowest in the sky and the days are shortest.
The Earth’s South Pole is inclined away the Sun (a).

Summer solstice: Sun is highest in the sky and the days are longest.
The Earth’s South Pole is inclined toward the Sun (b).
(Reverse is true in the Northern hemisphere)
The four seasons (spring, summer, fall, winter) are caused by:

A. The tilt of the Earth’s axis of rotation

B. Variations in distance between the Sun and the Earth
C. The tides and the oceans
D. The gravitational pull of the black hole in the center of our Galaxy

What arguments would you give to convince someone?

Annual Movement
Equinoxes,
There are two points marking the
intersection between the planes of the
ecliptic and the Earth’s equator.
Day and Night are both 12 hrs on:
1. “Autumnal” Equinox of Mar 21
2. “Spring” Equinox of Sep 21

Solstice,
1. of (Southern) Summer, southern-
most point of the ecliptic, on Dec 21,
the longest day of the year.
2. of (Southern) Winter, northern-most
point of the ecliptic, Jun 21, longest
night of the year.
 Annual Movement
The Sun rises exactly Equator
in the East on
Equinoxes
The highest point of
the Sun above a
location on the
Earth’s surface varies
during the year.
Northern Hemisphere

a
NOTE: the difference in the highest at
on e r
ti
i tim yea So
point of the Sun between the s
po day the ls
Solstices is 47°! s
n’ ed ut e tic
u
S fix gho
The resulting high and low variations u
ro

Eq x
th
of light mark the passage of the

ui
no
seasons.
So
NOTE: not because the Sun is closer ls
or farther away from the Earth. e tic
Analemma
Annual Movement
 As a consequence of the
Earth’s orbit around the Sun, the
Sun appears to move ~1° on the
Su 11:56 sky per day with respect to the
n am
12 “fixed” background stars.

Sidereal Day = 360o

noon
 This movement produces a
So

difference between the sidereal

la

rotation
r D ro

day (23h 56m) and the solar day

ay tat

o
56
0.98 (24h).
= ion
36
0.

 Calculation cross-check:
09
85

365.25 days × 0.9856 °

6
o

Earth
12 2nd
≃ full rotation full rotation
noon day
Earth
1st
day
 Annual Movement: The Zodiac

 In its apparent movement in the sky, the Sun travels through distinct
constellations over the length of the year.
 These are known as the Zodiac constellations.
 There are nominally 12, one for each month.
gravitational anomalies (highly
Precession
exaggerated)

 The axis of the Earth (and of the celestial sphere) precesses like the axis of rotation of a
top (trompo). The period of this movement is very long: P = 26000 yr.

 The Earth is not perfectly spherical, it is wider at the Equator by ~43 km. The inclination of
the rotational axis and the asymmetric gravitational pull of the Sun and the Moon produce
a change (“torque”) in the axis direction.

 Thus the Earth's equatorial plane changes position gradually. This precession of the
equinoxes was discovered by Hipparchus in the second century BC.

 Example: Today, the spring equinox is in Pisces, but in the year 2600 will be in Aquarius.
 Precession

Watch it again at: https://youtu.be/qlVgEoZDjok

 Nutation of Equinoxes
 Nutation: a small oscillatory motion superimposed
on the Earth's axis precession.
 Nutation (discovered by James Bradley in 1748)
is generally described as the sum of higher-order
terms of Earth’s polar motion due to some time-
variable nature of tidal forces that act on Earth’s
body (“Geoid”). Nutation is generally:
 split into vector terms parallel and perpendicular Extreme off-ecliptic
to the direction of precession positions of the moon.
Planets provide another
 split into short- and long-period terms due to form of torque, but much
various effects, such as time-dependent distances weaker, which tries to align
of Moon, Sun, Jupiter et al., variable tilt of orbits Earth’s equatorial bulb with
e.g. Moon vs. earth orbit, ocean currents, location the plane of the ecliptic.
of Earth crust relative to NiFe core, etc.
 largest nutation component (17x9 arcsec) has a
period 6798 days or 18.6 years, while the second-
largest (1.3x0.6 arcsec) has a period of 183 days. Sun
For unknown reasons nutation terms appear to
avoid periods in the range of 34.8 to 91 days.
 Sun

View of Earth from Mars

 Lunar Movement

We observe that the Moon also changes position with respect
to the “fixed” background stars.
 This is the result of the Moon’s orbit around the Earth.

We observe that the Moon has phases: new(nueva), 1st
quarter (creciente), full (llena), 3rd quarter (menguante).
 This is the result of the relative position of the Sun, which
illuminates the Moon, as seen from the Earth.

We observe that the Moon always shows the same “face” to
the Earth: thus its period of rotation = its period of revolution.
 This is a result of the tidal forces (of the sea) between the Earth
and the Moon.
 Note: this does not mean that the opposite “face” of the Moon is
always dark (just that we cannot see it).
 N

Phases of the Moon

N
Phases of the Moon
 Sidereal month = 27.3d
is the time that takes the
Moon to orbit once around
the Earth.
 Sinodic Month = 29.5d is
time it takes lunar phases
to repeat themselves
Overhead at 6pm? Set at 9pm? Rise at 6pm? Overhead at 9pm?
N

Set at 6am? Overhead at 3am? Set at 12pm? Overhead at 9am?

True or False?