OCR A Physics A-level

Topic 5.1: Thermal physics

Notes

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 Temperature
Scales of temperature
Temperature is a number used to indicate the level of hotness of an object on some scale. The
Celsius scale is commonly used to measure temperature. It marks the melting point of pure ice
as 0°C, and the boiling point of water as 100°C, under atmospheric pressure. The
thermodynamic scale of temperature uses the triple point of pure water, 273.16K and absolute 0
as its fixed points, and it is measured in kelvin. A temperature increase of 1 kelvin is equal to an
increase of 1 Celsius, but the 0 point is absolute 0, so T(K) = T(°C) + 273.16
Thermal equilibrium
If two substances are in contact, and one is hotter than the other, then there will be a net flow of
thermal energy from the hotter object to the cooler object. The hotter object will cool down and
the cooler one will warm up, until they are at the same temperature, where there will be no net
energy transfer. Two objects are in thermal equilibrium when there is no net transfer of thermal
energy between them.

Solids, liquids, and gases

The kinetic model
In solids, atoms are closely packed together. There are strong electrostatic forces of attraction
between molecules, and the molecules also have negative electrostatic potential energy (negative
because external energy is required to separate the molecules). The molecules have kinetic
energy, which allows them to vibrate around their fixed positions.
In the liquid phase, the molecules are still have a greater mean separation than in solids, but
are still close together. They have more kinetic energy, so they can move around. There is still
electrostatic attraction, but it is weaker than in solids. The negative electrostatic potential energy
value is greater (less negative).
In the gaseous phase, the molecules have the most kinetic energy, allowing them to move freely
and rapidly, and collide elastically with each other. These collisions result in the molecules
travelling with random speed and direction. The electrostatic attraction between molecules is
negligible, and the electrostatic potential energy is at a maximum, of 0J.
Brownian motion
The molecules of a gas travel in random directions with random velocity. This is called
Brownian motion, and can be seen by looking at smoke particles in air. The smoke particles are
visible under a microscope, and exhibit random motion because of their collisions with the
molecules in air, which result in a transfer of momentum in random ways.

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 Internal energy
Internal energy
The internal energy of a substance is defined as the sum of the randomly distributed kinetic and
potential energies associated with the atoms or molecules which make up the substance. When a
substance is heated, but remains in the same state, the kinetic energy of the molecules increases,
but the potential energy remains the same. When a substance changes state (from solid -> liquid
-> gas) the potential energy increases, but the kinetic energy remains the same. The temperature
of the substance will also stay the same whilst it changes phase, because the thermal energy is
being used to overcome electrostatic bonds between molecules.
Absolute zero
Absolute zero is 0K, and is the point where all molecules in a substance stop moving
completely. This is also where the substance has minimal internal energy. The internal energy
here is entirely due to the electrostatic potential energy, as the molecules do not have any kinetic
energy.

Thermal properties of materials

Specific heat capacity
The specific heat capacity, c of a substance is defined as the energy required per unit mass to
increase the temperature by 1K. The specific heat capacity is given by the equation
𝐸𝐸 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚∆𝜃𝜃
where E is the energy supplied to the substance, m is the mass of the substance, and ∆θ is the
change in temperature of the substance. It has the units Jkg-1K-1.
The method of mixtures can be used to determine specific heat capacity. Known masses of two
substance at different known temperatures are mixed together until they reach thermal
equilibrium, at which point the final temperature is measured. The energy transfer from the
hotter substance is the same as the energy transfer to the cooler substance, so the equation
𝐸𝐸 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚∆𝜃𝜃 can be equated for both substances. If the specific heat capacity of one of the
substances is known, then it can be determine for the other substance.
The specific heat capacity of a substance can be calculated more accurately by using an
electrical heater to heat a substance. A known mass of a substance is heated by an electrical
heater with known power (or measured p.d. and current) for a given time. The initial and final
temperatures of the substance are measured. As energy transfer is equal to power (VI) multiplies
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚∆𝜃𝜃
by time, we can use the equation 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 = 𝑡𝑡
, and rearrange to find c. An insulator is used around
the substance to minimise external energy transfer, increasing accuracy.

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Specific latent heat
Energy is required in order for a substance to change phase. The specific latent heat of fusion,
L f , is the energy required per unit mass to change the phase of a substance from solid to liquid.
The specific latent heat of vaporisation, L v , is the energy required per unit mass to change the
phase of a substance from liquid to gas. The formula
E = mL
can be used to determine specific latent heat, L, where E is the energy required to change the
phase of a substance of mass m. The units for L are Jkg-1.
The specific latent heat of a substance can be determined using a similar set-up to the experiment
for specific heat capacity. An electrical heater with known power heats the object. When an
object is changing phase, the temperature remains constant, so the temperature is monitored and
the duration where the temperature is constant is used as the time when calculating the energy
transferred to the substance.

Kinetic theory of gases

Amount of substance
The amount of a substance can be measured in the SI base unit of the mole. One mole is the
amount of substance containing 6.02×1023 particles (atoms or molecules). This value is
Avogadro’s constant. The number of particles in a substance can be determined by multiplying
the number of moles of the substance by Avogadro’s constant. The number of moles, n, of a
given substance can by determined using the formula
𝑚𝑚
𝑛𝑛 =
𝑀𝑀
where m is the mass of the substance, and M is the molar mass (in grams, which is the same as
the nucleon number for the atom/molecule) of the particles that make up the substance.
The kinetic theory of gases
The kinetic theory of gases is a model which can be used to describe how particles within in
ideal gas behave. Certain assumptions are made in order to model a gas as an ideal gas.
• The gas contains a large number of atoms which move with random, rapid motion.
• The volume of the gas atoms is negligible when compared to the total volume of the gas.
• All collisions between atoms, with other atoms and with the walls of the container they
are in, are perfectly elastic.
• The time taken for atoms to collide is negligible compared to the time between collisions.
• The electrostatic forces between atoms are negligible, except for when the atoms are
colliding.

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Pressure
The kinetic theory of gases can be used to understand how gas in a container produces pressure.
As the collisions between atoms and the wall of the container are perfectly elastic, the atoms
rebound from the wall at the same speed they travel in at. This makes their change in
momentum, p, (given by p = m(v-u)) equal to 2mv. As the change in momentum is equal to force
2𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
multiplied by time, the average force exerted on the atom by the wall is given by 𝐹𝐹 = 𝑡𝑡 .
Using Newton’s third law, the atom also exerts an equal and opposite force on the wall of the
container. The total pressure on the wall is equal to the sum of the force of each collision
between atoms in the gas and the wall, and the area of the wall.
Ideal gas laws
There are two ideal gas laws which can be used to derive the equation of state for ideal gases.
Boyle’s law states that for a fixed mass of gas at constant temperature, the pressure is inversely
proportional to the volume. Charles’ law states that for a fixed mass of gas at a constant volume,
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
the pressure is proportional to temperature. These laws can be combined to show that 𝑇𝑇 = 𝑘𝑘,
where k is a constant. This gives the overall equation
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
where p is the pressure of the gas (Pa), V is the volume the gas is contained in (m3), n is the
number of moles of gas (mol), R is the molar gas constant (8.31 Jmol-1K-1), and T is the
temperature of the gas (Kelvin).
Investigating Boyle’s law
Boyle’s law states that the pressure exerted by a fixed amount of gas is inversely proportional to
its volume at a constant temperature. To investigate this experimentally, a sealed syringe can be
filled with gas and connected to a pressure gauge. The syringe can be used to vary the volume
of the container, and the values for volume and pressure recorded. When a graph of pressure
against 1/volume is plotted, a straight line should be produced, showing a constant relationship.
To increase accuracy in this experiment, the syringe should be lowered slowly so that no heat is
produced from friction.
Estimating absolute zero using gas
To determine the value of absolute zero in °C, a sealed container of air, connected to a pressure
gauge, is placed in a water bath. The temperature of the water is varied, and the values of
temperature and pressure and recorded. When pressure is plotted against temperature, a linear
graph will be produced. At absolute zero, the gas molecules will have no kinetic energy, so
there will be no collisions with the container walls, resulting in there being no gas pressure. By
extrapolating the graph back the x intercept can be found, and this is equal to absolute 0.

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 Root mean square speed
Root mean square speed
The pressure exerted by a gas, and the mean kinetic energy of molecules in the gas, are related to
the root mean square (r.m.s.) speed of the molecules. The root mean square speed, c, is
determined by summing the square of all of the individual velocities of molecules, dividing by
the number of molecules, N, and then finding the square root of this value.
The root mean square speed can be used to find the pressure of a gas at the microscopic level,
using the equation

𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = ⅓𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐���2
where p is the pressure, V is the volume, N is the number of molecules, m is the mass of a single
molecule, and ���
𝑐𝑐 2 is the r.m.s
The Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution
Particles in a gas move with random velocities, in
random directions. This means some of the
molecules are moving very fast, whilst other
molecules are barely moving at all. The Maxwell-
Boltzmann distribution shows the number of
molecules with each speed, against speed c. The
area under the graph represents the total number of
molecules. As the temperature of the gas increases,
the peak of the graph shifts to a higher speed, and the distribution becomes more spread out.
The Boltzmann constant
The Boltzmann constant (k) is equal to the molar gas constant (R), divided by Avogadro’s
Constant (N A ). Its value is 1.38x10-23 JK-1. It can be used derive a second equation for the state of
an ideal gas. The equation pV = nRT can be written as
NRT
pV =
𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴
because n, the number of moles, is equal to N, the number of molecules, divided by Avogadro’s
constant. As k = R/N A , we can then write this equation as
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁
Mean kinetic energy and temperature
The kinetic energy of gas molecules in an ideal gas is proportional to the temperature (which
must be measured in kelvin). At a given temperature, every gas molecule has the same mean
kinetic energy, so more massive molecules have lower r.m.s. speeds.

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We can relate the two pressure equations, 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 and 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = ⅓𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐���2 to produce the
equation
1 ���2
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 = 𝑚𝑚𝑐𝑐
3
The equation for kinetic energy is 1/2mv2, so by adjusting the equation, we can produce
3 1
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 = 𝑚𝑚𝑐𝑐���2
2 2
3
This shows that 𝐸𝐸𝑘𝑘 = 2 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘, where E k is the mean kinetic energy of the gas molecules

Internal energy of an ideal gas

The internal energy of an ideal gas is the sum of the kinetic and potential energies. Since we
assume there are no electrostatic forces between molecules in an ideal gas, there is no potential
energy. This means that for an ideal gas, the kinetic energy is equal to the total internal energy,
hence the internal energy is proportional to temperature.

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