Industrial Engineering & Management

DESIGN OF MAN MACHINE SYSTEM

In designing man-machine system , in the interest of overall system

performance and its efficiency, proper integration of both the components
of man and machine is essential giving due consideration to the hardware
(machine component) and also to human capabilities or human
engineering.

A man and his machine may be regarded as a functional unit and the aim
of ergonomics is to bring perfection in this unit so as to promote accuracy,
speed of operation and at the same time to ensure minimum fatigue and
thereby maximum efficiency.

FATIGUE IN INDUSTRIAL WORKER

Fatigue is a sort of negative aptitude for activity (activity decrement)
i.e., reduced capacity for further work as a consequence of previous
activity where a person was trying almost as hard as he could. This it
includes both mental and physical reactions as well as the
phenomenon of boredom and monotony.

Boredom is characterized by depression and a desire for a change of

activity. It is tinged with emotional distaste. Boredom is heavily
affected by personality, attitude and interest pattern. Monotony is a state
of mind caused by performing repetitive work with no emotional dislike.

P S YC H I C F A C T IO N R T S E ( N S I T Y &
M O N E T A R Y R L E N G T H
e s p o n s i b i l i t ie s , c o n f li c t s , O F M A N U A
e t c ) & M E N T A L W O R K

F A T I G U E

S U R R O U N D I N G S I L L N E S S & P A I N
( I ll u m i n a t io n , C lim a t e , E A T I N G H A B I T S , E T
N o is e , E t c )

F i g Fu ra e c : to o r r Cs a u s e s o f F a t i g u e

The effect of fatigue results into :

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(i) Decline in quantity of work for a given level of effort.

(ii) Feeling of tiredness accompanied by reduced capacity to work.
(iii) Physiological change—the most prominent factor. Physiological
change is the accumulation of lactic acid in the blood. Other
physiological changes are believed to be present in the junction of the
nerve and muscle-cells and under certain conditions changes in the
capacity of the nerve fiber to conduct, and possibly changes in brain.
Physiological changes occur almost as soon as work begins and cause the
changes in heart-rate, blood-pressure, oxygen-consumption, chemical
composition of blood and urine, body temperature and rate of sweating.
Sometimes the changes in the above factors may be used to measure
fatigue. However, wage incentives affect the parameters of fatigue.
Accurate measurement of output per unit time may be a practicable index
of fatigue measure.
The proper application of scheduled hours and rest pauses can go a
long way in reducing the incidence of fatigue. Excessively long work
days increase not only fatigue but also susceptibility to sickness,
accidents and absenteeism. Some of the studies have emphasized the fact
that reducing hours of work yield higher hourly production.
Concurrently with hourly schedules, the distribution of rest pauses as
to length, time, and frequency also influences production. Most of these
procedures raise efficiency because of their effect on monotony,
motivation, and attitudes, as well as fatigue.

The individual fatigue can further be reduced by ;

(i) Improving the environmental conditions to the best possible level.
(ii) Designing the machines, tools, equipments, etc. for maximum
efficiency with minimum physiological stress.
(iii) Selecting workers on the basis of physiological fitness for a given job.

Fatigue measurement:
Scientist “FERE” conducted experiments on fatigue, devising the first
apparatus known as ‘ERGO GRAPH”, for the measurement of muscular
energy expended. He also discovered the electrical phenomenon in the
body associated with emotion.

Causes and Elimination of fatigue:

The various factors affecting fatigue and methods to eliminate fatigue are
as follows:
1. Hours of work- in general, the highest productivity per hour and less
fatigue is achieved with small number of working hours per day. Perhaps
an 8-hour a day with a lunch of 45 to 60 minute is a good solution.
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2. Working days of a week- a five day week with 40 working hours (total)
showed highest hourly output.
3. Nature of work-complex muscular work may preferably be done with the
help of suitable material handling devices. Minute of precise work imparts
more fatigue. Mental task requiring continuous attention adds to fatigue
rapidly. Work involving standing and abnormal posture tend to increase
fatigue fast.
4. Working condition- improper working condition such as
 Improper light
 Too cold or too hot atmosphere
 Insufficient ventilation
 Presence of bad smell, fumes, dust, smoke and flash
 Noise
 Heavy protective clothing, etc
Add to fatigue of workers. Besides the listed working conditions of physical
nature the surrounding social situations also add to fatigue.
5. Rest / pause- suitable and well planned rest / pause, tea coffee breaks
within the work hours tends to reduce the build up of fatigue. In general,
the duration of rest pause should be any where from 5 to 20 minutes, with
heavier work requiring the upper limit.

DISPLAYS
A display is a method of presenting information about the state of a
system. the information that can be presented by displays may be
static and dynamic.
Basic goal of display is to communicate information from machine to
user in a manner appropriate to the system and task requirements.
Functionally, a good display allows the best combination of speed,
accuracy and sensitivity when transferring the necessary information
from machine to user.
The display is used as a common means of providing information to the
operator through the use of visual-display, auditory-displays. other
sensory modalities e.g. Kinesthesia (sensation of position, movement
amplitude, velocity, acceleration or deceleration, force generated by
various members, etc.), Cutaneous senses (sensation of temperature,
touch and pain by nerve endings in skin) and chemical sense (smell, taste,
etc.).
Three basic criteria to be satisfied by displays are :
 Detection: The visual display must clearly be visible and auditory
display must clearly be audible.
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 Recognition :Once the display has been detected, it has either to

be read or listened to. This aspect has received maximum
attention by economists and engineers.
 Understanding: Detection and recognition of displays ate not
enough, but their meaning must be clear as well. Two aspects are
important for understanding
 The words and symbols used in the display may not be too
complicated to the user;
 Understanding may be poor if the user has difficulty with the
basic meaning of the data.

Pre-requisite Information for the Design of Displays:

(i) The type of technology to be the most suitable to
present the information-visual, auditory, mechanical, electronic.
(ii) The necessary accuracy and sensitivity required in the
communication of information.
(iii) The total range of information to be presented and to be
displayed.
(iv) The necessary speed requirement in information
communication.
(v) The permissible equipment error in transferring the
information.
(vi) The normal and maximum distance from which the user
might use the display.
(vii) The environmental conditions under which the display is
to be used.

Use of Colors in Visual Displays

In visual displays, the information is conveyed by means of colour,
brightness, shape size, orientation, etc. Colors can be used effectively to
group information displays and to highlight particular displays. The eyes
are very sensitive to colors like blue, green, yellow and this does not vary
as to whether the eye is adapted to light or dark conditions. At one time,
colours should not be superimposed on a display. Color does not influence
the accuracy of reading.

TYPES OF DISPLAYS
(i) Quantitative displays.
(ii) Qualitative displays.

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(iii) Representative displays.

(iv) Alphanumeric displays.

(i) QUANTITATIVE DISPLAYS

They provide informations regarding the state of process under dynamic
(changing with time e.g. temperature pressure at different times) or
static conditions in numerical values, which can be presented in digital or
analogue form for visual displays or speech communication for audible-
displays.
Quantitative displays can be divided into two categories:
a) Analogue displays
b) Digital displays
(a) Analogue displays: In these displays, the position of the pointer along
the scale is analogous to the value it represents for the associated
variable. Analogue displays are available in two varieties:
X—Round dial with moving pointer and fixed scale.
X—Round dial with moving scale and fixed pointer.
Analogue indicators indicate (pointer indication) on a scale a value. The
analogue display is more difficult to read because the user has to
estimate the position of the pointer between two graduations on the scale.
(b) Digital displays: They provide the information in terms of direct
numerical-values. Digital indicators present the information as a number
and can use electro-mechanical counters or electronically generated
numbers. Designers should relate these to the kind of information the
user requires. Whenever, precise information is to be read quickly, then
the digital indicators would be more suitable.
If the requirement of man-machine system is to display figures, then the
digital with open window is the most suitable.
Design Recommendations For Quantitative Displays :
Several variations on the two basic types of analogue displays are
available, e.g.
 Fixed circular and semicircular scale with moving pointer,
 Fixed vertical and horizontal straight scale with moving pointer.
 Moving circular and semicircular scale with fixed pointer,
 Moving vertical and horizontal straight scale with fixed pointer.
Irrespective of whether the scale is circular, semicircular, or straight, the
moving pointer with fixed scale design is preferred over the fixed pointer
with moving scale design. Further, straight horizontal scale is better than a
vertical one because it minimizes the chances of reading errors.
Type of dial Movable Movable disk Counter
pointer
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characteristics Moving Moving scale Digital

pointer fixed fixed pointer
scale
Reducing speed & accuracy Acceptable Acceptable Very good
Check reading & trend & rate Good Poor Poor
identification
Continuous control (tracking) Very good Acceptable Poor
Control setting ( when Good Acceptable Good
associated device) with a control
Economy of space, use of Acceptable Good Good
illumination area
The effective use of these display-instruments would further be directed by
distinctive color, shape, size of numbers or letters, etc. matching the
accuracy of display to the desired-accuracy. Certain rules are recommended
in order to have effective use of displays.

Design recommendations for displays:

 The degree of dial must match the accuracy needed. If a dial gives
an accuracy greater than that required makes the reading more difficult
and leads to reading error. The dial must give the correct and needed
information to the operator/user while working on the machine.
Superfluous information may cause error.
 Sub-division should be a multiple of 1, 2 or 5 since other sub-division
may give difficulties in putting correct informations.
 Figures should be attached to large scale markings which may be
after 1,2 or 5 sub-divisions as the case may be. Numerical figures should
be tangential on a moving scale and upright on a fixed scale.
 The pointer should always carry sharp-arrows so as to point out
correct numerical value. Pointer should not cover the scale markings
while moving. It should move in the same plane so as to avoid parallax
error.
 The size of letters and figures must be adjusted to the expected
distance (viewing distance 30-75 cms).
Height of letters or figures in mm= Visual distance in mm/200
 Scale numbers should increase clockwise, left to right, or upward
direction for circular/semi-circular, horizontal and vertical scales

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respectively. The scale should be linear i.e. the spacing between the
same markings must be same along the length. Log-scales or non-linear
scale tend to increase reading errors. The scale markings, scale numbers
and pointer should contrast well in tone and color with general display
face. A design factor must be taken into account the good display
illumination, absence of glare or reflections.

(ii)QUALITATIVE DISPLAYS
These displays provide information about a limited number of discrete
states of some variable.
It is one which concerns the rate of change, direction of change, trend
or other aspects of some changeable variable.

Typical applications of such displays include check reading of whether

or not a variable is within normal or acceptable operating range.
These are used when the user needs to distinguish a small number of
different conditions, e.g. to show switches open or closed ; to show valve
open or shut, etc.
They exhibit broad states of a system in simplified numerical range.
These displays may belong to either Visual-displays or Auditory-displays.
An excellent display arrangement for visual display may be to use a
moving pointer and a fixed scale on which different colored bands
correspond to different states of the process or variable. If the pointer
is within green band, it signifies to the operator that the process is
operating in normal conditions. If the pointer is within a yellow or red
band it indicates that the process is in a caution or danger mode
respectively. So the visual indicators are essential for representing
three or more conditions because they can be made distinct through
differences in position, color, shape and size.

Very important/warning devices must use flashing lights or combination

of visual display and audible display, e.g. for very important signals use
of both (visual and auditory) indicators may be warranted.
Audible indicator/displays (bells, horns, whistle, siren, bell, oscillators,
buzzers, etc) are suitable for the places where noise is either absent or
in low-volume. The basic advantage of audible displays/indicators is their
ability to attract immediate attention from any direction.

(iii)REPRESENTATIVE DISPLAYS

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They provide the user with a visual impression of the process/machine,

that presents pictorial information i.e., mimic-working-model of
machine/process (process flow diagrams maps, symbols) and symbolic
or graphic information (line or histograms). Generally, they are used for
large remote control systems as they enable the user to observe the
functioning of each part in relation to whole and to locate faults or
display quickly.

The basic requirement is to make the display as simple in its logical

scheme as possible and should omit any details that are not strictly
relevant. It needs the representation of critical components, not
complete simulation.

(iv) ALPHA NUMERIC DISPLAYS

They give information by means of alphanumeric characters. Information
in coded numerical, verbal or written form may be displayed in many
form such as sign boards, play cards, music notes, computer printouts
and class room instructions. The information may be static or dynamic.

Recommended design data for Alphanumeric displays

 The dimensions of both letters and numerals are related to

different viewing distance. Under favorable illuminations, the height
(H) in mm of characters should be related to viewing distance (D) in
mm.

H/D=.O003 to 0.005.
 Stroke width=H/8 to H/16 for black characters on white
background or H/10 to 11/8 for white characters on black background
 Separation between letters =H/5 to H/4
 Width of letters =2H/3 to H
 Width of numerals=2H/3

CONTROLS

A control is a device which transmits information to some mechanism or

system.
Controls were basically developed as extensions of human body. This sort
of extension was made to allow the generation of more power, better
reach, reduction in effort, and reduction of risk to the user.

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The human ability to control the human body must be transferred to

control the movement and operation of the machine and its
components. The control is no longer the tool itself, but is an
intermediary between the user and the machine.

The response of operator regarding the control of the state of process

is resulted through the use of various controls (knobs, levers, pedals,
cranks, wheels, etc). A wide variety of control devices are available for
the application in any man-machine system.

Criteria for Control Design

A control must be
 Accessible,
 Identifiable and
 Usable
(i)Accessibility: All controls require physical contact with the user, hence
the controls must be within comfortable and efficient reach of the user. For
this, the body size of the user should be considered.

(ii)Identifiably: In most of the cases, number of controls is located close

together, so each control must be capable to be identified separately
without visual guidance. In its design, two inter-connected problems are
associated :
 Identifying the basic function of the control e.g. typewriter shift-key,
power switch, etc. and
 Identifying the state of control to which it relates, e.g. off/on switch,
low/medium/high, speed up/down etc.
Both the associated problems can be solved by coding the controls in a
logical way e.g. controls to have different shapes, textures, sizes, colours
positions, operational method.

(iii) Usability: if the user can reach the control, knows what it is and what
state it is in, then the next step is to change its state i.e., it must be used.
Two human factors are involved:

 One relates to the force required to operate the control and

 The other relates to the ability of the user to make fine adjustments
to reliable extent.
In the first case we have to see various parameters, e.g. muscle power,
and the relation between power, the position of the limb when the power

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is applied and the length of time for which the power is applied. The
second case is largely a psychological, not a physical problem

The design of control is largely dependent on its application and user’s

capability.
Ex: the height of the user may determine the location of control, the
weight of the user may be important if large forces have to be exerted on
a handle/ lever.

The following factors are important:

Control location and the user,
Muscles and movements.
Posture and fatigue

Depending on application of control, the following factors are important

(1) Force- control requires application of force
(2) Speed and range- task decides the speed of control and its ranges
(3) Accuracy-design decides the accuracy desired on the control

While designing a control , the following questions to be considered:

(i) What is the control meant to do, and how important is this function
to the operation of thw whole system?
(ii) Should the control be designed primarily to allow rapid operation,
accurate operation of a relatively large force?
(iii) For whom is the control to be designed and under what
conditions will it be used?
(iv) What are the task requirements for the control, beyond general questions
of force,
(v) What other tasks will be carried out by the operator, and with what
controls?

Additional information required to modify design includes:

 Control display ratio
C/D ratio= (movement of control device)/( Moving element of display
depicting the control movement)
 Directional relations in control and display
 Control resistance-the force offered by the control to the intended
movement is called control resistance. This aspect should be considered.
 Operational coding of controls- it is essential to identify quickly. It
may be done by color, number, shape, etc. it may also include: shape
coding, size coding, position coding method of operational coding, etc

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For design purpose, the following points are important:

(i) Important control functions should not be operated by feet and
hand simultaneously.
(ii) Foot controls should be used to provide rest to hands, but
not to the extent that most of the controls are operated by foot
instead of hand. Hand controls should be preferred against foot
controls.
(iii) Foot-operated controls should be used only when the operator
is seated.
(iv) Foot operated controls must carry pedals and when pressure
is released, it must come to null position.
(v) If a standing operator has to perform control functions with
his own leg, a knee-operated control device may be used, but not
a foot control.
(vi) Hand controls of push button and toggle switch type should
be used as per requirements.
(vii) Fine adjustments are to made by rotary knobs.
(viii) Operation of hand controls needing moderate force should be
of one hand type.
(ix) The strongest hand controls are always having push/pull type
movement.
(x) For precision, speedy movement, control resistance, distance
of movement should be as low as possible.

Following points may prove to be useful for making proper selection of a

control :
 Control should use each body member optimally (within
the capability limitations).
 Controls and displays must be synthesized for use and
proper application,
 For small range-linear-control while for greater range and
accuracy-multi rotational controls should be used.
 Discrete controls should not have more than 24 settings.

Types of Control
1.Push buttons : They are reasonably small controls. Its design has
the following distinguished features :

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 Surface should be slightly concave, so that the finger force may

be transmitted more effectively.
 Diameter should be able to accommodate the finger tip without
slipping.
 It should be made of such a material which is easily distinguishable
and can shine even in the dark (color may be used) so that there should
be no problem in locating it.
 They are used for high precision work needing little effort.

2. Toggle switches :
 They can be easily identified as they are miniature levers used as
select or switches, and guarantee high frequency of precision control.
 It has only two positions 'On' and 'Off' and clearly written on top and
bottom respectively
 Movement should be vertical.
 They are used for three positions, then the angle of movement in
vertical direction between the two sequential positions should be between
30° to 40°, and each position should be clearly marked.

3. Knobs:
 They are used for high precision work needing little effort.
 They are rotary controls that can be operated freely by gripping it on
both sides with the fingers of one hand.
 They are available in different shapes—circular, bar-shaped, pointed.
The shape should be such which must be easy to feel and provide a
reliable grip.
 They may be used for making fine adjustments when loads are light
up to 250,00 cm gram (22 in-lb) i.e. continuous function and as rotary
selector switches for switching operations.
 The gear ratio should be such which can minimize the force required
to operate.

4. Cranks :
 It is a control in which the handle is offset from and parallel to the
shaft.
 They are suitable for setting or continuous movements which
cover a wide range.
 For fast movement, the handle must be free to turn on its own axis.
 For precise movements or adjustments, fixed handles are more
suitable.
 The preferred position for a crank is 'facing the operator' and
located along a horizontal line at elbow height from the centre line of the

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body to the width of the shoulder of the operating hand and then in a
vertical line to shoulder height.

5. Hand wheel :
 It is a circular control gripped at the rim preferably with both
hands.
 It is recommended when large forces have to be exerted as the use
of two hands and relatively long lever arms should be employed.
 It is useful for low turning speeds (I rpm or low).
 Hand wheels are the best when the amount of turn required does not
exceed 90° for fine positioning.

6. Pedals
 A pedal is a reciprocating control operated by one foot acting
independently.
 When pedals are used for heavy energy expenditure, a high back
rest and horizontal position of the legs should be adopted.
 When using pedals in standing positions, it is advantageous that
such pedals should be at floor level so that the operator can change from
one leg to the other. However, the use of pedals in standing position is
highly undesirable from the fatigue point of view.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CONTROLS AND DISPLAY INSTRUMENIS

The controls (knobs, hand wheels, pushbuttons, etc.) are always used in
conjunction with some type of display instruments i.e., the direction of
movement of control always produces its result in a display, until this might
ultimately result into some movement of machine parts for example, the
bed of milling machine moving from left to right; the movement of
tracked vehicle when levers are used to turn it; the turning of a knob
alters the dial setting, etc.
The compatibility of controls with displays plays an important role in the
operating efficiency of the equipments. It is therefore desired to arrange the
controls and displays in the most simplified and distinctive way so that risk
of error in reading the displays may be reduced to minimum.
An experiment was conducted to establish relationship between the
controls and displays by Worwick (1947) who used five boxes where
display unit is shown by a row of five small bulbs and the control is shown
by a rotary knob.
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( i ) ( ii ) ( ii i ) ( i v )
( v )
F i g u r e : A r r a n g e m e n t s o f c o n t r o l a n d d i s p l a y w i t h s t r o n

In this experiment, turning the knob (direction shown in the figure)

causes a light signal to move from one end to another end as shown by
the straight arrows in the figure in sequence. Fifty subjects were required
to move the light to the centre from various positions (right or left of the
centre) by turning the knob in any direction. The light would lit which-
ever way the knob was turned and the experimenter recorded whether the
initial movement of the knob was made clockwise or anti clockwise
direction.
With arrangements (i), (ii) and (iii) in which the control knob is in the
same plane as the display unit, 70%—95% of the subject moved that
control knob clockwise to produce a left-right movement of light in
arrangement (i); an up movement of light in arrangement (ii); and a
down movement of light in arrangement (iii).

However, when the control unit and display unit were in different planes
as shown in (iv) and (v), the preference shown by the subjects was not
very clear.

It can be concluded from this experiment that:

(1)The display unit and the control should be in the same plane.
(2)The display pointer should move in the same direction as the control
itself i.e., as shown in arrangement (i) to (iii).

A second experiment was conducted with the same setup taking another
group of subjects to determine which arrangement would produce the
greatest speed and least error. It could again be concluded that the
arrangements (iv) and (v) could not show the effect on efficiency,
however, the greatest degree of compatibility is achieved with a rotary
control when the part of nearest to the index of a display moves in the
same direction as does the index.

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In this experiment the effect of expected and unexpected direction of

movement on the performance was also considered because it is useful in
tracking system.

In tracking system, the subject has to follow a moving index with an index
under his control. In order to carryout this experiment, two control
systems (positional control and velocity control) with different dynamics
have also been compared from the efficiency and accuracy points of view.

The conclusions are:

(1)In positional control, the marker and the joystick have a relationship
where left to right movement of the joystick will give a left to right
movement of the marker.
(2)In velocity control, the speed of movement of the marker depends on
the extent to which the joystick is displaced from its central position so
that if a movement of the marker is being made from left to right, the
initial movement of the joystick will be stationary, whilst the marker is
moving at a constant speed and it will be moved from right to left while
the marker is decelerating.
(3)Thus, in positional control, the relationship between the joystick and
the index will be compatible for the whole of the time, but with velocity
control, the movement between the joystick and the index will be
compatible while the index is accelerating. So positional control is
superior.
(4)In the case of tracking, though the subjects were given using both
operation control and velocity control, it was observed that the initial
performance with velocity control was substantially inferior.

The consistency in the direction of movement of control between

electrical and pressure controls was also tested on the same setup.

Some important points to be considered are therefore, given below :

(1)The display pointer should move in the same direction as the control itself
i.e. a knob, hand wheel, lever, crank etc. should revolve to the right to
control the process, if the pointer of display moves to the right on a
circular scale.
(2)A clockwise turn of a control should mean an increase in the control
process and anticlockwise turn should mean decreased in flow.
(3)Concerned scales and knobs with a given/specified function should
be placed together. The best arrangement would be to keep the scale
above and knob below.

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LAYOUT OF PANELS AND MACHINES

Designing an array of controls and displays (layout of controls) can present

problems particularly when a number of different tasks have got to be
performed with them.

Designer must take care to minimize the conflicts that may arise and for
that Four Criteria should be satisfied when designing an array of controls
and displays:
(i)Sequence of use : in the use of certain items, patterns or sequences of
relationship frequently occur in the operation of equipment or in performing
some service or task. In applying this principle, the items would be so
arranged as to take advantage of such patterns. When instruments are
used in fixed sequence they should be laid out in that order.

(ii)Frequency of use: according to this, the component with greatest

frequency of use has the highest priority for location at the optimum
position in the general area. The most frequent used instruments should be
placed in optimal locations.
Ex: having a copying machine near a typist

(iii)Importance of use: it deals with operational importance, that is, the

degree to which the performance of activity with the component is vital
to the achievement of the objectives of system or some other
consideration. The determination of importance usually is a matter of
judgment. The most important component or group of components is
first of all selected and located in the best position. The next important
component from among the remaining components is selected and is
then located in best location within the remaining. In this way, one by
one all components are located. The important instruments should be
located at optimized position in terms of convenient.

(iv)Function to perform: it provides for grouping of component according

to their function, such as the grouping of displays, controls or machines
that are functionally related in the operation of the system. Access and
good visibility. The instruments having related functions be grouped
together:
 Items considered most important for the task involved;
 Items used most frequently in regular operation;
 Items used together in sub-sequence;
 Items related to each other by function.

Some of the salient features for designing the panel are :

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 Displays that are most important and most frequently used

should be located within ±15° of the normal sight line for a
seated operator, and also for standing operator.
 Controls that are used can be put into following categories :
 The most important and frequently used, the emergency
controls, and for precise manipulations, these controls should be
located within a vertical area extending from 25 cm to 76 cm
above the seat reference point and 38 cm to its left and right.
 Secondly controls should not be located more than 102 cm above
and 51 cm to each side of the seat reference point.

 Control—display compatibility dictates that corresponding controls

and displays be arranged in corresponding pattern.

 Control clearance between neighboring control devices need to be

sufficiently large to prevent the possibility of accidental activation.
 Angled side panels may be used to place displays and controls
within a convenient area if there are too many instruments to be
fitted onto a single panel.

DESIGN OF WORK PLACES

Work-place is a place where various machines, assembly benches, office
desk, etc are installed along with the work and the operator is assumed
to carry out the specified work with the help of machines, tools, etc. As
such the work-place seems to play a critical role in the system design
since it is the smallest production unit.
Following ergonomic factors should be considered in the design of work
place :
 Operator, his seating for working in the work-place.
 Building whew work place is located.
 Machines to be installed and movable-tools to be used at the work-
place and their inter-relationship.
 Assembly benches, inspection benches, office table, desks, etc.
 Environmental problems.

To achieve efficient working at a work place following factors to be

considered:
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 Machine at work-places,
 Working at work-places.
 Setting at work-places.

1. Machine at Work Place

There are three requirements:
(i) The fundamental requirement for the machine user is that, in
order to have control, the operator must be able to see, reach, and exert
necessary forces as and when required in the required manner. While
exerting forces, these forces may not put the operator outside the reach
or vision-area for other aspects of the process that are concurrently
important.
(ii) The operator's fundamental requirement is the necessity to
change postures during work or at any time, i.e., the work should not
put restriction for certain positions of the operator. The opportunity to
sit or to stand while working will require the operator's shoulders to
remain in same relative position to work.

(iii) This is related to design of equipment i.e., the displays, controls

must be so placed so as to suit the human requirements and no
hindrance should be put in the flow of information. Controls should be
identifiable without error by their feel and position. It is always
recommended that their design and their placement on the panel must
follow the recommendations provided by ergonomists.
2. Working at Work-Places
It is essential for every work-place that it must provide full opportunity to
the operator to see the task and to allow for suitable postures. So, the
work should be arranged within the permissible area, so that it can be
seen without lowering the line of gaze.
Following points are to be considered in the arrangement of work places
so as to provide safe and healthy functioning of the human body when
exposed to long-time activities:
 The work-place should provide an upright and forward-facing
posture during work.
 The work place must provide sufficient vision at the necessary work
points with head and trunk upright or inclined slightly.
 The work-place must provide opportunities to the worker to
adopt several, different healthy and safe postures without reducing the
capability of doing the work.

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 The work-place must provide the flexibility to the worker whether

he does the work by sitting or in standing position. No doubt, while
standing, the weight of the body should be equally shared by both the
legs. Foot-operated pedals should then be designed accordingly, if the
operator chooses to work in standing position.
 The work-place should not allow the worker to perform work
consistently at or above the heart level. In principle light work can be
done above the heart level. Rest to upper arm is essentially required.
Rest pauses must be allowed for all loads experienced to work.
 At all work-places, apply the principles of motion economy
religiously.

3. Seat for Work Place

All the work places allow the operators to work in either standing postures
or in sitting postures. Seated posture is usually better and comfortable
than a standing posture, owing to less fatiguing, more stable, allows the
operation to be performed by hand as well as foot and so the controls.

In general, sitting posture is preferable and so proper seating must be

designed. In this reference anthropometry (function of human body,
features, etc,) may be of great importance.

The seat dimensions, height of seats and work tables are the most
important for working place layout, but depend on human weight and
other dimensions. A good chair is that which provides maximum comfort
in terms of weight distribution, back-rest, height, depth to width ratio, free
hand and foot movements and allows quick change in postures.

INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE ON THE EFFICIENCY OF HUMAN

PERFORMANCE
Sufficient air (O2) should always be maintained by the fine control of small
variations in the flow of blood to the surface. Heat travels away or into
from the surface of the body by convection, conduction, radiation and
evaporation. Therefore, attempt should be made during the design process
of building or office to develop desirable climatic conditions.

Four important factors determine whether we will feel hot; cold or

comfortable:
 Air temperature.
 Radiant temperature.
 Air humidity.
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 Rate of air movement and quality of air.

Supply of oxygen and removal of carbon-dioxide are not the constraints for
air volume, however, the most important constraints for air volume are the
Odour-Removal and Temperature Control. It is expensive proposition to
bring air supply of desired temperature, humidity and quality, move it
through a space and then throw it out.
Ventilation may use as much as 50% of the energy requirements of a
building/office. Reuse the same air by some recycling method after removing
the pollutants and odour and mixing it with fresh air in suitable proportion
so as to bring it to the desired level of temperature and humidity.
Removal of pollutants, odour, contaminations etc. can be done by the
use of proper filters and precipitators.
Thermal Comfort:
Comfort is that state of mind which expresses satisfaction in relation to
thermal environment. Comfort is usually influenced by:
 Individual factors of metabolic rate;
 Clothing’s of the operators working;
 Dry bulb air temperature;
 Water vapor pressure (humidity);
 Air velocity (rate of air flow); and
 Radiant temperature.
Method of heating/cooling plays an important role in determining comfort.
The main problem in designing for thermal comfort is how to distribute
heat or cold and air evenly in the space which people are occupying.
Building heating/cooling is dependent on the circulation of warmed-air or a
combination of any two given below :
 Radiators and convectors.
 Floor, skirting and ceiling heating.
 Warm-air heating system.

Climate Toxicology:
It is an important aspect of climate. The designer must be ensured that
in the atmosphere no toxic agents which are harmful to living
organisms must be present.
The basic objective of this branch is to prevent the harmful effects in
the working environment. Through thorough analysis, the presence of any
toxic agent in the working environment can be checked.
The most commonly found toxic agents in the industrial atmosphere
include the presence of various chemicals such as acetone, carbon

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mono-oxide, carbon-di sulfide, lead manganese compounds, mercury

alkali-compounds, welding fumes, methylene-chloride, etc.
Hydro-carbons are emitted from paints, lacquers glues, thinness,
cleaning liquids, plastic products, varnishes and their effects are health
hazardous.
In preventing the adverse effects of industrial chemicals properly
designed ventilators, personal protective equipments are highly
recommended. Periodic medical examination and health education may
prove to be effective programs.

Fresh Air and Pollution:

The composition of the air in an occupied room can be altered by the
following factors:
1) Human odour,
2) Addition of water vapor,
3) Thermal exchange,
4) Loss of oxygen,
5) Addition of CO2.
Pollution from the interior sources and from the exterior sources depends on
the people within the room and the position of building.

Where workers are exposed to high temperature, conditions must permit

the proper secretion and evaporation of sweat for them to maintain
their thermal control.
It may lead to some physiological effects such as:
a) Increased tendency to fatigue
b) Rise in heart rate.
c) Rice in blood pressure.
d) Decreased activity of the digestive organs
e) Large inflow of blood in the skin.

Under hot condition, the workers should observe the following precautions:
(i) The worker should drink small quantities of liquid at frequent intervals
(10-15 minutes interval).
(ii) The most suitable drinks are lightly sweetened tea or coffee and
occasionally soup. Drink should be warm to permit their rapid absorption in
the digestive organs.
(iii) Iced drinks or alcoholic drinks are not recommended. Milk drinks is also
unsuitable, since it increases stress on digestive organs.
(iv)To avoid the loss of time during work, beverages should be available
near the work place.

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INFLUENCE OF NOISE AND VIBRATIONS.

In the frequency range of about 15 to 16000 Hz, the sound is audible and
is sensed by ear.
Frequencies below 15 Hz, the sound is termed as infrasound and can
cause different body organs to vibrate with unpleasant sensations and
above 16000 Hz, sound is termed as ultrasound and is no longer audible
by people. Sound is the rapid oscillations in air pressure at the ear. Sound
perception depends on the pressure- amplitude(decibel dB) and the
rapidity of oscillations (frequency).
Decibel (dBo) is a measure of pressure amplitude. Frequency, which we
perceive as pitch is a number of pressure-oscillations per sound.

Sources of Vibrations:
 All types of vehicles-ground-moving, sea moving and space moving.
 Through buildings, the vibrations are caused by storms, high winds,
exhaust fans.
 Heavy machinery Ex-turbines, generators, compressors, motors,
engines, lathe machine etc.
 Off-shore platforms
 All types of manual or automatic machine- tools and metal working
machines. Ex- lathe, milling, grinding, drilling, presses, hammers,
etc.

Effects of exposure to Noise or Vibrations:

 Change in comfort
 Change in performance
 Reduction in health and safety.

These changes are composed of many individual effects:

(i) Comfort reactions include:
Perception and annoyance
General subjective sensation of the magnitude subjected of a vibration
stimulus.
(ii) Performance effects include:
Feeling or interference
Direct mechanical effects due to movement of the limb and for eyes.
(iii)Health effects include:
Chronic injuries due to cumulative long term exposure over a working life.
Low frequency oscillations produce all those effects and symptoms of
motion sickness.

Detrimental effects of Noise or Vibrations:

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(i) Effect on the ear: the ear is to listen the human speech which is mostly
in the range of about 250 to 4000 hz and is most sensitive in this
frequency region. Most noise measuring instruments have the facility to
take into account this variation with frequency of the sensitivity of the
human ear. The hearing loss associated with excessive exposure to noise
is often such that the low-pitched sounds are not impaired.

Industrial noise at levels of about 90 to 110 db is insufficiently intense to

cause immediate hearing loss. Due to noise heart attacks, head aches also
have increased.

(ii) Effects on communication: sometimes, the detection of sound

becomes difficult due to continuous exposition of ears in the vibrations.
Designers have to take care of such situations particularly when passing
the auditory information. Sometimes speech communication can
deteriorate significantly in noise.
(iii) Annoying effects: most people find high pitched noises more annoying
than low pitched ones, interrupted, sudden and unexpected noises are
more annoying than steady prolonged ones. Sounds whose sources are
unknown, are also irritating and people often complain much more about
a noise when they feel it is unnecessary.
(iv) Effects on work: experiments have shown that the noise lowers the
efficiency of working. Some types of tasks are more affected while some
are less affected. Noise is believed to act as general stressor and possibly
to have some effects on task concentration, efficiency and productivity at
work, absenteeism, and so on.

Variables of an Individuals response are two factors:

(i)Intrinsic factors- are those concerning the subject and may be further
divided into-
Intra-subject variability include age, sex, height, weight, postures, etc
Intra-subject variability includes factors which change the response of an
individual with time-alteration of body postures, motivation and
excitement.
(ii)Extrinsic factors-may included vibration level, vibration frequency,
vibration axes and direction, vibration duration, criteria of vibration,
general environment, etc.

The best response and the effects of vibrations can be studied under two
heading viz:
1. Low frequency vibrations
2. High frequency vibration

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2 0 0

C u s h i o n
1 5 0

T ra n sm issib ility %
Seat
L egs
1 0 0

5 0

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
F r e q u e n c y - H 2
F i g u r e : T r a n s m i s s i b i l i t y o f l e f gr e s q , u s e e n a ct i &e s c u s h i o n a t d i f

1. Low frequency vibrations:

All vibrations below 10 Hz are generally classified as low frequency

vibrations. They are chiefly from the travel of vehicles or machinery over
uneven surfaces. The vertical component of this vibration is more serve,
but horizontal components (before and after and traverse) may also be
important in determining operator comfort.
Body response to low frequency vibrations:
Below 2Hz human body response to vibrations as a dead weight. Above
2Hz, relative motion occurs between body member and organs due to
resonance effects within the skeleton and connecting tissues.
A main body response occurs in the range of 8Hz and leads to a
considerable amplification of this vibration between the buttocks and the
upper body regions and results in great discomfort. Above 8Hz the body
characteristics reduce the transmission of vibration to the head. When
standing sufficient attenuation of low frequency vibrations may be
provided by legs.
Horizontal components of vibration are only transmitted to the upper parts
of the body at very low frequencies. Particularly when the person is
standing, the level of discomfort increases as the exposure time.

Effects on performance:
Low frequency vibration causes degradation of human tracking ability
proportional to the vibration amplitude tasks that require steadiness or
precise muscular control.(Ex: foot press constancy or steering ability in
case of vehicle driving) are likely to show decrement from vibrations. The
reaction time, visibility and pattern recognition ability are also known to
be adversely affected by low frequency vibrations.

2. High frequency vibrations:

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All vibrations above 10Hz are generally classified as high frequency

vibrations. These generally arise from the mechanism of machinery or
from IC engines.

Body response:
Transmission of high frequency vibration through the body to the sensitive
organs in the trunk or head is limited. However between 20Hz and 30Hz
resonance of the head is encountered with the head vibration amplitude
exceeding that of the shoulders by as much as 3:1. Eyeballs resonance
has been found to take place between 60Hz and 90Hz. Intense vibrations
of the hands can lead to nervous and circulatory damage. This has been
experienced when working with vibrating hand tools such as pneumatic
drills or rivets. These are recorded to suggest/prove that 40-250Hz is the
frequently range most likely to cause these ailments.

Effects on performance:
High frequency vibration affect performance on both physical and mental
tasks vision, particularly the ability to judge depth, is greatly impaired by
vibrating frequencies between 25Hz and 40Hz and between 60 to 90Hz.

Protection against vibration:

(i) By reducing the applied forces responsible for initiating the
vibrations.
(ii) By changing the body positions so as to result in a reduced
distributing effect of vibratory forces.
(iii) By introducing supports hat cushion the body and thus damp
higher amplitude vibrations.

Reduction of generated high frequency vibrations can be accomplished by

the following means:
(i) Vibrations caused by imbalance of a moving component may be
reduced by improved balancing.
(ii) Resonance accentuated (stress or emphasize) vibration may be
lowered by the inclusions of high damping material either in the
construction or as additional features or by changing the natural
frequency of resonating member (ex: by changing its thickness).
(iii) A dynamic absorber, turned to absorb vibration at a specific
frequency may be incorporated.
(iv) Vibration may often be reduced by correct lubrication or by the
use of nylon bearings.

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(v) At the higher frequencies vibrations transmitted to the hands

from controls may be attenuated by a flexible hand grip.
(vi) Transmission from the vibrating part may be reduced by
mounting it on anti-vibrating devices (ex: rubber or metallic
spring elements with inherent or added damping).

NOISE
Excessive noise is also responsible for dropping the efficiency of the
workers and it is a frequent cause of fatigue. Working in a noisy area is
too much exhaustive and the efficiency of doing the work goes down.
Particularly, the intermittent noise produced from drop hammer, heavy
pressures, riveting guns, etc.

Some sounds are pleasant and soothing , on the other hand many noises
are unpleasant and annoying. Extent any types of annoyance depend on
both objective and subjective factors given below:
(i) The greater the noise intensity and the higher its pitch the more
will people be annoyed by it.
(ii) Unaccustomed or intermittent noises are more disquieting than
habitual or continuous noise.
(iii) Past experiences associated with fear (air-raid sirens) are
perceived as being most unpleasant.
(iv) Personal attitude towards the sources of noise is of great
importance. Ex: sound of motor cycle may be music for a young
man or anathema to an elder musician.
(v) Activity of a person and time of the day can determine the
degree to which a sound causes annoyance. Working house wife
is much less distributed by traffic noise or by the noise of
neighbors during the day than is her husband resting during his
lunch break.

Precautions to reduce level of noises are:

 It many cases hard materials may be replaced by soft materials like
rubber, nylon, etc and this can reduce noise level considerable.
 Some noise source can be neutralized by enclosing them in
absorbent castings. Noise radiation can also reduce the level by 20
-40 db if the inner lining is made of noise absorbing materials.
 Sound levels can also be adjusted by using sound absorbent
materials cladded on the walls.
 Ear protectors can also be used in case the sound level cannot be
reduced by any means.

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INFLUENCE OF LIGHTING SYSTEM ON HUMAN PERFORMANCE

Good lighting is necessary if work is to be done well and in comfort. It

must help people to see the details of their work with greatest possible
speed and clarity at inexpensive cost. Lighting can be made to suit the
task and the wider area of work.

Intensity of illumination is given by the amount of light falling on the

surface. The unit is “lux” which is equal to human per square meter.
Luminance is a measure of brightness which depends on the ability of that
surface to reflect light.
For lamps, etc, luminance is a measure of light emitted and the unit of
luminance is the Apostilb (asb) or stilb (sb).
1 asb = 0.32 candela per square meter.
It is luminance which people see and is measured by quality electronic
photo meters.

The human eye is very sensitive to a very wide range of light intensities
extending from several lux in a dark room to 100000 lux under mid-day
sun.

The muscles of the eye and the nerves which take part in the seeing
process is called the visual apparatus, which might get fatigue.

Illumination and surface brightness should be of even intensity throughout

the visual field.
General level of illumination should not change frequently since it disturbs
the accommodation of eyes.
Good light is essential for safety and efficiency of workers. Lack of light
may lead to accidents, wastage of materials, ineffective use of machine,
poor working efficiency. It may need repeated rests.

It is therefore clear that the various muscles of eyes must not be

overstressed, but emphasis is given to visual-ability.

Three visual functions are important:

(i) Visual acuity
(ii) Contrast sensitivity
(iii) Sped of perception

(i) Visual acuity: it is the ability of discriminating fine detaisl of the object
and surface. It depends on illumination and on the type of visual demand.

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Visual ability (sharpness) corresponds to resolving power of optical

system. visual acuity increases
 With the level of luminance in the visual field.
 With the difference in luminance between the object & its
immediate environment.
 With the objects / signs on a lighter background than with
light signs on dark background.

(ii) Contrast sensitivity: it is the ability to perceive minimum difference in

luminance. It varies as follows:
 It is greater for small areas than for large areas.
 It is greater for sharp boundaries than with gradual changes.
 It increases with the luminance of environment and is the greatest
between 200 to 1000 asb.
 It is greater with the outer parts of the visual fields are darken than
the central one with maximum values.

(iii) Speed of perception: it is the time which passes between looking an

object and its visual perception. Speed of perception increases with the
average level of luminary and with the degree of contrast between the
object and its environment.

Criteria for economic lighting:

The amounts of light necessary for good task performance depends on the
nature of the task, sharpness of the task, performer’s vision and the
environment in which the task is to be performed.

In the design of good lighting safety and welfare should be taken into
account as well as efficiency, thus creating a pleasing environment.

The ergonomic criteria applicable to lighting system are provision for

 Health and safety
 Performance
 Discomfort
 Aesthetic

Primary factors in seeing are visual object size, luminance, contrast with
object background, task duration and seeing ability of viewer. The seeing
ability may be affected by age, poor task contrast, glare, etc.

Amount of light required for adequate visual performance:

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Visual task Recommended

illumination (Lux)
(i) Assembly and inspection tasks:
a) Rough work 300
b) Medium work 500
c) Fine work 750
d) Very fine work 1000
(ii) Weaving tasks
a) Jute and hemp 300
b) Fine woolens 750
c) Inspection 1500
(iii) Sheet metal work 500
(iv) Plastic molding & sheet fabrication 300
(v) Wood working:
a) Rough sawing 300
b) Medium bench & machine work 500
c) Fine bench m/c work, finishing 750

These factors are affected by

 Degree of reflection from the work itself and its environment.
 Differences from natural day lights.
 A need to use artificial lighting during the day and age of
employees.

Discomfort includes eye stresss caused due to glare which results into
illumination fatigue:
 Visual fatigue
 Nervous fatigue

(i) Visual fatigue- it arises from persistent stress on the accommodating

muscle of eye i.e., prolonged close inspection of minute objects and thus
it may result in
a) Irritation, watering of eyelids
b) Double vision
c) Head ache
d) Decrease in power of accommodation

(ii) Nervous fatigue- several stresses may be developed by visual

perception and thus nervous fatigue may appear. It may result in
a) Prolonged reaction time
b) Slowing in eye movements
c) Sleeplessness
Ultimately fatigue may result in

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 Loss in production
 Lowered quality work
 Increased accident rates

Lighting Systems:
There are 4 systems:
(i) Direct radiating illuminants (spot lights, flood lights)- more than 90%
of the light is transmitted in the form of cone and in general it is used in
exhibitions, shop windows, booking offices, etc. since such light tends to
produce strong contrasts and relative glare at work. Such light can be
used at work provided general illumination is good to temper the shadows
and contrasts.

(ii) Combined direct and indirect illuminants- about 40% of the light
radiates in all directions and rest is directed towards ceiling and walls. This
light produces moderately soft shadows and blurred borders. It is used for
general illumination in shops, offices, houses, etc. since it produces
uniform effect it is not suitable for precision work.

(iii) Freely radiating illuminants- they radiate light of high luminance

evenly in all directions i.e., light bulb, shadows and give relatively hard
shadows. If bulb is powerful, these lights may also form source of glare,
hence such lights are recommended in stores, corridors, lavatories, etc.

(iv) Indirectly radiating illuminants- more than 90% of the light goes on
the walls and ceilings and then reflected into the room. Such light is
practically diffused and so it can be used at the work places where
additional light is available whenever needed. This causes very little glare
and so it is recommended for art galleries,

Guidelines for Industrial Lighting:

(i) Lighting the work and the environment- light may be directed to work
and to match the needs of task. General level of lighting must be capable
of showing the task against background. The level of brightness required
for any task depends on the degree of details the person has to observe,
time allowed for this and reflection characteristics of the task and the
general level of brightness in the room.

(ii) Lighting the work free from glare –glare may cause discomfort and
reduce the ability to see. It occurs , when some parts of field of views are
excessively bright in relation to general level of brightness. Glare depends
on
 Brightness and area of sources
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 Their position in the person’s field of view

 Arrange brightness of surroundings against which they are seen.
Glare index is the numerical value derived from the type of light fitting, its
brightness and position, the size of the room, reflection of its surfaces.

(iii) Lighting the work free from flicker- sodium discharge, mercury
discharge, tubular fluorescent operating on AC produce light which varies
in each cycle. Flicker is not seen when lamps operate on a 50 Hz electric
supply. But a person may get an impression that rotating machinery or
moving objects have slowed down or are stationary (stroboscopic effect).
Flicker is more likely to be troublesome at high level of illumination. Some
people are more sensitive to flicker. So, care to be taken while designing
lighting.

(iv) Shadows and modeling- it is possible to sharpen or soften the form

and surface texture of an object by changing the direction of light falling
on it (effect is called modeling) and it can be used to improve the visibility
of the task details for industrial inspection.

(v) Color and illumination- appearance of colored surface depends on the

amount of light reflected from them and on the type of lighting used. Most
artificial light sources distort appearance of colors seen under them as
compared to day light. Appropriate use of color can help to maintain
attention on the task, improve safety and amenity, and to reduce glare
from light fittings.

(vi) Lighting the work so as to provide visual rest and relaxation.

(vii) Lighting the work so as to provide any comfortable posture and to

reduce a fatigue due to poor light.

(viii) Lighting for movement within building

 To distinguish an object from its background
 To reveal its shape and texture
 To enable any marking on its surface to be easily seen.

Nature of light:
1. Natural light
2. Artificial light
3. Reflectors

Natural Light or Day light- it is light received from sun.

Advantages:
 It is available in plenty, particularly in hot countries.
 It is provided by nature, free of cost.
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 It is free from problems like power failure, power cut, etc

 No installation & maintenance costs are involved in day lighting
 Day light is harmless to eyes
 It is quite suitable for general lighting purposes.

Disadvantages:
 It is available only during day time & not during night
 It is less dependable, as its availability depends upon the sun
 Its intensity varies with seasons and weather
 Its intensity cannot be controlled to suit the specific requirement of
specific operations
 The direction of natural light cannot be changed
 During certain seasons and hours of the day, sunlight causes
excessive glare
 In case of day lighting, it is very difficult to ensure uniform lighting
throughout the factory building. So, special efforts have to be made
to ensure uniform lighting throughout the factory building

Artificial Light- is light or illumination from some source of power

Advantages:
 It can be secured in all regions, at all times
 It is quite dependable
 It is only means of light during nights
 Even distribution of light of illumination can be ensured by fixing
light at proper places
 The intensity of artificial light can be controlled or changed to suit
specific requirement or operation
 The quality and quantity can be controlled according to the
requirement of every employee in the factory

Disadvantages:
 It is quite expensive, as more money is required to be spent on the
installation of artificial light
 The current cost of artificial light is quite high
 It is subjected to power cuts and power failure
 It is not good for health of office employees as it produces much
heat.

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