European Journal of Marketing

Strategic political segmentation - A new approach for a new era of political marketing
Gareth Smith Andy Hirst
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European
Journal of Strategic political
Marketing
35,9/10
segmentation
A new approach for a new era of political
1058 marketing
Received June 2000
Revised January 2001
Gareth Smith and Andy Hirst
Loughborough University Business School, Loughborough,
Leicestershire, UK
Keywords Politics, Marketing, Market segmentation, Strategy
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Abstract This article begins by analysing developments in political segmentation over the last
decade. Using an appropriate database and statistical approach, segments of the British
electorate are identified. Conservative and Liberal Democrat segments are then analysed and
issues affecting their likely electoral performance discussed. The Labour segments split into
distinctive ``old'' and ``new'' Labour camps. As attitudes differ widely across these segments, the
two most different segments are targeted for further analysis. The issues which most
discriminate between these two Labour segments are highlighted and some suggestions
forwarded on how policies might be positioned for these disparate segments. The article concludes
by considering the stability of political segments over time. It also discusses the limits of strategic
segmentation in politics and identifies further research opportunities.

Introduction: developments in political marketing over the last

decade
Over the last decade there has been a marked increase in research into
marketing's relevance and application to politics, both of a theoretical (Wring,
1997; Butler and Collins, 1999) and applied nature (Hayes and McAllister, 1996;
O'Cass, 1996). In 1990 it was possible to conclude that, using the idea of
evolutionary stages in the development of marketing (Keith, 1960), political
marketing had moved from sophisticated selling (using advertising/election
broadcasts, etc. to ``push'' party political ideas) to a ``nascent marketing era''
(Smith and Saunders, 1990, p. 296). This marketing era in politics manifests
itself in such activities as image building, issue tracking, the targeting of
voters, timing of elections and aiding in policy formulation (Kavanagh, 1995).
The plethora of new research covering these issues makes the epithet ``nascent''
look increasingly redundant.
Ten years on, there is evidence that we are now moving to another stage of
marketing's development in politics, namely the strategic marketing era
(Newman, 1994; Butler and Collins, 1996). This latter stage manifests itself in
the use of marketing not merely as a short-term tactical device, primarily used
for information gathering in the run-up to elections, but as a longer-term and
permanent activity to ensure continued governance (Nimmo, 1999). For the
European Journal of Marketing, strategic era to be fully embraced in politics will require a concomitant
Vol. 35 No. 9/10, 2001, pp. 1058-1073.
# MCB University Press, 0309-0566 development of strategic segmentation. Porter's (1980) generic, market-based
 strategies for achieving competitive advantage support this assertion. Both Strategic
``focus'' and ``differentiation'' require strategic segmentation. Focus requires the political
targeting of segments and development of appropriate marketing mix segmentation
strategies. Differentiation involves ``positioning'' the offering of the organisation
in the minds of the consumer (Ries and Trout, 1986). Typically, positioning is
viewed as part of the strategic segmentation process (Kotler, 1997; Hooley and
Saunders, 1993; Myers, 1996). Accordingly, it seems reasonable to conclude that 1059
those political parties wishing to embrace the new ``strategic marketing era'' and
gain a long-term competitive advantage over their opponents, will need to
develop their segmentation in a more strategic way.

Recent developments in political segmentation

Since 1990 the development of segmentation has seen a shift in emphasis from
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the traditional (geographic and demographic) methods of segmentation

towards an increased use of psychographic/attitudinal bases to segment
political markets (see Table I).
The Labour party appear to have started the trend for psychographic
segmentation in Britain in the early 1970s when it identified segments such as
``Jack'' (new style Labour), ``old Fred'' (old style Labour), ``floating left'' and so on
(Rosenbaum, 1997). Since then its use has increased in line with computational
power and appropriate statistical techniques. In 1992 the Tory party employed
Richard Wirthlin, who, having proved influential in Reagan's successive
presidential elections, developed a psychographic/attitudinal segmentation
approach purpose built for application to political marketing (Rosenbaum,
1997).
However, the fact that a more sophisticated range of segmentation bases has
been used over the last decade does not, of itself, support the notion of more
strategic segmentation. A strategic approach to segmentation emphasises a
long-term customer focus and requires the integration of three discrete
activities, namely segmentation, targeting and positioning (Kotler, 1997).
Although there has been theoretical acknowledgement of segmentation as a
strategic activity in politics (Newman and Sheth, 1985; Baines, 1999), the
applied research (Table I) shows little evidence of this approach. Political
segmentation is thus following the practice of most organisations in using
segmentation simply as a means of breaking down markets to aid short-term
managerial decision making (Piercy and Morgan, 1993). To clarify what
constitutes strategic segmentation, an approach, amended for use in the
political domain, is supplied next.

Applying strategic segmentation to British politics

The strategic segmentation process in Figure 1 begins by discovering the
segments that exist using appropriate criteria. Clearly this is critical as
segments may be constructed using any base, however irrelevant (e.g. using
attitude to DIY to assess voting behaviour/party loyalty, for example). Second,
decisions need to be made over which segments are attractive enough to be
 European Segmentation Political maketing Political marketing
Journal of method up to 1990 post 1990
Marketing Methodology Example Methodology Example
35,9/10
Geographic/ A priori North-South Divide A priori US Presidential
geo-demographic (Heath, Jowell and Election (Shelley and
1060 Curtice, 1985) Archer, 1992)
ACORNa A priori UK regional analysis
Geodemographics (Curtice, 1996)
(Yorke and Meehan,
1986)
Demographic A priori Social class (Butler A priori Gender rates across
and Stokes, 1971) Europe (Scott, Braun
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and Alwin, 1998)

A priori Middle-class politics
in Britain (Heath and
Savage, 1994)
Behavioural A priori Economic theory of A priori Late deciders in UK
democracy politics (Hayes and
McAllister, 1996)
New Labour vs Old
(Bottomley and
Curtice, 1999)

Attitudinal/ Limited US politics Unknown Psychographic

psychographic post hoc UK politics (Smith segmentation of UK
Post hoc and Saunders, 1990) politics (Wirthlin
quoted in Rosenbaum,
1997)
Sophisticated The ``American
a priori dream'' research
(Newman, 1999)
A priori Attitudes and politics
under Thatcher
(Heath and Park,
1997)
A priori Political partisanship
and attitudes to the
Table I. EU (Evans, 1998)
Development of
segmentation in Note: a ACORN is an acronym for A Classification Of Residential Neighbourhoods. It links
politics since 1990 consumer behaviour to demographic and geographic classification

targeted (i.e. segments that are very disparate/small, etc. might be ignored or
given less attention). Third, a better understanding of the targeted segments is
required. From this better understanding, parties and their policies may be
positioned more effectively; some issues having greater resonance with some
 segments than others. Then the appropriate marketing mix activity may be Strategic
formulated in terms of the actual policy/issues to highlight or downplay for a political
given segment, the way to communicate with them and so on. segmentation
The segmentation, targeting, and positioning (STP) approach (Figure 1)
promises better targeted policies towards identified and attractive segments.
However, the political market is different from the private sector business
market (Lock and Harris, 1996). Positioning in politics, for example, is not a 1061
value free activity. Edmund Burke (1774) told the electors of Bristol ``Your
representative owes you, not his industry only but his judgement; and he
betrays instead of serving you if he sacrifices it to your opinion''. His point is a
strong, modern warning against any ``full-blown'' STP approach that elevates
public opinion over the views of elected representatives ± with all that this
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would entail on issues such as repatriation, asylum seekers, the death penalty
and so on. The question of how far the STP process ought to be applied in a
liberal democracy is not clear-cut therefore and will be returned to later.

Research methodology
As indicated in Table II, ``a priori'' and ``post hoc'' approaches are the two basic
methods available for segmentation research (Green et al., 1988; Myers, 1996).
A priori segmentation occurs when the researcher decides how the segments
will be formed prior to conducting the research (e.g. using voters with high,
medium or low levels of party loyalty as the pre-determined segments whose
views will be researched). Post hoc segmentation involves no pre-judgement of
the segment bases at the outset. Instead the segmentation is achieved using a
statistical technique which places respondents into groups with others who
have similar views/responses to questions asked.
According to seminal research in the area, segmentation for ``understanding
the market'' should involve many bases for segmentation (Wind, 1978). Given
that the position faced at the outset of this research was to understand the
segments that exist in the British political market, all of the possible generic
bases of segmenting (attitudinal, behavioural, geographic and demographic)
were used. Also, as there was no real theoretical guidance for deciding

Figure 1.
A strategic process for
segmenting political
markets: the STP
approach
 European Features
Journal of
Marketing Annual longitudinal survey (since 1984)
35,9/10 1,355 respondents
46 attitudinal questions covering:
Economic issues/taxation
1062 Social services
The EU
Single currency
Transport/car usage
Environmental protection
The green belt
Job satisfaction
Work ethic
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Left-right perceptionsa
Authoritarian-litertarian perceptionsa
Importance of social class
Two specific voting/behavioural questions:
Likely voting intentions
Strength of party identification (partisans, sympathisers or residual identifiers)
Eight classificatory (geographic and demographic) questions:
Sex
Age
Income
Occupation
Social class
Education
Region
Table II. Marital status
The British social
attitudes database, Note: a Left-right and authoritarian-libertarian are derived variables from other attitudinal
1997 questions within the survey. See Appendix for details

appropriate segmentation bases at the outset, the logical approach was to adopt
a post hoc methodology involving no prior judgement from the researchers.
Once segments are better understood, specific bases may be chosen a priori
to investigate issues that arise (Wind 1978). Thus, post hoc followed by a priori
approach is used herein. First, a wide listing of segmentation bases are used in
a post hoc way to break the market down into its constituent segments. A priori
segmentation is then used to investigate those specific issues signalled by the
previous post hoc segmentation. This latter stage equates to a party manager
subjectively choosing to investigate further an ``attractive'' segment with a view
to developing a positioning strategy for it. This research process follows,
therefore, the STP process identified in Figure 1.

Sampling frame
The latest available data from the British Social Attitudes survey (just prior to
the 1997 election) was used to segment the political market. It was chosen
 because of the quality of its data that seeks to ``monitor and explain changes in Strategic
the social and political climate'' (Jowell et al., 1999). The survey combines political
enduring social issues relevant to politics (such as the economy and social segmentation
services) with currently salient issues (such as the environment, transport
policy, etc.). It also contains information on the partisan allegiances of
respondents plus relevant demographics and social classificatory data. Table II
provides more detail of the database's content. 1063
Data reduction and segment evaluation
As the database is so large, the first step was to use principal component
analysis to reduce it to more manageable proportions. Due to missing data, the
final sample size had 500 usable cases. Principal component analysis using
Varimax rotation was conducted with a solution determined by eigenvalues
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greater than 1. The final rotated solution explained 63.1 per cent of the variance
in the data. The individual factors were examined to establish internal
consistency using Cronbach's coefficient alpha (Devellis, 1991). Factors that
exhibited both strong internal consistency (i.e. alphas between 0.65 and 0.95)
and substantive meaning were summated to produce a single variable, and
variables that did not, were kept as a single item to prevent any significant loss
of meaning. This left 16 variables that were then used to cluster respondents.
Examination of clusters led to a clear seven-cluster solution. The attitude
data plus an appraisal of party identification and other demographic and non-
parametric data was then used to describe the nature of the clusters. The
results are presented in Table III.
After pre-examining the univariate and bivariate statistics, multiple
discriminant analysis (MDA) was performed using all 16 variables to examine
two important Labour segments (combined number of cases = 120). A stepwise
approach was used because theory provided little guidance for model
specification (O'Gorman and Woolson, 1991). Typically MDA is performed
with a hold out sample to measure the stability of the coefficients produced.
The low variable to case ratio meant that an alternative approach was needed.
The stability of the coefficients was therefore determined by examining the
results of progressively smaller samples (Kohli, 1989). The stepwise procedure
found five variables to be significant at the 0.001 per cent level and, as can be
seen from the classification, the variables chosen through the stepwise MDA
correctly classified 95.6 per cent of cases, which is much higher than would be
expected by chance. When the analysis was conducted on smaller samples the
results remained consistent. Therefore we can be confident that: the coefficients
are stable; and the variables provide good predictive validity. The results of the
analysis are presented in Table IV.

Analysis of results
Stage one. Identifying the segments ± the magnificent seven
Table III provides a synopsis of the findings resulting from the factor and
cluster analysis.
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1064
35,9/10

Table III.
European
Journal of
Marketing

Political segments
Segment I II III IV V VI VII

Name ``Old Labour'' ``Feel Tory Labour ``Underwhelmed'' ``Light Green Champagne
Poor Gooders'' Mainstreamers Nationalists Loyals Lefties'' Socialists
Share of populace (%) 19 5 27 12 14% 15 10
Party share of segments
Conservative (%) 25 47 60 26 41 23 8
Labour (%) 69 35 30 58 54 59 72
Liberal Democrat (%) 6 18 10 15 4 18 20
Party identificationa Labour Conservative Conservative Labour Labour and Labour Labour
partisans partisans partisans and partisans Conservative partisans and partisans
sympathisers partisans and sympathisers
sympathisers and residual
identifiers
Attitudes
Right vs lefta Left wing ± ± Left wing ± Very left wing Very left wing
Libertarian vs authoritariana ± ± ± ± ± ± Libertarian
NHS (run well) No Yes Yes No No No No
Social class (more important) Yes ± No Yes ± No Yes
Performance of GB economy Poorly Very well Well ± ± Very well ±
Lower taxes (at expense of No ± No No ± Definitely not Definitely not
social services)
Increase tax to increase ± ± No No ± Yes Yes
services
Positive/negative about EU ± ± ± Negative ± ± Positive
Pound vs Euro Keep pound Keep pound Keep pound Keep pound Keep pound Keep pound Keep pound
Feel good factors
More prosperity ± Yes ± ± ± ± ±
Job satisfaction ± Yes ± ± ± ± Yes
(continued)
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Segment I II III IV V VI VII

Feel good about employer Yes Yes ± ± ± ± Yes

Work ethic (good?) ± Yes ± No ± ± Yes
Environmental issues
Environmental protection ± More needed More needed ± ± Much more Much more
needed needed
Green belt (need to protect) Agree Agree strongly Agree Agree Agree Agree strongly Agree strongly
Car usage (controlling) ± ± ± Disagree ± ± Agree
Transport policies (well ± ± ± Agree ± ± Disagree
sorted)
Demographics
Age ± > 45 < 44 24-44 ± ± 35-54
Sex More females ± ± More females More males ± More males
Income Many poor Many poor Spread ± Low Middle Middle Better off High
(<£10k) (<£10k) and high (£10-20k) (£10-20k) (more >£20k) (many >£20k)
earners (<10k
and >£40k)
Education ``O'' levels Graduates or ± ``O'' levels ± Graduates Graduates
``O'' levels
Socio-economic group Junior white Junior white Mix of Junior white Professional/ Professional/ Professional/
collar, skilled collar and professional, collar managerial plus managerial managerial
blue collar and skilled blue managerial and supervisory/
unskilled collar blue collar unskilled
Region Northern ± ± ± South East Southern South East
a
Notes: The definition of these variables is supplied in the Appendix. ± Indicates where no obvious difference within the segment is present

Table III.
segmentation
Strategic
political

1065
 European Old New
Journal of Labour Labour Predictive group
Discriminant variables Coefficient (mean) (mean) membership
Marketing
35,9/10 Control car usage 0.652 3.22 1.85 Old (%) New (%)
+ve or ±ve about EU 0.384 3.23 2.53 Old Labour 95.6 4.4
1066 Performance of economy 0.372 3.66 3.04 New Labour 4.3 95.7
Green belt protection 0.356 2.1 1.35 95.6% correctly classified
Lower taxes/worse social ±0.751 3.7 4.67
services
Summary statistics:
Eigenvalue = 2.365
Table IV. Wilks's lambda = 0.73
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Results of multiple Chi-square = 159.556

discriminant analysis Df = 5 sig 0.000

The seven clusters/segments that resulted reflect the overall popularity of the
Labour party in the immediate run-up to the election. They are the clear leaders
in four segments (I, IV, VI and VII). By way of contrast, the Conservatives are
the main group in two (III and II). As with a similar analysis ten years ago,
(Smith and Saunders, 1990), Liberal Democrat problems are reflected in their
not ``owning'' any segments.
The Conservative position is an interesting one. Segment III is by far their
biggest segment. It also unites a wide range of Tory voters in terms of their
level of allegiance to the party. Both partisans and sympathisers are well
represented therein (see Appendix for definitions). Also, there is a notably wide
spread of income, education, occupation and region. Despite these differences,
the Tory voters in this segment are remarkably similar in not feeling very
strongly about any of the social and economic issues covered. It is for this
reason that they have been dubbed ``Tory Mainstreamers'' ± though ``middle of
the roaders'' would fit equally well. Interestingly, this segment shows
similarities with another segment, the ``Underwhelmed Loyalists'' (Segment V).
It too has a strong presence of partisan Conservatives and they similarly do not
feel strongly about the issues of the day. As Segment V also has a high number
of Labour loyalists it is possible that both segments are relatively apolitical
despite their partisanship. They may well reflect voting behaviour that is
habitual and historical, as typified by social class/family based voting (Butler
and Stokes, 1971). It is also tempting to interpret the Tory Mainstreamers'
moderation as a sign of resignation about the general election to come but this
would be pushing the data too far. It may be that there are other factors driving
behaviour in these segments that have not been identified from the data
collected.
The other Conservative segment (Segment II), whilst much smaller, is
dominated by Conservative partisans. As signified by the title allocated to
them, these ``feel gooders'' are happy about lots of things ± their job, the
 increased prosperity of the country, the way the economy is performing. They Strategic
are even happy with the way the NHS is run. Their salaries are not great yet political
and their age suggests they are starting rather than finishing their careers. segmentation
Most of the Liberal Democrats' support (63 per cent) is in segments
dominated by Labour. Also, given the party's long-term commitment to
libertarianism and environmentalism, it must be of concern that they do not
perform better in the Labour Segments VI and VII, where these issues are seen 1067
as particularly important. In fact, their support is relatively uniformly spread
across all the segments, despite the marked differences between the segments.
It is interesting, for example, that the biggest single group of Liberal Democrat
voters is in the largest Conservative segment, the Tory Mainstreamers (i.e.
segment III). It may be that the party means many things to many people or
their supporters are voting against the other parties rather than for Liberal
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Democratic policies. Reasons for this spread need to be better understood

before any positioning strategy is formulated.
The position of the Labour party is much more positive, as might be
expected given their imminent electoral victory. However, from a party
manager/marketer's perspective there are a number of issues that the analysis
highlights. First, it is notable that although there are four strong Labour
segments, they are split into two broad camps. Segments I and IV are similar in
that they exhibit ``Old Labour'' characteristics. They believe social class is still
an important issue, they are not very interested in the environmental issues, do
not have much by way of a feel good factor and, in segment IV, are anti the EU
± little sign of Blair's New Labour here (see Bottomley and Curtice (1999) for
more on the ``Third Way''). They are markedly different from Segments VI and
VII who are the most ``left wing'' of all the segments. The ``Light Green Lefties''
segment is so called because of their attitude to environmental issues but also
because they are always less radical than Segment VII. The latter segment has
the most party loyalists and is the most left wing. It is also the wealthiest
segment overall and by far the best educated ± hence the title ``Champagne
Socialists''.

Stage two. Targeting segments: Labour's dilemma.

At this point each party faces different problems on which segments to target.
Labour is chosen as our focus because they have four potential target segments
to aim at. Moreover there is a clear polarisation of these segments. Consequently,
Labour provides more scope to test the application of the STP approach than, for
example, the Conservatives with their dominant, main segment.
Segmentation theory suggests that ``good'' segments are those that possess
criteria such as measurability, substantiality, accessibility, differentiability and
actionability (Kotler, 1997). As the segments are already known through the
clustering process and are relatively sizeable (with the possible exception of
Segment II), the first two criteria are satisfied. With the raft of direct marketing
techniques available to political marketers and the ability to target messages in
party political/election broadcasts, the criteria of accessibility also seems
 European satisfied ± especially considering the range of classificatory data that is also
Journal of available from the data to target the segments. The critical issues are those of
Marketing differentiability and actionability. Are the segments different enough on
important issues to merit being treated as discrete segments and will the views
35,9/10 they hold allow for action via a coherent manifesto/platform. The issue of
joining the Euro does, for example, clearly differentiate voters. It is much less
1068 clear if the ``wait and see'' versus the ``not within the timescale of the next
Parliament'' strategies of the two main parties is an acceptable compromise for
the electorate or not.
The preceding cluster analysis put into segments people with similar
attitudes, but could not give sufficient guidance on what issues are the most
important discriminators between segments, i.e. their relative differentiability
and actionability remains unclear.
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The two Labour segments that look the most different at a superficial level
of analysis are Segments I and VII (a fact confirmed in general terms by the
partitioning process in the cluster analysis ± those at the extreme ends being
the most different in their expressed attitudes). They are the two segments
most likely to pose problems for the party managers and, as such, they have
been chosen for further analysis. The choice is a managerial/a priori one
reflecting the likely information needed by party managers seeking to develop
a coherent positioning strategy across apparently disparate Labour segments.

Stage three. Positioning ``Old Labour Poor'' (OLP) versus ``Champagne

Socialists'' (CSs)
The results of the discriminant analysis are produced in Table IV.
Table IV identifies those issues that most differentiate the two Labour
segments targeted. The biggest differentiator is their attitude to lowering taxes
at the expense of other welfare issues (e.g. pensions). Not surprisingly it is the
CSs who are most strongly against this with the OLP slightly in favour. Given
the relative disparity of wealth between segments, this is hardly surprising.
The OLP may well feel that they need lower taxes more than the CSs.
The next most important discriminator is their differing attitudes to the car.
The CSs are very positive about controlling car usage while the OLP are
slightly against such a move. Again it may be that the well-off CSs living in the
South East are economically able to use all forms of transport whilst
experiencing the negative effect the car has on urban life. This may be
contrasted with the more Northern OLP group where the car is more positively
viewed and seen as less of a threat to the environment.
As shown in Table III, the research indicates more OLP coming from the
North than CSs (chi-square 13.06, sig. 0.001) whilst several segments, including
Segment VII (Champagne Socialists), have a southern bias (chi-square 14.92,
sig. 0.001). This suggested North-South divide links together the remaining
three discriminating issues. Segments I and VII are both in favour of protecting
the green belt but, not surprisingly, the CSs are most in favour. Once again,
their educational platform may be playing a role here as well as the relatively
 different pressure on land between the North and the South East. The OLP are Strategic
most negative about how the economy is performing which, given their relative political
wealth and the relative disparity in economic performance between the two segmentation
areas, might be a factor. The final discriminating issue concerns the EU. The
OLP are more in line with the other segments by being generally opposed to the
EU. The CSs, perhaps because of their geographical proximity and/or
intellectual conversion to the benefits of closer co-operation, are the most 1069
positive of all the segments. As such, they are closest to the ``New Labour''
agenda on this issue.
It is tempting to overplay the New versus Old Labour argument when
contrasting the two segments. This would be dangerous however. Despite the
differences just discussed, on most issues the two segments do not differ
significantly (see Table III). This means that a common message on these
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issues may be used for both groups. With regard to the two environmental
issues where they differ, a strong message on environmental protection that
both groups are in favour of (as shown in the cluster analysis) might be
effective if it did not highlight the potentially divisive issues of car usage and
the green belt. Failing this, a more targeted approach using direct marketing
might be a viable way of talking to the two separately. With regard to their
differences about how well the economy is doing, the positioning decision is
straightforward. As the opposition party in the run-up to an election, a line
critical of Conservative economic management would suit both segments. With
regard to the EU issue, this was seen to be splitting the Conservative Party
more than the Labour party at the time. The obvious positioning strategy for
the two segments would therefore point out the opposition's divisions whilst
keeping Labour's own options as open as possible. Finally, the lowering taxes
versus improving other social services (such as pensions) would be an issue
that the Labour party would wish to keep separate, reflecting as it does the old
``tax and spend'' Labour image. In hindsight, one of Labour's great successes in
the 1997 election campaign was the fact that they managed to convince the
electorate that they would manage the economy prudently, not put up taxes
whilst prioritising the most needy in society ± a major positioning achievement.

Conclusions
This research has segmented the British political market into seven distinctive
groupings. The segments are understandable and offer an opportunity for each
party to communicate their policies more effectively to the electorate. It is also
possible to compare the segments from this research with those of a decade
ago. A study using an earlier British Social Attitudes database and the same
segmentation approach produced a six-cluster solution (Smith and Saunders,
1990). The fact that clear and understandable segments have been identified in
both studies lends weight to their validity. Also it is possible to compare and
contrast them to assess segment stability over time. Some differences are
readily observable, as one might expect given the changes to the political
landscape. Developments include a re-packaged and attractive opposition (New
 European Labour), a divided government (the Conservatives over the EU), greater
Journal of cynicism towards politics generally, all set against a backdrop of reduced party
loyalty (Crewe, 1993). So, for example there are two radical left wing segments
Marketing (VI and VII) in this research compared to one a decade ago. However, there are
35,9/10 signs of segment stability as well with the ``Old Labour Poor'' (Segment I)
looking very similar to the ``Poor Outsiders'' segment of the previous research.
1070 Similarly, the ``Tory Mainstreamers'' of this study have similarities with the so-
called ``Hardcore Conservative Traditionalists'' of a decade ago. The
comparison therefore suggests change but with enduring segments. Certain
generic influences such as traditional conservatism and poverty will produce
segment stability over time. Other segments that are influenced by recent social
and political factors (e.g. a new left-of-centre offering) may well change from
election to election.
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The article has also considered the targeting process as applied to politics by
focusing on two disparate Labour segments. There are, however, numerous
other ways that might have been chosen for targeting segments. Obviously,
Conservative and Liberal Democrat party managers would be more interested
in targeting those segments where their support is strongest. Targeting
``competitor'' segments would also be possible and a potentially useful
approach. For example, the Conservatives might be particularly interested in
those Labour segments where anti-EU sentiment is strongest, with a view to
converting voters. It has already been noted that the Liberal Democrats might
be interested in those Labour segments (VI and VII) which show radical,
libertarian values. In addition, targeting segments by their relative
partisanship would be of interest to party managers of all persuasions. For
example, targeting those segments with high levels of other parties' ``residual
identifiers'' (i.e. weakly partisan voters) and finding out the issues that are most
important to them might well produce an electoral advantage. Each of these
targeting approaches presents, therefore, a new research avenue for marketing
academics and practitioners.
The successful use of the STP process to guide this research clearly shows
that it is possible to follow a strategic approach to market segmentation in
politics. Two segments were chosen deliberately because of their differences
and it was still possible to develop a positioning strategy that would be viable
for both, whilst not being contradictory. However, the danger remains that a
``full blown'' STP approach would push parties to be ``all things to all people''
resulting in them looking short-term and opportunistic in the eyes of the
electorate.
Accordingly, boundaries need to be set when using the STP approach within
politics. The enduring ideology of the three main parties (socialism,
conservatism and liberalism) offers the most likely safeguard against any
excess. The fragmentation of messages across segments that positioning might
encourage would be seen as lacking ideological consistency and credibility and
thus be rejected by voters (Butler and Collins, 1994).
Finally, it is worth noting that, although the research reported here focuses
on party politics in Britain, the methodology can be applied in a wider political
 context. It will be relevant to any democratic process where two or more parties Strategic
or directly elected individuals (as in the case of presidential/London Mayoral/ political
local elections) are competing for the support of an identifiable group of segmentation
electors.
We started this article by introducing the concept of a strategic approach to
segmentation. Having identified the lack of any real sign of such a process
either in practice or from a theoretical perspective we have suggested a 1071
methodology to proceed and provided a worked example for a major political
party. Now, as ten years ago, it is clear that the pursuit of a competitive
advantage is going to force an ever-increasingly sophisticated marketing
approach in politics. Political parties will become better at positioning their
parties towards identified targeted segments with attractive policies. In 2010
we may well be confirming the presence of the strategic era of marketing
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underpinned by strategic segmentation and asking the question, ``Quo Vadis

political marketing next?''.
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 Appendix. Definition of composite and derived variables Strategic
1. Party identification political
Respondents classify themselves as:
. supporters of that party (partisans);
segmentation
. closer to it than to others (sympathisers); or
. more likely to support it in the event of a general election (residual identifiers).
1073
2. Derived variables
The following questions were used to develop these scales:
(1) Left-right scale (Cronbach Alpha 0.82)
. Government should redistribute income from the better off to those who are less
well off.
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. Big business benefits owners at the expense of workers.

. Ordinary working people do not get their fair share of the nation's wealth.
. There is one law for the rich and one for the poor.
. Management will always try to get the better of employees if it gets the chance.
(2) Libertarian-authoritarian scale (Cronbach Alpha 0.74)
. Young people today don't have enough respect for traditional British values.
. People who break the law should be given stiffer sentences.
. For some crimes, the death penalty is the most appropriate sentence.
. Schools should teach children to obey authority.
. The law should always be obeyed, even if a particular law is wrong.
. Censorship of films and magazines is necessary to uphold moral standards.
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