UNIT 2 BASICS OF COMMUNICATION

TECHNOLOGY
Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Analog and Digital Communication
2.2.1 Analog Signal
2.2.2 Digital Data Transmission

2.3 Data Communication Modes

2.3.1 Asynchronous, Synchronous and Isochronous Communication
2.3.2 Simplex, Half-Duplex, Full Duplex Communication

2.4 Communication Hardware

2.4.1 Communication Channels
2.4.2 Communication Devices

2.5 Communication Protocols/Standard

2.5.1 Communication Systems
2.5.2 TCP/IP Layers and Protocols
2.6 Summary
2.7 Answers to Self Check Exercises
2.8 Keywords
2.9 References and Further Reading

2.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this Unit, you will be able to:
 understand the concept of Data Transmission terminology;
 differentiate between Serial and Parallel communication;
 differentiate between Analog and Digital Data Transmission;
 know different types of transmission modes;
 compare the different Transmission Media and their characteristics;
 explain the characteristics and working of devices used for data communication;
and
 understand communication protocols/standards and realise its importance.

2.1 INTRODUCTION
We all are familiar with the term “Communication”, its meaning is contextual and can be
interpreted by different words. In general sense we can say the process of sharing
ideas, information, and messages with others at a particular time and place is
communication. Communication is a vital part of personal life and is also important in
business, education, and any other situation where people encounter each other.
Communication between two people is an outgrowth of methods developed over
28
centuries of expression. Gestures, the development of language, and the necessity to Basics of
Communication
engage in joint action all play a part. Communication, as we see it today, has evolved a Technology
long way. In this unit we will discuss the primitive modes of computer communication
used for data transfer in networks and Internet. Also, this unit will cover the devices
used for computer communication. All communication between devices requires that
the devices agree on the format of the data. The set of rules defining a format is known
as a protocol. In the end of this unit we have briefly given the details of communication
protocols/standards used for data transfer between computers particularly for Internet.

2.2 ANALOGAND DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

Communication from a source to a destination, that is, from one computer to another or
from one device to another, involves the transfer of information from the sender to the
receiver. The transfer of data from one machine to another machine such that, the
sender and the receiver both interpret the data correctly is known as Data
Communication. Broadly the data communication can be divided into two types Analog
and Digital. As you may know that signals carry the data for communication, hence this
classification of Analog and Digital is based on the signals which are used for data
transfer.

2.2.1 Analog Signal

We mostly use analog signals in our day-to-day life. Whatever we are talking meaning
voice signals, Radio and TV broadcasting signals, Electricity signals, Sunlight or other
lights signals, all are nothing but examples of Analog signal. We can say Analog signals
are Nature-Signals.

Fig. 2.1: Analog Signal

Technically, Analog signals vary constantly in one or more values; these changes in
values can be used to represent data as depicted in the figure 2.1. An analog signal is
continuous and can be represented by using sine waves. Human voice generates an
analog (continuously varying) signal containing multiple frequencies that is transmitted
as an analog signal over the medium.
It is important to note the limitations of analog signals. We know that signals are
propagated with the energy and it get weaker with the distance therefore, in long distance
communication like telephones, radio and TV communication we use a device named
“Amplifiers”. Amplifiers are used to overcome the attenuation that the signal suffers on
its way. However, amplifiers amplify noise along with the original signal and hence, if the
signal gets distorted, it cannot be reconstructed and it is a permanent loss. Due to this
29
Network Fundamentals reason, this type of transmission is not used where a high level of accuracy is needed.
This is used in telephony where a slight distortion in human communication does not
matter.
The ability to capture the slight nature of the real world is the single advantage of analog
techniques. However, once captured, modern electronic equipment, no matter how
advanced, cannot copy analog signals perfectly. By converting analog signals into digital,
the original audio or video data can be preserved indefinitely within the specified error
bounds and copied over and over without deterioration. Once continuously varying
analog signals are measured and converted into digital form, they can be stored and
transmitted without loss of integrity due to the accuracy of digital methods.

2.2.2 Digital Data Transmission

Digital data transmission describes any system based on discontinuous data or events.
Computers are digital machines because at their most basic level they can distinguish
between just two values, 0 and 1, or off and on, or high and low voltage as depicted in
figure 2. There is no simple way to represent all the values in between, such as 0.25. All
data that a computer processes must be encoded digitally, as a series of zeroes and
ones.

Fig. 2.2: Digital Signal

Information coming out of the computer is in the form of digital signals. The bandwidth
of a digital signal is infinite as compared to any medium, which has a limited bandwidth.
Therefore, as the signal is generated and enters the medium, at that point of entry, only
limited frequencies are permissible on the medium and this depends upon the bandwidth.
As the signal traverses over the medium it gets distorted and beyond a certain distance,
the signal becomes unrecognizable from the original one. A hardware device called
Repeater is used to regenerate the digital signal. The repeater measures the signal values
at regular intervals to recognise the 0’s and 1’s in the signal and regenerates them.
Hence, there is no loss of information. The number of repeaters to be used depends on
the distance between the source and the destination. Any line with repeaters placed at
appropriate distance is called a digital line.
When information, music, voice and video are turned into binary digital form, they can
be electronically manipulated, preserved and regenerated perfectly at high speed. The
millionth copy of a computer file is exactly the same as the original. This is, nevertheless,
a major advantage of digital processing.

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 Basics of
2.3 DATA COMMUNICATION MODES Communication
Technology
Data can be transmitted from Source to Destination in a number of ways. The different
modes of data transmission are outlined as follows:
 Asynchronous, Synchronous and Isochronous Communication.
 Simplex, Half Duplex and Full Duplex Communication.

2.3.1 Asynchronous, Synchronous and Isochronous

Communication
When we communicate to each other, what is a basic fundamental principle? It is
synchronisation of both persons, means when I am talking to you, you should listen to
me and once I complete my words then you should deliver your speech otherwise we
both will not be able to communicate. The same principle applies to computer or device
communication and perhaps it is very important for computers are not intelligent enough
to handle the cross talks. The three mechanisms used for synchronisation are
Asynchronous, Synchronous and Isochronous Communication.
Asynchronous Communication
Asynchronous communication sends individual characters one at a time framed by a
start bit and 1 or 2 stop bits. Each frame begins with a start bit that enables the receiving
device to adjust to the timing of the transmitted signal. The message can begin at any
time. Here, messages are kept as short as possible because, the sending and receiving
devices should not draft out of synchronisation, when the message is being transferred.
Asynchronous communication is most frequently used to transmit character data and is
ideally suited for characters that are transmitted at irregular intervals, such as, when
users are typing in character data from the keyboard.

Start Bit Data Bits (7 or 8 bits) Parity Bit Stop Bit or

Bits
(Optional)

Fig. 2.3: A Typical Frame Used to Transmit a Character

A typical frame used to transmit a character data has four components as shown in
figure 2.3. Start bit is used to signals the starting a frame and enables the receiving
device to synchronise itself with the message. Data Bits consists of 7 or 8 bits when
character data is being transmitted. Parity Bit is an optionally used as a crude method
for detecting transmission errors. Stop bit or bits signals the end of the data frame. You
must be curious to know about Parity Bit. Error detection in asynchronous transmission
makes use of the parity bit. Parity techniques can detect errors that affect only one bit
and if two or more bits are affected by errors, the parity techniques may not be able to
detect them. Asynchronous transmission is simple, inexpensive and is ideally suited for
transmitting small frames at irregular intervals (e.g., typing from a keyboard). As each
individual character is complete in itself, if a character is corrupted during transmission,
its successor and predecessor will not be affected.
We would like to tell you that this type of transmission is not suitable for transferring
large amounts of data or Audio and Video. Do you want to know, why? As we have
discussed above that start, stop and parity bits need to be added to each character that
is to be transmitted. This adds a high overhead to transmission and wastes the bandwidth;
as a result, asynchronous transmission is undesirable for transmitting large amounts of
data. Successful transmission inevitably depends on the recognition of the start bits. 31
Network Fundamentals These bits can be easily missed or occasionally spurious, as start bits can be generated
by line interference, the transmission may be unsuccessful. Due to the effects of distortion
the speed of asynchronous transmission is limited. If asynchronous transmission has
these problems, then what are the alternatives do we have? Let us discuss this.
Synchronous Communication
An alternative way to transfer large data is, instead of sending single character or few
bit we can send a group or block of data at once, and this methods is called synchronous
communication.
Here, transmission begins at a predetermined regular time instant. A synchronous signal
is used to tell the receiving station that a new frame is arriving and to synchronise the
receiving station. In simple language you can say it is something like we inform to our
friend that at particular time you will send some books, so be at home at that time to
receive books. This information is nothing but a “synchronous signal”. It is important to
note that in computer communication Synchronous signals can be sent along with the
message therefore, it generally utilises a bit pattern that cannot appear elsewhere in the
messages, ensuring that they will always be distinct and easy for the receiver to recognise.
As the transmitter and receiver remain in synchronisation for the duration of the
transmission, frames can be of longer length.
As frames are longer the parity method of error detection is not suitable because, if
multiple bits are affected, then, the parity technique will not report error accurately.
Hence, the technique used with synchronous transmission is the Cyclic Redundancy
Check (CRC). The transmitter uses an algorithm to calculate a CRC value that
summarises the entire value of data bits. This CRC value is appended to the data frame.
The receiver uses the same algorithm, recalculates the CRC and compares the CRC in
the frame to the value that it has calculated. If these values match then, it is sure that the
frame was transmitted without error.
An end bit pattern indicates the end of the frame. Like sync the bit pattern for end is
such that, it will not appear elsewhere in the messages, ensuring that they will always be
distinct and easy for the receiver to recognise at the end of the frame.
Synchronous transmission is more efficient because, only 4 additional bytes (for start
and end frames) are required to transmit upto 64 k bits. Synchronous transmission is
not really prone to distortion; as a result, it can be used at high speeds. However, even
with these advantages synchronous transmission has some other limitations, first it is
expensive as complex circuitry is required and it is difficult to implement. If an error
occurs during transmission, rather than just a single character the whole block of data is
lost. The sender cannot transmit characters simply, as they occur, but has to store them
until it has built up a block. Thus, this is not suitable where characters are generated at
irregular intervals.
Isochronous Communication
This is another alternative mechanism for data transmission, which combines the
approaches of asynchronous and synchronous communications. As in the asynchronous
method, each character has both the start and stop bits. The idle period (where no
transmission takes place) between the two characters is not random but an exact multiple
of one character time interval. If, the time to transmit a character (including its parity,
start, stop bits) is t, the time interval between characters cannot be random as in the
asynchronous method. It is also not 0 as in the synchronous method. It has to be t, 2t,
3t………nt , where n is any positive integer. Here, the signal is expected to be received
32
within certain delay bounds say Tmin to Tmax. Isochronous transmission guarantees Basics of
Communication
transmission rates, and it is almost deterministic. It has low overheads and high speed. Technology
However, in isochronous transmission it is necessary to ensure that the clocking device
is fault tolerant.

2.3.2 Simplex, Half Duplex and Full Duplex Communication

Based on “what point of time” sender or receiver can transfer the data, and what is a
role of sender or receiver in the data communication; we have classified data transmission
into three categories Simplex, Half Duplex and Full Duplex.
Simplex
This is one of the simplest techniques for data communication, in which we have one
permanent sender and permanent receiver. In Simplex transmission, at any point of
time one of the communicating devices can only send data, whereas the other can only
receive it. Can you think about some example around?

Fig. 2.4: Simplex Communication

It is like Sun, which permanently send light to us; it is also used in Broadcasting TV and
Radio signals where, you can receive data from stations but can’t transmit data back.
These signals are unidirectional, where one party is the transmitter and the other is the
receiver as shown in the Figure 2.4, where smoke alarm is shown which is connected
with fire station, it is also an example of unidirectional communication. This type of
channel design is easy and inexpensive to set up.
Half Duplex
As we know data communication is more about exchanging and sharing data, which
may not be fulfilled by the simplex communication. Now, let’s take an example where,
communication is from both ways but at any point of time it is not simultaneous. This
type of two-way communication where, only one party can transmit data at a time is
called Half Duplex. Unlike, the Simplex mode here, both devices can transmit data
though, not at the same time. Half duplex provides Simplex communication in both
directions in a single channel as shown in figure 2.5, with an example of walky-talky
communication.

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Network Fundamentals

Fig. 2.5: Half Duplex Connection

When one device is sending data, the other device must only receive it and vice versa.
Thus, both sides take turns at sending data. This requires a definite turnaround time
during which, the device changes from the receiving mode to the transmitting mode.
Due to this delay, half duplex communication is slower than simplex communication.
However, it is more convenient than simplex communication as both the devices can
send and receive data.
The difference between simplex and half-duplex refers to two-way communication
where, only one party can transmit data at a time. Simplex refers to one-way
communication where, one party is the transmitter and the other is the receiver. For
example, a walkie-talkie is a half-duplex device because only one party can talk at a
time. Let’s try to establish an analogy with our real world regarding this communication
mechanism. We can say that the half-duplex communication is something like rail tracks,
where at one point of time only one train will pass through track. It can be used for both
coming and going but not together.
Full Duplex
As the half duplex communication inherit the delay in data communication. Another
mechanism of data communication mechanism is full duplex, refers to the transmission
of data in two directions simultaneously. Here, both the devices are capable of sending
as well as receiving data at the same time. As you can see from figure 2.6, that
simultaneously bi-directional communication is possible, as a result, this configuration
requires full and independent transmitting and receiving capabilities at both ends of the
communication channel, one of its important examples is our network communication
and Internet.

Fig. 2.6: Full Duplex Connection

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Sharing the same channel and moving signals in both directions increases the channel Basics of
Communication
throughput without increasing its bandwidth. For example, a telephone is a full-duplex Technology
device because both parties can talk to each other simultaneously. In contrast, a walkie-
talkie is a half-duplex device because only one party can transmit at a time. It can also
be view as bi-directional Road tracks. Most modems have a switch that lets you choose
between full-duplex and half-duplex modes. The choice depends on which
communications program you are running.
Self-Check Exercise
Note: i) Write your answers in the space given below.
ii) Check your answers with the answers given at the end of this Unit.
1) What is Digital Communication? How it is better than Analog Communication?
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
2) Bring out the difference between Synchronous, Asynchronous and Isochronous
transmission.
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.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................

2.4 COMMUNICATION HARDWARE

A smallest computer network should comprise minimum of at least two computers
(sender and receiver), communication channel that connect the sender and receiver to
each other, a network interface device on each computer which is also known as NIC,
some intermediate communication devices like Switch, which is used to switch the data
from one point to another, In this section we will cover all the hardware components
used for designing a computer network.

2.4.1 Communication Channels

One of the most common ways to transport data from one computer to another is to
write them onto magnetic tape or floppy disks, physically transport the tape or disks to
the destination machine, and read them back in again. While, this method is not practical,
imagine the data communication delay, cost require to transportation of data between
countries and continents. Normally, Cable is the medium through which information
usually moves from one network device to another. There are several types of cable,
which are commonly used with LANs. In some cases, a network will utilize only one
type of cable; other networks will use a variety of cable types. The type of cable
chosen for a network is related to the network’s topology, protocol, and size, these
concepts of networks you will study in the next Unit. Understanding the characteristics
of different types of cable and how they relate to other aspects of a network is necessary
for the development of a successful network. 35
Network Fundamentals Twisted Pair
Twisted pair cable comes in two varieties: unshielded twisted pair and shielded twisted
pair. Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) is the most popular and is generally the best option
for small networks UTP cables contain four twisted-pairs (Orange, green, Blue &
Brown) as shown in the figure 2.7, enclosed in a common sheath.

Fig. 2.7: Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable

The most common application of the twisted pair is in the telephone system. A twisted
pair connects nearly all telephones to the telephone company office. Twisted pairs can
run several kilometers without amplification, but for longer distances, repeaters are
needed. Twisted pairs can be used for either analog or digital transmission. The
bandwidth depends on the thickness of the wire and the distance traveled. A disadvantage
of UTP is that it may be susceptible to radio and electrical frequency interference.
Shielded twisted pair (STP) is suitable for environments with electrical interference;
however, the extra shielding can make the cables quite bulky. Shielded twisted pair is
often used on networks using Token Ring topology.
Coaxial Cable
Another common transmission medium is the coaxial cable. It has better shielding than
twisted pairs, so it can span longer distances at higher speeds. A coaxial cable consists
of a stiff copper wire as the core, surrounded by an insulating material. The insulator is
encased by a cylindrical conductor, often, as a closely woven braided mesh. The outer
conductor is covered with a protective plastic sheath. A cutaway view of a coaxial
cable is shown in figure 2.8.

Fig. 2.8: Coaxial Cable

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The construction and shielding of the coaxial cable gives it a good combination of high Basics of
Communication
bandwidth and excellent noise immunity. The bandwidth possible depends on the cable Technology
length. For 1-km cables, a data rate of 1 to 2 Gbps is feasible. Longer cables can also
be used, but only at lower data rates or with periodic amplifiers. Coaxial cables used
to be widely used within the telephone system but have now largely been replaced by
fiber optics on long-haul routes. Coax is still widely used for cable television and some
local area networks.Although coaxial cabling is difficult to install, it is highly resistant to
signal interference. In addition, it can support greater cable lengths between network
devices than twisted pair cable. The two types of coaxial cabling are:
Thick coaxial: Thick coaxial cable is also referred to as thicknet. 10Base5 refers to
the specifications for thick coaxial cable carrying Ethernet signals.
Thin coaxial: Thin coaxial cable is also referred to as thinnet. 10Base2 refers to the
specifications for thin coaxial cable carrying Ethernet signals.
Optical Fiber
Fiber optic cabling consists of a center glass core surrounded by several layers of
protective materials as depicted below in figure 2.9. It transmits light rather than electronic
signals eliminating the problem of electrical interference. This makes it ideal for certain
environments that contain a large amount of electrical interference. It has also made it
the standard for connecting networks between buildings, due to its immunity to the
effects of moisture and lighting.

Fig. 2.9: Optical Fiber

Fiber optic cable has the ability to transmit signals over much longer distances than
coaxial and twisted pair. It also has the capability to carry information at vastly greater
speeds. This capacity broadens communication possibilities to include services such as
video conferencing and interactive services. The cost of fiber optic cabling is comparable
to copper cabling; however, it is more difficult to install and modify. 10BaseF refers to
the specifications for fiber optic cable carrying Ethernet signals.

2.4.2 Communication Devices

As discussed in previous section there are several communication devices used in data
communication. In the sender and receiver computers, we should have Network
Interface Card and Modem (which we have already studied in the Unit Basics of
Computer Technology) before connected to the Internet connection. There are many
37
Network Fundamentals other devices being used at different levels and in different types of networks, those are
explained in this section.
Network Interface Card (NIC)
A NIC is also known as a network card as shown in figure 2.10. It connects the
computer to the cabling, which in turn links all of the computers on the network together
as shown in figure. Each computer on a network must have a network card. Most
modern network cards are 10/100 NICs and can operate at either 10 Mbps or 100
Mbps. It access to a networking medium and often provides a low-level addressing
system through the use of MAC addresses. It allows users to connect to each other
either by using cables or wirelessly.

Fig. 2.10: A Network Interface Card (NIC)

Repeater
A repeater is an electronic device that receives a signal and retransmits it at a higher
level or higher power, or onto the other side of an obstruction, so that the signal can
cover longer distances without degradation, an example is shown in the figure 2.11.

Fig. 2.11: Examples of Repeater

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Hub Basics of
Communication
A hub is a device used to connect a PC to the network. The function of a hub is to Technology

direct information around the network, facilitating communication between all connected
devices, means A hub contains multiple ports as shown in figure 2.12, which is used to
connect devices in a star topology. When a packet arrives at one port, it is copied to all
the ports of the hub.

Fig. 2.12: Example of Hub

Hubs can improve performance, especially for bursty traffic and large file transfers, it
also enables optimum performance of computers. However, total bandwidth remains
fixed; as network traffic grows, performance suffers and it does not reduce collisions.
Switch
A switch is a data-link layer network device that forwards frames using MAC addresses
in the header of frames. A common type of switch is shown in the figure 13. It is used to
improve network performance by segmenting the network and creating separate collision
domains. It can also reduce competition for bandwidth.

Fig. 2.13: Switch

During new installations switches should be used instead of hubs as they are more
effective and provide better performance. A switch, which is often, termed a ‘smart
hub’. Switches and hubs are technologies or ‘boxes’ to which computers, printers, and
other networking devices are connected. Switches are the more recent technology and
the accepted way of building today’s networks. With switching, each connection gets
“dedicated bandwidth” and can operate at full speed. In contrast, a hub shares bandwidth
across multiple connections such that activity from one PC or server can slow down the
effective speed of other connections on the hub. It Supports VLAN’s (virtual local area
network (VLAN) is a logical grouping of hosts on one or more LANs that allows
communication to occur between hosts as if they were on the same physical LAN.
39
Network Fundamentals Howver, switches are not as good as a router in limiting Broadcasts, also for handling
Multicast packets needs quite a bit of configuration & proper designing.
Bridges
The main network device found at the data link layer is a bridge, mainly used for
connecting two network or local area networks. This device works at a higher layer
than the repeater and therefore is a more complex device. It has some understanding of
the data it receives and can make a decision based on the frames it receives as to
whether it needs to let the information pass, or can remove the information from the
network. This means that the amount of traffic on the medium can be reduced and
therefore, the usable bandwidth can be increased. Bridges are store and forward devices
to provide error detection; a common type of bridge is shown in the figure 2.14.

Fig. 2.14: A Common Bridge

Routers
Router is a device which is use to create an internetworking in our WANs and LANs.
The main purpose of router is routing, which means taking a packet from one device
and sending it through the network to another device on a different network. Packet is
often a confusion term; it is nothing but the unit of data at any layer of the protocol
stack, prior to, or after transmission.
A packet normally contains Data Type, Packet Count, Recipient’s IP address, Sender’s
IP address, and Data. Actually routers need to transfer the data from source machine to
destination machine but other information in packets it need during its transportation
process. A common type of router is shown in the figure 2.15.

Fig. 2.15: A Common Router with its Front and Back View
Router has nothing to care about the host machine; it need to care about networks and
the best path to each network. The logical network address of the destination host is
used to get packets to a network through a routed network, and then the hardware
address of the host is used to deliver the packet from a router to the correct destination
host.

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 Basics of
2.5 COMMUNICATION PROTOCOLS/STANDARD Communication
Technology
Before going through the origin of the Internet, let us examine what is communication.
Communication is a process of sharing ideas, information, and messages with others
at a particular time and place. Communication is a vital part of personal life and is also
important in business, education, and any other situation where people encounter each
other. Communication between two people is an outgrowth of methods developed
over centuries of expression. Gestures, the development of language, and the necessity
to engage in joint action all play a part. Communication, as we see it today, has evolved
a long way. We will discuss the primitive modes of communication briefly.

2.5.1 Communication Systems

Early societies developed systems for sending simple messages or signals that could be
seen or heard over a short distance, such as drumbeats, fire and smoke signals, or
lantern beacons. Messages were attached to the legs of carrier pigeons that were
released to fly home. Further,
The postal system are being developed to transfer written documents to destinations
around the world. Even after implementing different electronic communication mediums,
postal system is still one of the popular communication systems available. The first truly
electronic medium for communication was developed first in the form of telegraph,
which sent and received electrical signals over long-distance wires. After telegraph the
most important invention is telephone systems use to transmitting human speech. The
telephone network has also provided the electronic network for new computer-based
systems like the Internet facsimile transmissions, and the World Wide Web.
The development of computer networks was started when computers became faster,
more-powerful and smaller. In the 1960’s the Advanced Research Projects Agency
(ARPA) of the U.S. Department of Defence, along with researchers working on military
projects at research centres and universities across the country, developed a network
called the ARPANET, for sharing data and processing time of uniform computer
connection over specially equipped telephone lines and satellite links. The network was
designed to survive the attack or destruction of some of its parts and continue to work.
Soon, however, scientists using the ARPANET realised that they could send and receive
messages as well as data and programs over the network.
Today, the Internet is the widely known computer network. It uses interconnection of
computer system by both wired and wireless. Smaller networks of computers, called
Local Area Networks (LANs), can be installed, in a single building or for a whole
organisation. Wide Area Networks (WANs) can be used to span a large geographical
area. LANs and WANs use telephone lines, computer cables, and microwave and
laser beams to carry digital information around a smaller area, such as a single college
campus. Internet can carry any digital signals, including video images, sounds, graphics,
animations, and text, therefore it has became very popular communication tool.
Need of Internet
The main reason is that each computer network is designed with a specific purpose.
For example, LAN is used to connect computers in a smaller area, and it provides fast
communication. As a result, networks become specialised identify. In many cases, these
networks do not use the same hardware and software technology. It means that, a
computer can communicate with the computers attached to the same network, because
they are inter-compatible. As more and more organisations had multiple computer
networks, this became a major issue. As a result, the concept of internetworking (internet) 41
Network Fundamentals came into being. This means that there should be a network of all physically separate
networks.
Need of Protocols/Standards
All methods of communication described above follow a protocol. Protocol is nothing
but a convention or standard. To signify that “Everything is ok and the train can start by
a green flag is also a protocol. When we write a letter we follow a protocol. If we look
at them carefully, we will find that protocols normally have hidden layers. A good example
is human conversation over the phone which can be used as an analogy for
communication using computers.
Assume that X and Y, want to have conversation over the telephone about a cricket
match. We call this an idea. Assume that each person is taking down what other has to
say. Thus, the conversation takes place in the form of several messages. A message is a
block of sentence. It could also consist of one world such as OK, yes denoting a
positive acknowledgement (ACK). It could also mean a negative acknowledgement
(NAK) or a request to repeat such as come again, pardon me. All this happens both
ways.
At the level of idea, X and Y feel that they are discussing a cricket match. However, in
reality, the conversation consists of a number of messages.
A message could be too long. It may not be wise for X to speak for half an hour, only
to receive a request to repeat. It is therefore necessary to send/receive
acknowledgements after each sentence like ‘ok’, ‘come again’ etc. A sentence is
analogous to a packet in computer world. The sender X will not speak until s/he hears
some form of acknowledgement, or will repeat the sentence if s/he receives a negative
acknowledgement. An alternative is timeout strategy. The speaker speaks a sentence
and waits for some time for any acknowledgement. If s/he does not hear anything, s/he
repeats the sentence.
Apart from this error control we take care of flow control. Flow control refers to the
speed mismatch between the listener and speaker. If the speaker speaks too fast, the
listener will say go-slow. In computer world, if the receiving computer is not fast enough,
and cannot hold any more data, it requests the sender to wait or control the transfer by
slowdown.
Therefore, in computer communication, both speaker and listener should agree on the
communication language/syntax, scheme of acknowledgement, during flow control,
machine error control mechanism, etc. Thus, we can say that the conversation is governed
by some set of rules known to both the parties. This set of rules is called protocol and
it necessary for disciplined manner of conversation/communication.

2.5.2 TCP/IP Layers and Protocols

To provide the set of rules and standardization among the different computer networks,
the International Standards Organization (ISO) in 1984 defined the Open System
Interconnection (OSI) model. OSI model is a set of protocols that attempt to define
and standardize the data communications process; we can say that it is a concept that
describes how data communications should take place. The OSI model has the support
of most major computer and network vendors, many large customers, and most
governments in different countries. The following are the seven layers of the Open
System Interconnection (OSI) reference model, depicted in the figure 2.16:

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 Basics of
Layer 7 — Application layer Communication
Technology
Layer 6 — Presentation layer
Layer 5 — Session layer
Layer 4 — Transport layer
Layer 3 — Network layer
Layer 2 — Data Link layer
Layer 1 — Physical layer
Fig. 2.16: OSI Layers
The OSI model is modular. Each successive layer of the OSI model works with the one
above and below it. Although, each layer of the OSI model provides its own set of
functions, it is possible to group the layers into two distinct categories. The first four
layers i.e., physical, data link, network, and transport layer provide the end-to-end
services necessary for the transfer of data between two systems. These layers provide
the protocols associated with the communications network used to link two computers
together. Together, these are communication oriented. The top three layers i.e., the
application, presentation, and session layers provide the application services required
for the exchange of information. That is, they allow two applications, each running on a
different node of the network to interact with each other through the services provided
by their respective operating systems. Together, these are data processing oriented.
Though OSI model is very important for data communication but multiple layers slow
down the communication process. Practically OSI was never fully implemented; to
provide robustness and better efficiency another but similar model was implemented
named as TCP/IP model (its named was given because of its two most important
protocols in it). The TCP/IP model is made up of four layers: interface layer, network,
transport, and application. The first layer of TCP/IP (Application layer) is similar to the
first three layers (Application, presentation and Session layer) of the OSI model. The
services of transport layers of both the models are similar. Further, the services of
network layers in both models are also similar, while some time network layer is also
known as Internet layer. The last layer of TCP/IP is interface layer, which includes the
services of data link layer and physical layer of OSI model. In OSI model, each layer
takes the services of the lower layer. Whereas the layers of TCP/IP protocol suite
contain relatively independent protocols as shown in figure 2.17.

Fig. 2.17: TCP/IP and its Protocols

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Network Fundamentals Layers of TCP/IP Protocol Suite
As we know TCP/IP contains four layers and each layer has its specific functions, in the
following section lets find out the functions of each layer of TCP/IP.
Interface layer or (Physical + Data Link Layer)
The physical layer deals with the hardware level like, transmission media, connections
and the voltage for digital signals. The data link layer deals with media access and
control strategies, frame format etc.
Internet Layer or Network Layer
The Internet layer is an important layer in the protocol suite. At this layer, TCP/IP
supports Internetworking Protocol (IP). IP is a host-to-host protocol. This layer is
responsible for the format of datagrams as defined by IP, and routing a datagram or
packet to the next hop, but is not responsible for the accurate and timely delivery of
datagrams to the destination in proper sequence. IP allows raw transmission functions
allowing user to add functionalities necessary for given application. Ensuring maximum
efficiency, TCP/IP supports four other protocols: ARP, RARP, ICMP and IGMP in this
layer.
1) Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
On a LAN, each machine is identified with a unique physical address imprinted on the
network interface card. ARP is used to find the physical address of a machine when its
IP address is known.
2) Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP)
It is used to find the IP address of a machine when its physical address is known. It is
used when a diskless computer is booted or a computer is connected to the network
for the first time.
3) Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
IP is unreliable are best effort delivery. In case of failures ICMP is used to send
notifications to the sender about packet problems. It sends error and query messages.
4) Internet Group Message Protocol (IGMP)
It is used for multicasting, which is transmission of a single message to a group of
recipients.
Transport Layer
At this layer, TCP/IP supports two protocols: TCP, UDP, IP is host-to-host protocol,
which can deliver the packet from one physical device to another physical device. TCP,
UDP, are transport level protocols, responsible for delivering a packet from one process
on a device to another process on the other device.
1) User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
It is simpler of the two protocols. It does not provide reliability. It is, therefore faster,
and using for applications in which delay is intolerable (in case of audio and video).
2) Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
TCP is reliable, connection-oriented protocol. By connection oriented, we mean that a
connection must be established between both ends before either can transmit data. It
44 ensures that communication is error-free and in sequence.
Application Layer Basics of
Communication
As said earlier, it is closer to combined session, presentation, and application layer of Technology

OSI model. It allows the user to run various applications on Internet. These applications
are File Transfer Protocol (FTP), remote login (TELNET), email (SMTP), WWW
(HTTP). The session layer of OSI model is almost dropped in TCP/IP. Whenever we
work on the Internet we use most of these protocols. For example when use are surfing
or browsing the Internet websites actually you are using WWW.
Self-Check Exercise
Note: i) Write your answers in the space given below.
ii) Check your answers with the answers given at the end of this Unit.
3) Write any three important advantages of Optical fibers.
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4) Differentiate between Switches and hubs.
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2.6 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have studied the basic concepts of Data Transmission. As it is essential
to know how data can be transmitted from the source to the destination, the different
types of transmission were discussed like Asynchronous, Synchronous and Isochronous
communication. Further we have explained different modes like Simplex, Half duplex
and full duplex communication. How the network are designed and for this are the
different components are required, to explain it we have discussed the characteristics
and working of various communication channels and devices in this unit. Towards the
end, we have focused about the communication protocols and standards used for
communication in the networks and Internet.

2.7 ANSWERS TO SELF CHECK EXERCISES

1) Digital communication is information transmitted electronically and is encoded
digitally. Digital signals are signals that are represented by binary numbers, “1” or
“0”. It is stored and processed by computers. The main difference between analog
and digital signals is that an analogue signal is continuous and a digital signal is
discrete. Analog technologies record waveforms as they are, while digital
technologies convert analog signals into numbers. Digital communication systems
offer much more efficiency, better performance, and much greater flexibility than
analog.
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Network Fundamentals 2) Asynchronous communication sends individual characters one at a time framed by
a start bit and 1 or 2 stop bits. Transfer of large data sent in a group or block at
once instead of sending single character or few bit at a time is known as synchronous
communication. Isochronous communication combines both approaches.
3) Three advantages of Optical fibre are: a) since it transfer light instead of electronic
signal, it eliminates electrical interference, b) it is able to transmit signals over much
longer distance compared to coaxial or twisted pair cable, and c) cost is much
lower compared to copper cabling.
4) A hub is a device used to connect a PC to the network whereas a switch is a data
link layer network device.

2.8 KEYWORDS
Coaxial Cable : A type of electric cable that is used to send
telegraph, telephone, and television signals.
MAC Addresses : A media access control address is a unique
identifier assigned to network interfaces for
communications on the physical network
segment. MAC addresses are used as a network
address for most IEEE 802 network
technologies, including Ethernet.
Open System Interconnection : A set of seven layers that define the different
(OSI) Reference Model stages that data must go through to travel from
one device to another over a network. OSI model
is a set of protocols that attempt to define and
standardize the data communications process.
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) : Cable construction that includes an external
grounded shield as well as twisting on a regular
basis to help minimize noise interferences.
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) : Copper wiring used in small-to-large networks
to connect host devices to hubs and switches.

2.9 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Tenenbaum, Andrew S. Computer Networks. PHI: New Delhi, 2006. Print
Stalling,William. Data and Computer Communication. PHI: New Delhi, 2007. Print
Godbole, Achyut S. Web Technoligies. New Delhi: TATA McGrawHill, 2009. Print
Forouzan, Berhouz. TCP/IP Protocol Suite. New Delhi: TATA McGraw Hill, 2003.
Print
Websites:
http://compnetworking.about.com/lr/
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php
http://www.cisco.com
http://www.tcpipguide.com
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