General Education

ENGLISH
Licensure Exam
for Teachers
March 2018

by Lawrence B. Icasiano, MAES, MALT

English is EASY
All it takes is

HARD WORK
HowEnglish
appears
in GenEd LET
1. Every silver knife, fork, and
spoon ______ to be counted.

A. have
B. were
C. has
D. was
1. Every silver knife, fork, and
spoon ______ to be counted.

A. have
B. were
C. has
D. was
2. The nearest 24/7 convenience
store is on ____________. Hurry!
The bus leaves ______ 15
minutes.

A. Twenty-second street, at
B. Twenty Second Street, in
C. Twenty second, at
D. Twenty-second Street, in
2. The nearest 24/7 convenience
store is on ____________. Hurry!
The bus leaves ______ 15
minutes.

A. Twenty-second street, at
B. Twenty Second Street, in
C. Twenty second, at
D. Twenty-second Street, in
3. The researchers ___________
surveys to know the employees’
needs since last month.

A. has conducted
B. has been conducting
C. have conducted
D. have been conducting
3. The researchers ___________
surveys to know the employees’
needs since last month.

A. has conducted
B. has been conducting
C. have conducted
D. have been conducting
4. Bread and butter ______ all
she served.

A. is
B. was
C. are
D. were
4. Bread and butter ______ all
she served.

A. is
B. was
C. are
D. were
5. The statement, “O wild west
wind” is considered as a/an
________________.

A. metaphor
B. irony
C. hyperbole
D. apostrophe
5. The statement, “O wild west
wind” is considered as a/an
________________.

A. metaphor
B. irony
C. hyperbole
D. apostrophe
6. With a positive outlook in life,
she can surely _________ with
frustrations in school.

A. cope up
B. cope on
C. cope in
D. cope
6. With a positive outlook in life,
she can surely _________ with
frustrations in school.

A. cope up
B. cope on
C. cope in
D. cope
7. The __________ electrical
connection in the kitchen caused
the fire.

A. lose
B. loose
C. lost
D. loss
7. The __________ electrical
connection in the kitchen caused
the fire.

A. lose
B. loose
C. lost
D. loss
8. What is the figure of speech in these lines
in Shakespeare’s “As You Like It”?

All the world’s a stage and all the men and

women merely players.
They have their exits and their entrances.

A. Simile
B. Metaphor
C. Personification
D. Oxymoron
8. What is the figure of speech in these lines
in Shakespeare’s “As You Like It”?

All the world’s a stage and all the men and

women merely players.
They have their exits and their entrances.

A. Simile
B. Metaphor
C. Personification
D. Oxymoron
9. Tourism is down and many
hotels are operating in the red.
What is meant by the idiom in the
red?

A. won rewards points

B. received foreign remittance
C. losing money
D. got hacked
9. Tourism is down and many
hotels are operating in the red.
What is meant by the idiom in the
red?

A. won rewards points

B. received foreign remittance
C. losing money
D. got hacked
10. In medieval times, alchemists used
an alembic when they tried to
TRANSMUTE base metals into gold.

All but one refers to the word transmute.

Which one?

A. metamorphose
B. keep
C. mutate
D. alter
10. In medieval times, alchemists used an
alembic when they tried to TRANSMUTE
base metals into gold.

All but one refers to the word transmute.

Which one?

A. metamorphose
B. keep
C. mutate
D. alter
11. The old people had ordered that the dancing should stop
at ten o’clock but it was almost midnight before the
carriages came lining up to the front door, the servants
running to and from with torches to light departing guests,
while the girls who were staying were promptly herded
upstairs in bedroom.

“May Day Eve” – Nick Joaquin

What Philippine literary period is used as context of the

story?

A. American Period
B. Japanese Occupation
C. Spanish Period
D. Martial Law
11. The old people had ordered that the dancing should stop
at ten o’clock but it was almost midnight before the
carriages came lining up to the front door, the servants
running to and fro with torches to light departing guests,
while the girls who were staying were promptly herded
upstairs in bedroom.

“May Day Eve” – Nick Joaquin

What Philippine literary period is used as context of the

story?

A. American Period
B. Japanese Occupation
C. Spanish Period
D. Martial Law
12. What is the pen name of Samuel
Clemens?

A. Mark Twain
B. Oscar Wilde
C. Ernest Hemingway
D. E.M. Foster
12. What is the pen name of Samuel
Clemens?

A. Mark Twain
B. Oscar Wilde
C. Ernest Hemingway
D. E.M. Foster
13. Who is the author of “ A rose is a rose
is a rose”?

A. Ernest Hemingway
B. Gertrude Stein
C. Mark Twain
D. F. Scott Fitzgerald
13. Who is the author of “ A rose is a rose
is a rose”?

A. Ernest Hemingway
B. Gertrude Stein
C. Mark Twain
D. F. Scott Fitzgerald
14. Which among the sounds below is
voiceless?

A. /b/
B. /z/
C. /g/
D. /p/
14. Which among the sounds below is
voiceless?

A. /b/
B. /z/
C. /g/
D. /p/
15. The Trojan war is technically set due to
the abduction of Helen by Paris. This is
remembered in the modern times referring
to Helen as:

A. The woman who started the war

B. The face that launched a thousand ships
C. The woman who left the husband
D. The face which surpassed all beauties
15. The Trojan war is technically set due to
the abduction of Helen by Paris. This is
remembered in the modern times referring
to Helen as:

A. The woman who started the war

B. The face that launched a thousand ships
C. The woman who left the husband
D. The face which surpassed all beauties
16. Saturday is a red-letter day for Stella.
It means that Saturday is:

A. busy day
B. important day
C. lucky day
D. bad luck day
16. Saturday is a red-letter day for Stella.
It means that Saturday is:

A. busy day
B. important day
C. lucky day
D. bad luck day
17. Teacher Zelene has a _________ for
purple clothes, accessories, and decors.

A. candor
B. rancor
C. penchant
D. aplomb
17. Teacher Zelene has a _________ for
purple clothes, accessories, and decors.

A. candor
B. rancor
C. penchant
D. aplomb
18. Manuel found his mother’s diary on
top of ____________________.

A. an old wooden square table

B. an old square wooden table
C. a square wooden old table
D. a wooden old square table
18. Manuel found his mother’s diary on
top of ____________________.

A. an old wooden square table

B. an old square wooden table
C. a square wooden old table
D. a wooden old square table
19. Choose the best sequencing of the group of
words:

1 2 3
a process/ for the use of the body/ digestion is/
4
by which food is broken down

a. 2-3-4-2
b. 3-1-4-2
c. 1-2-3-4
d. 3-4-2-1
19. Choose the best sequencing of the group of
words:

1 2 3
a process/ for the use of the body/ digestion is/
4
by which food is broken down

a. 2-3-4-2
b. 3-1-4-2
c. 1-2-3-4
d. 3-4-2-1
20. The number of readers continually rise each
A B C D

year. No error.
E
20. The number of readers continually rise each
A B C D

year. No error.
E
Where do we
START?
Coverage of

GenEd English
§  Study and Thinking Skills
§  Writing in the Discipline
§  Speech and Oral Communication
§  Philippine Literature
§  Master Works of Literature
Competencies of

GenEd English
1. Identify the rules of grammatical usage
2. Distinguish the different parts of speech in English – their meanings,
forms, order, and functions
3. Arrive at meanings of words using context clues, structural analysis
and other word formation techniques
4. Note details to discover the central theme of a passage
5. Point out the organization structure of a passage and determine how
the parts are related to the whole
6. Draw inferences and implications on reading texts
7. Analyze sentences in terms of their constituents elements
Parts  OF  SPEECH  
 NOUNS  
•  names of people, place, things, or ideas
 Kinds  of  Nouns  
Proper  Nouns-­‐  are  specific  and  wri-en  in  capital  
le-ers  
Examples:  
•  Dr.  Reyes  
•  Japan  
•  McDonalds  
Common  Nouns-­‐name  everything  else,  things  
that  usually  are  not  capitalized.    
Examples:  
•  boy  
•  country  
•  restaurant  
 
Collec0ve  Nouns-­‐composed  of  more  than  one  
individual  person  or  items.  
Examples:  
•  herd  
•  team  
•  class  
Mass  Nouns-­‐  are  nouns  that  cannot  be  
counted  
Examples:  
•  sand  
•  rice  
•  water  
•  blood  
•  smoke  

 
Concrete  Nouns-­‐  something  or  someone  that  
we  experience  through  our  senses;  sight,  
hearing,  smell,  touch  or  taste.  
Examples:  
•  paper  
•  stones  
•  chips  
Abstract  Nouns-­‐  are  not  tangible;  refer  to  
ideas  and  feelings  
Examples:  
•  freedom  
•  kindness  
•  anger  
•  hope  
Compound  Nouns-­‐  are  nouns  made  up  of  two  or  
more  words.  They  may  be  wri-en  as  combined  
words,  separate  words,  or  hypenated  words.  
Examples:  
•  football  
•  high  school  
•  blackboard  
•  brother-­‐in-­‐law  
 Gender  of  Nouns  
1. Masculine – uncle, father, men, stag,
duke, king, rooster, knight, baron

2. Feminine – aunt, mother, women, doe,

duchess, queen, hen, lady, baroness
3. Neuter – tree, stone, spices,
fishing rod, pen, newspaper, cobweb

4. Indefinite – president, teacher,

doctor, dentist, child, baby, lawyer,
clerk, accountant
 Forming  the  Plurals  of  Nouns  
1.  Add  s  to  most  nouns.  
       book-­‐  books  office-­‐  offices  
2.  Add  es  to  nouns  ending  in  s,  x,  z,  ch,  or  sh.  
     fox-­‐  foxes    wish-­‐  wishes  
     kiss-­‐  kisses  church-­‐  churches  
3. For most nouns ending in f or fe,
change these letters to ves.
wife- wives loaf- loaves

4. For some nouns ending in f or fe,

just add s.
cliff- cliffs proof-proofs

5. Add s to most nouns that end in o.

photo- photos radio- radios
6. Add es to some nouns that end in o.
tomato- tomatoes hero- heroes

7. For nouns that end in y preceded by

a consonant sound, change the y to i
and add es.
lady- ladies county- counties

8. Nouns ending in y after a vowel

sound add s.
monkey- monkeys key- keys
9. Change the form of some nouns.
crisis- crises bacterium-bacteria
nucleus- nuclei appendix- appendices
goose- geese stimulus- stimuli

10. A few very common nouns add en.

ox- oxen child- children

11. Some nouns have the same singular

and plural forms.
sheep swine series salmon
12. Some nouns are always singular.
bravery justice milk sugar air rice
confidence knowledge equipment

13. Most compound nouns add s or es

to the principal words of the compound.
bookcase- bookcases

14. Some nouns are always plural.

shorts pants scissors shears alms
pliers eyeglasses riches thanks
15. A few nouns are always plural in
form but singular in meaning.
measles mumps mathematics
news gymnastics economics
 Cases  of  Nouns  
1.  Nomina0ve-­‐used  as  the  subject,  noun  of  
address,  predicate  noun,  or  apposi1ve.  
   The  English  professor  is  tall.  
   Meg,  please  go  to  my  office.  
   JK  Rowling  is  an  excellent  author.  
   The  insect,  a  large  and  hairy                creature,  
scared  the  children  as  they  walked  outside.  
 
2. Objective- used as a direct object,
indirect object, or object of the
preposition.
She gave me some flowers.
Jon provided the students with pens.
We drove our car to the festival.

3. Possessive- used to show

ownership or possession.
The English professor’s car is blue.
Rules  in  Forming  Possession  

1. Singular nouns add apostrophe and

s. For plural nouns, add apostrophe
alone.
boy’s boys’ teacher’s teachers’

2. Those nouns that do not end with

s, add (‘s) to the plural forms.
children’s men’s geese’s
3. Add an apostrophe and s to one
syllable nouns that end in –s
James’s book Tess’s doll

*However, if the next word starts with

s, add only an apostrophe to the
possessor.
James’ sailboat Tess’ suitors
4. Add an apostrophe to more than
one-syllable nouns ending in –s.
the actress’ performance
the carcass’ stench

5. Of phrase is placed after a noun.

the jewels of the queen
the rights of every man
6. Certain possessive forms of noun
denote time, distance, measure, and
value.
a day’s work a week’s wage

7. Add ‘s to the end of the last noun in

a joint ownership. Add ‘s to the end of
each noun in separate ownership.
The boys and the girls’ request
The boys’ and the girls’ request
 PRACTICE  
Write  the  correct  form  of  each  noun  in  parentheses.        
 
1.  All  the  (Roxas)____who  took  the  exam  passed.  
 
2.  The  farmer  had  a  dozen  of  (sheep)_______.  
 
3.  The  farmer  got  expose  to  the  (ray)____  of  the  sun.  
 
4.  The  (English)  _____  prefer  tea  over  coffee.  
 
5.The  (Mexican)_____  are  going  to  join  our  program.  
 
6.  A  flock  of  (goose)_____    flew  just  overhead.  
 
 PRACTICE  
Write the possessive form of each noun in parentheses.

1. The (duchess)_____ gown is very elegant.

2. That is the (officer-in-charge)______ office.

3. Those (boys)_____shoes are in the locker.

4. (Rj and Meg)_____ car was taken to the repair shop.

5. (James) _____ smile made her happy.

6. We can’t find our (dog)_____ toy.

 PRONOUNS  
-­‐stand  for,  refer  to,  or  replaces  a  noun  or  a  noun  phrase  in  a  sentence  
 Kinds  of  Pronouns  
1.  Demonstra0ve-­‐points  to  specific  persons,  places,  
things,  or  animals.  
       this,  these,  that,  those  
 
2.  Indefinite-­‐  do  not  point  to  a  parXcular  or  specific  
person  or  things.  
       nobody    anybody    somebody        one  
       each  all      everything    someone  
       everybody        nothing      
3. Interrogative- are used in asking.
They ask questions that require nouns
or pronouns as answers.
who what which whom
whose whoever whomever

4. Reflexive- when it reflects on the

subject or refers to it
myself himself herself
yourself themselves ourselves
 Cases  of  Pronouns  
1.  Nomina0ve-­‐  when  it  is  used  as  a  subject.  
Ex.  I,  you,  he,  she,  it,  we  ,they  
 
2.  Objec0ve-­‐when  it  is  used  as  a  indirect  object,  direct  
object  and  object  of  preposiXon  
Ex.  me,  you,  him,  her,  it,  us,  them  
 
3.  Possessive-­‐  when  it  shows  ownership  or  
possession.  
Ex.  My,  mine,  your,  yours,  his,  her,hers,  its,  
their,theirs,  our,  ours  
  NominaEve   ObjecEve   Possessive  
Singular  
1st  person   I   me   my,  mine  
2nd  person   you   you   your,  yours  
3rd  person   he/she/it   him,  her,  it   his,  her,  hers,  its  

Plural  
1st  person   we   us   our,  ours  
2nd  person   you   you   your,  yours  
3rd  person   they   them   their,  theirs  
 PRACTICE  
Circle  the  appropriate  pronoun  in  each  of  these  sentences.      
 
1.  (I,  Me)  will  be  waking  up  early  tomorrow.  
 
2.  Most  of  these  clothes  had  belonged  to  (her,  hers).  
 
3.  Were  you  able  to  hear  (us,  we)  from  that  spot?  
 
4.  (Who,  Whom)  do  historians  believe  built  the  first  steam  engine?  
 
5.(Our,  Ours)  car  needs  an  inspecXon.  
 
6.We  tried  to  remind  (ourself,  ourselves)  in  many  ways.  
 VERBS  
-­‐tell  us  about  an  acXon,  an  acXvity,  a  process  or  a  state  of  being  
 Kinds  of  Verbs  
1.  Regular  -­‐  form  their  past  tense  by  the  addiXon  of  d,  
or  ed  to  the  base  form.  They  have  the  same  form  
both  of  the  past  tense  and  past  parXciple.  

Base  Form   S-­‐  Form   Present  ParEciple   Past  and  Past  

3rd  person  singular   ing-­‐  form   ParEciple  

 cook   cooks   cooking   cooked  

talk   talks   talking   talked  
decorate   decorates   decoraXng   decorated  
2.  Irregular-­‐  form  their  past  tense  and  past  parXciple  
in  several  ways.  
  Base  Form   Past  Tense   Past  ParEciple  
  catch   caught   caught  
see   saw   seen  
  be   was/were   been  

3.  Be  Verbs/Linking  Verbs-­‐are  used  to  link  or  join  the  

subject  with  a  word  in  the  predicate  which  relates  to  
the  subject.  
Ex.  am,  is,  are,  was,  were,  become,  seem,  look,  smell,  
appear,  feel,  taste,  sound,  remain  
 MODAL  VERBS  
•  Using  the  modal  verbs  we  may,  for  example,  ask  for  permission  to  do  
something,  grant  permission  to  someone,  give  or  receive  advice,  
make  or  respond  to  requests  and  offers,  give  instrucXons  or  orders,  
express  duty  or  obligaXon  etc.    
§  Modal  verbs  can  be  used  to  express  different  levels  of  politeness.  
§  We  can  also  use  them  to  express  different  degrees  of  probability.    

•  Modal  verbs  have  two  major  funcXons  which  can  be  defined  as  
primary  (dicEonary  meaning)  and  secondary    (probability).  
 
 
 Primary  FuncEons  of    
Modal  Verbs  
•  CAN
•  Ability     •  MAY (might)/ CAN
•  Permission   (could)
•  ProhibiXon     •  MUSTN’T /
•  PredicXon   CANNOT
•  Duty  (escapable  obligaXon)   •  WILL / SHALL /
MAY
•  ObligaXon  (inescapable)  
•  SHOULD
•  Request;  Offer  
•  MUST
•  Possibility    
•  CAN / WILL
•  Absence  of  obligaXon  
•  CAN / CANNOT
 
•  NEEDN’T
 Secondary  FuncXons  of    
Modal  Verbs
In their secondary function, the modal verbs (except shall) can be used to
express the degree of certainty/uncertainty or probability.
 
•  ALMOST  CERTAIN   •  MUST  
•  WILL  
  •  WOULD  
•  OUGHT  TO  
•  SHOULD  
•  CAN  
•  COULD  
•  MAY  
•  VERY  UNCERTAIN  
•  MIGHT  
 
 VERB  TENSES  
 
The Simple Present Tense

+ verb/verb + (e)s
He plays tennis.
- do/does not + verb
She doesn’t play tennis.
? do/does…+ verb?
Do you play tennis?
The Simple Present Tense
Expresses a habit or often repeated action.
Adverbs of frequency such as, often, seldom,
sometimes, never, etc. are used with this tense.

They often go to the cinemas on Saturdays.

I don’t usually watch TV.
 The Simple Present Tense
This tense also expresses general truths or facts
that are timeless.

The sun rises in the east.

Birds fly south in the winter.
 The Simple Present Tense
This tense is use to give instructions and directions.

You go down the traffic lights, then turn left.

To start the program, first you click on the
icon on the desktop.
 The Simple Present Tense
-to tell stories and talk about films, books and
plays.

In the film, the tea lady falls in love with

the Prime Minister.
 The Simple Past Tense

+ verb + -ed (or –d)

He worked for the police.
- did not + verb
She didn’t work for the police.
? did…+ verb?
Did they work for the police.
 The Simple Past Tense
We use the simple past to indicate exactly when an
action or event took place in the past and does not
extend into the present.

I bought the microwave a year ago.

I met Bea’s mom last week.
 The Simple Past Tense
We use the simple past to indicate exactly when an
action or event took place in the past and does not
extend into the present.

I bought the microwave a year ago.

I met Bea’s mom last week.
 The Future Tense

Will Going to
+ will + verb +am/is/are + going to + verb
We will enjoy it. We are going to hire a bus.

- will not + verb - am/is/are not + going to + verb

He won’t enjoy it. He is not going to hire a bus.

? will…+ verb? ? am/is/are…+going to + verb?

Will they enjoy it? Are you going to hire a bus?
 The Future Tense
Will and be + going + to are often used to
describe future actions.

I will write a novel next year.

You’d better take the washing in; it is going to rain.
 The Present Progressive

+ am/is/are + verb + -ing

He is living in Thailand.
- am/is/are + not + verb + -ing
I am not living in Thailand.
? am/is/are…+ verb + -ing
Are they living in Thailand?
 The Present Progressive
The present progressive can also be used to describe an
action that is occurring in the present, but is temporary.

I am studying French in College, but I might stop soon.

 The Present Progressive
The present progressive can also be used to talk about trends
or changing situations.

The Internet is making it easier for people to stay in

touch with each other.
The price of oil is rising dramatically.
 The Present Progressive
This tense is used to describe an action that is occurring
right now (at this moment, today, this year, etc.). The
action has begun and is still in progress.

I am living in Scotland at the moment.

Henry is working in the library now.
 State  Verbs  
The  present  progressive  tense  is  not  normally  
used  with  state  verbs  because  the  meaning  of  
the  verb  itself  is  a  general  truth  rather  than  
something  temporary.  
 
 State  Verbs  
thoughts   feelings    
•  agree   •  adore  
•  assuming   •  despise  
•  believe   •  dislike  
•  forget   •  hate  
•  know   •  like  
•  remember   •  mind  
•  suppose   •  love  
•  think   •  prefer  
•  understand     •  want  
 
 State  Verbs  
Senses   Possession  
•  feel   •  have  
•  hear   •  own  
•  see   •  belong  
•  smell  
•  taste  
 State  Verbs  
DescripXon   •  sound  
•  appear   •  taste  
•  contain   •  weigh  
•  look   •  seem  
•  look  like   •  smell  
•  mean   •  resemble  
 The Past Progressive

+ was/were + verb + -ing

She was watching the news.
- was/were not + verb + -ing
They weren’t watching the news.
? was/were…+ verb + -ing?
Were you watching the news?
 The Past Progressive
The past progressive is used to talk about an activity that
was in progress at a specific point of time in the past.
The emphasis is on the duration of the activity in the
past.

We were all sitting in our places when the bell rang.

I was walking in the park around 6:30 p.m. last night.
 The Past Progressive
The past progressive is often used with the simple past to
show that one action was in progress when another
action occurred.

While I was waiting for the bus I dropped my purse.

They were eating dinner when the neighbors stopped by
for a visit.
 The Future Progressive

+ will be + verb + -ing

I will be feeling nervous.
- Will not be + verb + -ing
She won’t be feeling nervous.
? will…be + verb + -ing?
Will you be feeling nervous?
 The Future Progressive
This tense is used to describe an event or action that will
occur over a period of time at a specific point in the
future.

at 10 a.m. tomorrow
by the time you arrive

I will be teaching ESL 40 at 10 a.m. tomorrow.

They will be moving their furniture out of the house by the
time you arrive tomorrow.
 The Present Perfect

+ has/have + past participle

She has started the assignment.
- has/have not + past participle
I haven’t started the assignment.
? has/have….+ past participle?
Have you started the assignment?
 The Present Perfect
The present perfect is used to talk about an event that
began in the past and continues up to the present.

He has lived in Modesto for two years. (He began

living in Modesto two years ago and he still lives
there.)
 The Present Perfect
The present perfect is also used to talk about an
event that was completed in the past, but the
specific time of the event is not important.

I have seen that musical before.

They have bought a brand new car.
 Present  Perfect  or  Simple  Past?  
Present  Perfect   Simple  Past  
•  Links  the  past  with  the  present   •  Only  talks  about  the  past  
I  have  made  quiet  a  lot  of  notes.   I  made  notes  last  Monday.  
•  Does  not  talk  about  a  specific   •  States  a  specific  past  Xme,  or  the  
Xme  in  the  past   Xme  is  understood  
Have  you  read  the  leaflet?   I  read  the  leaflets  when  I  was  in  the  
•  Use  Xme  expressions  to  that   library.  
show  the  Xme  period  is   •  Uses  Xme  expressions  that  show  
unfinished   the  Xme  is  finished  
I  have  read  six  arXcles  this  week.   I  read  five  books  last  week.  
 The Past Perfect

+ had + past participle

They had listened to his music.
- had not + past participle
They hadn’t listened to his music.
? had…+ past participle?
Had they listened to his music?
 The Past Perfect
This tense describes completed events that took place in
the past before another past event.

had received it hit

had eaten my friend stopped by

The Titanic had received many warnings before it hit the

iceberg.
I had already eaten when my friend stopped by to visit.
When  I  got  home,  my  husband  cooked  
dinner.  
 
When  I  got  home,  my  husband  had  
cooked  dinner.  
 The Future Perfect

+ will have + past participle

I will have done it by then.
- will not + have + past participle
We won’t have it by then.
? will…have + past participle?
Will you have done it by then?
 The Future Perfect
This tense is used to describe an event or action
that will be completed before another event or
time in the future.

will have finished the exam class ends

We will have finished the exam by the time class ends

tomorrow.
 Present Perfect Progressive

+ has/have been + verb + -ing

I have been studying really hard.
- has/have not been + verb + -ing
He hasn’t been studying really hard.
? has/have been….+ verb + -ing?
Have you been studying really hard?
 Present Perfect Progressive
This tense is used to describe the duration of an action that
began in the past and continues into the present.

He has been studying grammar for an hour.

She has been cooking all day.
(He is still studying and she is still cooking.)
 Present Perfect Progressive
This tense is also used to describe events that have been
in progress recently and are rather temporary.

She has been living in Osaka for the last six months, but
she plans to move soon.
 Present  Perfect  Progressive  or  Present  
Perfect?      
Present  Perfect  Progressive   Present  Perfect  
•  Emphasizes  how  long   •  Says  how  many  Xmes  
I  have  been  reading  for  the  past  two   I  have  read  three  arXcles.  
weeks.   •  Focuses  on  the  result  or  
•  Focuses  on  the  acXvity  itself(it   compleXon  of  the  acXvity  
does  not  show  whether  the   I  have  wri-en  my  essay.  
acXvity  is  completed  or  not)   What  have  you  done?  
I  have  been  wriXng  my  essay.  
What  have  you  been  doing?  
 Past Perfect Progressive

+ had been + verb + -ing

She had been studying for ages.
- had not been + verb + -ing
He hadn’t been studying for long.
? had been…+ verb+ -ing?
Had you been studying for long?
 Past Perfect Progressive
This tense is used to emphasize the duration of an action
that was completed before another action or event in the
past.

had been
driving she found the right office

She had been driving around the city for three hours before
she finally found the right office.
 Future Perfect Progressive

+ will have been + verb + -ing

I will have been studying here for long.
- will not have been + verb + -ing
We won’t have been studying here for
long.
? will…+ have been + verb + -ing?
How long will you have been studying
here?
 Future Perfect Progressive
This tense describes an action that has been in
progress for a duration of time before another event or
time in the future.

finishes law school

will have been living in the

U.S. for eight years

By the time he finishes law school, we will have been

living in the U.S. for eight years.
Rules  on  Subject-­‐
Verb  
Agreement  
  Rule  1:  Basic  Principle-­‐Singular  Subjects  
need  singular  verbs;  plural  subjects  need  
plural  verbs.  

 
Andy  plans  to  go  camping  with  them.  
The  teachers  are  having  a  meeXng  now.  
Rule  2:The  indefinite  pronouns  anyone,  
everyone,  someone,  no  one,  nobody  are  
always  singular  and,  therefore,  require  
singular  verbs.  

Everyone  was  in  a-endance.  

Nobody  is  inside  the  room.  
Rule 3:Some indefinite pronouns
— such as all, some — are
singular or plural depending on
what they're referring to. (Is the
thing referred to countable or
not?) Be careful choosing a verb
to accompany such pronouns.
Some  of  the  children  are  not  joining  the  party.  
Some  of  the  water  is  gone.  
Rule 4: On the other hand, there is
one indefinite pronoun, none that
can be either singular or plural; it
often doesn't matter whether you
use a singular or a plural verb —
unless something else in the
sentence determines its number.
None of the rice is eaten at all.

None of the boys join the biking group.

None of the students have done their

project.

None of you claims responsibility for this

incident?
Rule 5:The pronouns neither and
either are singular and require
singular verbs even though they
seem to be referring, in a sense,
to two things.
Neither  is  willing  to  play  for  second  place.  
Neither  of  the  students  is  answering  the  test.  
Either  is  fine  with  me.  
Rule 6: The conjunction or does
not conjoin (as and does). When
nor or or is used the subject
closer to the verb determines the
number of the verb.
Neither  the  melon  nor  the  apples  were  eaten.  
Either  the  employees  or  the  employer  is  going  to  give  
way.  
Rule  7:  The  words  there  and  here  are  
never  subjects.    

There  was  a  long  interval  between  the  two  shows.  

There  were  twelve  candies  taken  from  my  jar.  
Here  is  a  principle  to  remember.  
Here  are  two  principles  to  remember.  
Rule 8: Verbs in the present
tense for third-person, singular
subjects (he, she, it and anything
those words can stand for) have s-
endings. Other verbs do not add s-
endings.
He  loves  and  she  loves  and  they  love_  and  .  .  .  .  
 
Rule 9:Sometimes modifiers will
get between a subject and its
verb, but these modifiers must
not confuse the agreement
between the subject and its verb.
The  mayor,  who  has  been  convicted  along  with  his  
four  brothers  on  four  counts  of  various  crimes  but  
who  also  seems,  like  a  cat,  to  have  several  poliXcal  
lives,  is  finally  going  to  jail.  
 
Rule 10: Words such as glasses,
pants, pliers, and scissors are
regarded as plural (and require
plural verbs) unless they're
preceded by the phrase pair of (in
which case the word pair becomes
the subject).
These pants are too long for Aaron.
This pair of pants is just right for
him.
My glasses are missing.
Louise’s pair of eyeglasses is broken.
The scissors are dull.
That pair of scissors is dull.
Rule 11: Some words end in -s
and appear to be plural but are
really singular and require
singular verbs.
Today’s biggest news is the rise in crime
rate.
Economics is often thought of as science.
Linguistics is an interesting subject.
Rule 12: On the other hand,
some words ending in -s refer to
a single thing but are nonetheless
plural and require a plural verb.
My  assets  were  wiped  out  in  the  depression.    
The  average  worker's  earnings  have  gone  up  
dramaXcally.    
Our  thanks  go  to  the  workers  who  supported  the  
union.  
 
Rule 13: Fractional expressions
such as half of, a part of, a
percentage of, a majority of are
sometimes singular and sometimes
plural, depending on the meaning.
Twenty  percent  of  the  students  are  not  joining  the  
field  trip.  
More  than  half  of  the  wine  was  consumed.  
One-­‐fourth  of  the  audience  is/are  teachers.  
Rule 14: Sums and products of
mathematical processes are
expressed as singular and require
singular verbs. The expression
"more than one" (oddly enough)
takes a singular verb.
More  than  one  parent  has  reported  the  incident.  
Five  and  five  is  ten.    
Rule 15: If your sentence
compounds a positive and a
negative subject and one is plural,
the other singular, the verb should
agree with the positive subject.
The  department  members  but  not  the  chair  have  
decided  not  to  teach  on  ValenXne's  Day.    
It  is  not  the  faculty  members  but  the  president  who  
decides  this  issue.    
 
Rule  16:  The  phrase  a  number  is  
plural;  the  phrase  the  number  is  
singular.  
 
A  number  of  students  are  not  a-ending  the  
symposium.  
 
The  number  of  engineers  going  abroad  is  increasing.  
Rule  17:  AdjecXves  as  nouns  are  
always  plural.  
 
The  rich  are  not  always  happy.  
 
The  Chinese  are  hardworking  people.  
 PRACTICE  
1.      Work  and  play  (is,  are)  not  equally  rewarding.        
 
2.  Neither  of  the  researchers  (is,  are)  here  yet.  
 
3.  All  of  the  liquid  hydrogen  (is,  are)  gone.  
 
4.  The  orchestra  (was,  were)  asked  to  give  their    
       musical  background.  
 
5.  Ten  days  (is,  are)  not  nearly  enough  Xme  to  
       the  quarterly  report.  
 
6.  A  number  of  different  careers  (is,  are)  now  open  to  those  who  (major,  
majors)  in  the  humaniXes.  
 PRACTICE  
7.  A  book  on  staXsXcal  methods  in  the  social  sciences,    together  
with  several  essays,  (is,  are)  required  reading  in  the  course.  
 
8.  Half  of  the  scienXsts  from  the  department(is,  are)  working  on  
the  experiment.  
 
9.  The  pilot,  as  well  as  his  passengers,  (was,  were)  rescued.  
 
10.  The  news  of  a  cure  (is,  are)  encouraging.  
 ADJECTIVES  
-­‐  Describe  nouns  and  pronouns.  They  limit,  qualify,  or  make  more  specific  
the  meaning  of  another  word.  
 Order  of  the  AdjecEves  
-­‐When  we  describe  a  noun  or  pronoun  with  several  adjecXves,  the  series  
of  adjecXves  follow  a  certain  pa-ern  as  they  come  in  the  sentence.  
Determiners-­‐  a,  an,  the,  both,  those,  their,  some,  every,  etc.  
Numerals-­‐  ordinal  and  cardinal  numbers-­‐  five,  12,  first,  etc.  
Characteris0c/Quality/Opinion-­‐  beauXful,  wide,  strong,  imported,  kind,  etc.  
Size-­‐  big,  small,  giganXc,  tall,  short,  enormous,  Xny,  etc.  
Shape-­‐  triangular,  circular,  round,  rectangular,  etc.  
Condi0on-­‐chipped,  dirty,  clean,  dry,  wet,  broken,  etc.  
Age-­‐old,  young,  new,  anXque,  ancient,  etc.  
Color-­‐pink,  green,  teal,  red,  yellow,  black,  maroon,  etc.  
Origin-­‐  American,  BriXsh,  Turkish,  Russian,  Chinese,  Filipino,  etc.  
 Order  of  AdjecEves  

DET   OPINION   SIZE   SHAPE   CONDITION   AGE   COLOR   ORIGIN   NOUN  

MANY   PRETTY   BIG   ROUND   CHIPPED   ANTIQUE   RED   AUSTRIAN   VASES  

Which of (printed, two, the, cotton) shirts would you choose?

Which of the two printed cotton shirts would you choose?

(Chinese, the, popular, jazz) singers will have a concert in the

Folk Arts Theater tonight.
The popular jazz Chinese singers will have a concert in the
Folk Arts Theater tonight.
 ADVERBS  
-­‐are  words  that  modify  adjecXves,  verbs  or  another  adverbs  
 Kinds  of  Adverbs  
Adverbs  of  Manner  (how  or  in  what  way)  
 The  girls  went  to  the  concert  happily.  
 Meg  dances  gracefully.  
 
Adverbs  of  0me  (when)  
They  will  go  camping  on  Saturday.  
The  boys  are  playing  soccer  now.  
 
Adverbs  of  place  (where  or  in  which  direc0on)  
They  are  watching  in  the  room.  
The  guest  will  stay  there.  
 
Adverbs  of  frequency  (how  oSen)  
I  go  jogging  every  morning.  
He  watches  concerts  regularly.  
      Reminders  
1. NEVER use an adjective to describe a verb, an adjective,
or an adverb.
WRONG: She studies good.
RIGHT: She studies well.

2. The adjectives late, right, hard and fast are also used as
adverbs.
WRONG: He arrives lately.
RIGHT: He is usually late. (adjective)
RIGHT: He arrived late (adverb)

3. The verbs seem, feel, taste, smell, sound, appear,

become, stay, remain, look, and grow are usually followed
by an adjective instead of an adverb.
WRONG: I feel badly.
RIGHT: I feel bad.

4. Use comparative form when comparing two things; the

superlative form when comparing three or more.
WRONG: George is the smartest of the two.
RIGHT: George is the smarter of the two. (comparative)

WRONG: Our dog was the cuter in the contest.

RIGHT: Our dog was the cutest in the contest.
(superlative)

5. Most adjectives and adverbs of one of two syllables

form the comparative degree by adding er to the
positive; they form the superlative by adding est.
PosiEve   ComparaEve   SuperlaEve  
big   bigger   biggest    
late   later   latest    
6. Other adjectives and adverbs of two or more syllables
form the comparative degree by placing more before the
positive form; they form the superlative by placing most
before the positive form.
PosiEve   ComparaEve   SuperlaEve  
quickly   more  quickly   most  quickly  
obedient   more  obedient    most  obedient    

7. Some adjectives and adverbs form their comparative

and superlative degrees irregularly.
PosiEve   ComparaEve   SuperlaEve  
good,  well   be-er   best  
bad,  badly   worse   worst    
far  (distance)   farther   farthest  
far  (idea)   further   furthest  
many,  much   more   most  
li-le   less   least    
8. Most adjectives and adverbs are compared negatively by
placing less and least before the positive form to the
comparative and superlative degrees, respectively.

PosiEve   ComparaEve   SuperlaEve  

joyfully   less  joyfully   least  joyfully  
serious   less  serious   least  serious  

9. AVOID the use of a double comparative or a double

superlative.
WRONG: This toy is more better than that one.
RIGHT: This toy is better than that one.

WRONG: This is the least biggest of the crates.

RIGHT: This is the least big of the crates.
 PREPOSITIONS  
-­‐used  to  show  the  relaXonship  between  nouns,  pronouns  and  other  
words  in  a  sentence.  
The preposition ‘on’ is used in
the following:
Precedes a day or a specific date
on Monday on Halloween on August 21, 2010

Talking about streets, roads, avenues, and small islands

on Rizal St. on Revolutionary Rd. on Babuyan Island

A thing is on top of or in contact with a surface

on the desk on the ceiling on the chair

Talking about communications media

on the phone on TV on the internet

Certain expressions and idioms

on a diet on fire on leave
research on a topic on strike
 The preposition ‘at’ is used in
the following:
It precedes an hour or an EXACT time of the day
at six o’clock at dawn, noon, or night

Talking about a specific place or address (street, with street

number)
at the cinema/store at 280 F. Blumentritt St.

When one means in proximity to a structure

at the mall at the review center

Certain expressions or idioms

at the turn of the century angry at
bad/hopeless at surprised at
 The preposition ‘in’ is used
in the following:
Precedes a month, year, or any long period of time
in November in 2002 in the summer/fall in the 1990’s

Talking about a large area

in France in Laguna in Sta. Cruz in Cebu

A thing is inside an enclosed space or when you mean within

in her bedroom in the drawer in (within) 200 days
swimming in the ocean

Certain expressions and idioms

faith in God in my opinion believe in ghosts
 Other prepositions
From is used to mean out of or where something comes
from, and in some expressions and idioms.
arrived from the US absent from work
borrow from my mom different from the rest

For is used to mean either intended for, in favor of, on in

behalf of.
fondness for watches for freedom
for the people I am for his reelection.

To is used to express movement or action toward

something, and in some expressions and idioms.
go to the office thankful to God
gave it to RJ addicted to chocolates
similar to tendency to smirk
Into is used to mean from the outside going inside and in
some expressions or idioms.
Look into my eyes.
Mike went straight into the Director’s office.

About is used to mean regarding or concerning something.

angry/annoyed about the incident
sorry about what happened certain about the date

Of is used to show ownership. It may also mean from,

because of, about.
leg of the table William of Normandy die of jealousy

With is used to mean by means of, among, in the company

of or in addition to.
with her help together with his colleagues
compatible with that device
A  preposi0onal  phrase  includes  the  preposiXon,  
the  object  of  the  preposiXon,  and  the  modifiers  of  
the  object.    
 
Li-le  girls  run  away  from  the  spider.  
She  has  a  lot  of  students  with  inquisi1ve  minds.  
 Common  PreposiEonal  Phrases  
along  side  of    in  addiXon  to  
along  with    in  behalf  of      
apart  from    in  front  of  
aside  with      in  place  of  
away  from    in  spite  of  
because  of    instead  of  
by  means  of    near  to  
down  from    on  behalf  of  
from  among    outside  of  
from  between    together  with  
 CONJUNCTIONS  
-­‐are  used  to  join  words,  phrases,  or  clauses.  
The conjunctions or and otherwise imply choice.
Amanda will have to go or you will.
Write T if it is true; otherwise, write F.

And, besides, furthermore, moreover, and not only…but

also are used to add similar or related ideas.
Beatrice is a sweet and kind girl.
Not only is he handsome but he is also intelligent.

But, however, and nevertheless imply contrast or when

something expected does not take place.
This tablet is cheap but it is easily broken.
Her uniform was new; however, it was too big.
The queen did all that she can do to lead the country well;
nevertheless, the people hated her.
So, hence, consequently, subsequently, and
therefore express an expected consequence.
I was busy, so I was not able to go the party.
Leanne studied well for the Science contest;
consequently, she won first place.

Because and for imply reason.

Jen is happy because all her bets won.
She won the essay writing contest for she
practiced hard.
 INTERJECTIONS  
-­‐are  words  that  exclaims,  they  express  surprise  or  strong  emoXon.  They  may  
stand  alone  or  serve  as  part  of  a  sentence.  (InterjecXons  are  used  more  ooen  
in  speech  than  in  wriXng.)  
 
 
 
 VERBALS  
-­‐are  used  as  modifiers  or  nouns  in  the  subject,  
object,  predicate  complement  or  object  of  a  
preposiXon.  
 Kinds  of  Verbals  

1. Infinitive- to + base form of the verb. It

may be used as used as a noun, as an
adjective or an adverb.
To love children well sometimes hurt.
The girl to ask is that little one.
RJ’s buddies came to mess around.
2.  Gerunds-­‐  is  a  verb  form  which  ends  in  ing  and  is  
used  as  a  noun.  
     Smoking  cigare-es  rots  your  lungs.  
 
3.  Par0ciple-­‐  is  a  verb  form  ending  in  ing  or  ed.  It  can  
funcXon  as  a  noun  or  adjecXve.  
         Danny  bought  his  swimming  gear  in    
         Coron.    
         Exploded  dynamites  smells.  
 Parallelism  
Sailing  ships  were  stately  and  made  li@le  noise.  
Sailing  ships  were  stately  and  quiet.  
 
The  speeches  were  either  too  long,  or  they  were  
not  long  enough.  
Either  the  speeches  were  too  long  or  too  short.  
 Dangling  Modifier  
To  enter  the  house,  the  lock  on  the  back  door  was  
picked.  
To  enter  the  house,  he  picked  the  lock  on  the  back  
door.  
 
AFer  comple1ng  my  household  chores,  the  dog  was  
fed.  
AFer  comple1ng  my  household  chores,  I  fed  the  dog.  
 Misplaced  Modifier  
Even on a meager sheriff’s salary, a family
may have some comforts.
Even on a sheriff’s meager salary, a family
may have some comforts.

Hovering over the flowers, the

photographer took pictures of the
butterflies.
The photographer took pictures of the
butterflies hovering over the flowers.
  IdenEfying  
Errors  in  
Sentences  
•  No  error  answer  is  very  rare,  so  be  cauXous  
when  you  think  it  may  be  the  answer.  
•  Be  on  the  look  out  for  underlined  misspelled  
word  or  an  underlined  punctuaXon  mark.  
•  An incorrect subject-verb agreement
is usually the most common error.

Sofia don’t care about her health anymore.

A B C D
No error
E
 Common  Errors  
•  Pronoun  
     -­‐  use  of  wrong  pronoun  for  its  antecedent  
 
The  actress  gave  money  to  his  own  aide.  No  error  
     A        B                                        C                    D                  E  
 
         -­‐  wrong  case  of  pronoun  
 
Tyler  told  he  to  buy  a  case  for  his  laptop.  No  error  
     A      B                C                                                    D                    E  
 
 Common  Errors  
•  Verb  
 -­‐  incorrect  verb  tense  
 
The  earth  revolved  around  the  sun.  No  error  
 A                      B                    C                        D                E  
 
 -­‐  use  of  past  form  instead  of  past        
       parXciple  and  vice  versa  
 
The  program  had  start  when  you  arrived.  No  error  
             A        B                              C            D                      E  
 Common  Errors  
•  AdjecXve/Adverb  
 -­‐  use  of  adjecXve  instead  of  adverb  or  
       vice  versa  
 
We  should  all  stay  calmly.  No  error  
 A              B                      C              D                    E  
 
 -­‐  use  of  comparaXve  form  instead  of    
     superlaXve  or  vice  versa  
 
JC  is  the  more  intelligent  boy  in  class.  No  error  
         A                    B                  C                                        D                  E  
 
 Common  Errors  
•  PreposiXon/  ConjuncXon    
 
Von  watched  TV  before  going  into  bed.  No  error  
     A                              B                                C        D                E  
 
 Common  Errors  
•  Spelling  
 
She  is  taller  then  most  girls  in  the  school.  No  error  
   A                  B            C                          D                                                      E  
 
•  Parallelism  
 
Jena  loves  hiking  and  to  read  book.  No  error  
   A              B              C                              D                                    E  
 
 
 Sentence  
CompleEon  
•  Be on the lookout for clues like
adjectives, gender, number, and
time.

The coach could not hide his disappointment

over the player’s ____ performance.
a. appalling
b. outstanding
c.  spectacular
d. surprising
•  Use  context  clues  
 
The  neophytes  had  their  first  assignment.  
a.  veterans  
b.  beginners  
c.  professionals  
d.  young  and  old  
•  Be  familiar  with  the  funcXons  of  
conjuncXons  
 
Likewise,  and,  similarly,  also,  thus,  since,  because,  
consequently,  in  addi1on=  first  clause  will  support  or  
elaborate  second  clause  
 
Unless,  but,  despite,  yet,  however,  nevertheless,  although,  
while,  rather  =  the  first  clause  will  be  contradicted  by  the  
second  clause  
•  Even  if  you  have  already  pinpointed  your  
answer  at  first  glance,  try  to  check  the  other  
choices  sXll.  More  than  one  choice  might  seem  
appropriate  for  the  sentence  but  the  best  
answer  must  sXll  be  chosen.  
 
 
 VOCABULARY  
Vocabulary knowledge implies a rich understanding of the word.
It means knowing a word by definition and associating
experiences with that word.

1.Structural Analysis. Words are made up of the smallest

meaningful units called morphemes. The visual scrutiny of
unfamiliar words to identify morphemes is called structural
analysis. Knowing the roots, prefixes, and suffixes of words helps
reveal the meaning of the total word form.

a) Root words are words from which other words are formed by
adding a beginning part (prefix) or an ending part (suffix)
active (move) porter (carry) contradiction (to speak)
b) Prefixes are word parts added to the beginning of a word
benevolent (good) decline (from) nonsense (not)

c) Suffixes are syllables added at the end of a word to form a

new word with a different meaning
Biology (study of) homeless (without) scientist (one who does)
 VOCABULARY  

2.Word  FormaXon.    Words  undergo  changes.    The  following  are  five  

processes  of  word  formaXon:  
 
a)  Clipping  means  to  cut  off    the  beginning  or  the  end  of  the  word.    It  may  mean  
cuqng  from  both  ends,  leaving  a  part  to  stand  for  the  whole.  
 phone  photo    psycho    trigo  chem.    
b)  Blending  is  formed  by  fusing  or  puqng  two  words  together.    Usually  the  first  
part  of  one  word  is  blended  or  fused  with  the  last  part  of  another.    The  
blended  word  then  gets  its  meaning  from  the  two  words  put  together.  
 Eurasian  Philhealth  cosmonaut  smog  telecast  
c)  Compounding  uses  two  or  three  words  put  together  to  make  a  full  form.    
Most  ooen  the  meaning  of  the  word  is  different  from  its  parts.    SomeXmes  it  
is  the  meaning  of  the  two  words  put  together.  
 Xghtwad  blackout              first  aid  runner-­‐up  trigger-­‐happy    
 VOCABULARY  
d) Acronymy is the use of initial letter or syllables of several words in
succession.
UNESCO AWOL scuba radar
e) Reduplication- full or partial repetition of a free morpheme; sometimes with
variation
full with variation
so-so zigzag
bye-bye dilly-dally
hotch potch
hodge podge
In Filipino
Bili (BUY) – bibili (WILL BUY)
Kain (to eat) – Kakain (WILL EAT)
Pasok (to go) – papasok (WILL GO)
f) Coining (Coinage): Creating a completely new free morpheme, which is
unrelated to any existing morphemes; a rare thing
Googol pooch Nylon
g) Folk or Popular Etymology results from changing a word in part or in whole to
make it more like a familiar word.
belfry isle barbeque caesarian
 VOCABULARY  
3. Context Clues. The meaning of a word may be determined
by its environment – the words that surround it, either coming before
or after it in the sentence of in the paragraph.

a) Definition is considered the simplest and most obvious way by

which the meaning of a word is revealed. The be verb is used to
equate the term to be defined to the familiar word in the
sentence.
Psychiatry is the branch of medicine that deals with the
diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of mental disorders.

b) Restatement may be in the form of synonyms, examples,

elaboration by the use of modifiers, and pairing closely related
words. It is usually introduced by signal words: that is, for
example, such as, like, in the way, that, in other words, what
this means, etc. It may also be signaled by the dash and the
parentheses.
He was a true peripatetic, like the walking philosophers who
followed Aristotle and the wandering Jews of Israel.
 VOCABULARY  

c) Synonym is a word that means essentially the same thing as

another word. It is usually preceded by the function word or.
Sometimes the synonym may be found in another sentence
within the paragraph.
God is omniscient, or all-knowing.

d) Antonym is the opposite or contrasting word that may serve as

a clue to the unfamiliar word.
Julia’s remarks are generally not nebulous, but clear.

e) Inference requires reading between lines to see connections

and relationships not explicitly stated in a particular passage.

The practicing physician as a rule is completely unskilled in

obstetrics. His preliminary training contains little or nothing
concerning the details of pregnancy and childbirth.
  
f)  Homophones  &  Words  with  MulEple  Meanings  indicate  several  meanings  that  a  
word  has  in  English.  
 Susan  bought  a  bar  of  soap.  
 The  soldiers  tried  to  bar  the  enemies.  
 The  brilliant  student  passed  the  bar  examina1on.  
 
g)  Words  of  Various  Disciplines  are  the  basic  meaning  of  specialized  vocabulary  in  a  
parXcular  subject  area.  
 The  capital  of  the  Philippines  is  Metro  Manila.  (Social  Science)  
 His  capital  for  the  new  business  is  one  million  pesos.  (Math)  
 
h)  MulEple  Context  make  the  meaning  of  unfamiliar  words  clearer  and  easily  
understood.    
 Bu@erflies  fly  from  flower  to  flower.  
 How  high  did  the  boy  fly  his  kite?  
 Airplanes  fly  regularly  from  Manila  to  Hong  kong.  
 VOCABULARY  
Idioms. An idiom is an expression peculiar to a language. It usually has several
associated meanings which are not readily understandable from its grammatical construction
and cannot be derived from the meaning of its separate elements.
cross to bear – endure a kind of burden
close-fisted – a miser
cold-reception – unfriendly
broad daylight – open, full daylight
blackmail – money extorted by threat of intimidation
Argus-eyed – jealously watchful
what not -etcetera
blue-blood – noble blood
chicken-hearted – a timid, cowardly fellow
absent-minded – to be inattentive of what is going on
fair weather friend – a friend who deserts you in time of difficulties
henpecked husband – a submissive husband
laughing stock – object of ridicule
greenhorn – an inexperienced person
by heart – from memory
burn the midnight oil – study or work far into the night
bundle from heaven – new-born baby
belle of the ball – most popular girl
blanket authority – complete right or privilege
behind the times – unprogressive
came to terms – deal with misunderstanding
 VOCABULARY  
5. Figures of Speech. These forms of expressions
are used to convey meaning or heighten effect, often
by comparing or identifying one thing with another
that has meaning or connotation familiar to the
reader or listener.
BASED ON RESEMBLANCE:
a) Simile – a comparison between two unlike objects
by using like or as
His mind is like a sponge.
b) Metaphor – an indirect comparison of unlike objects
She is a phantom of delight
c) Personification – the giving of human
characteristics & capabilities to nonhuman things such
as inanimate objects, abstract ideas, or animals
The clouds cried a torrent of tears.
 VOCABULARY  
d) Apostrophe – an address to the absent as if present or to the
inanimate as if human
“O wind, if winter comes, can spring be far behind?”
e) Allusion is a reference in a work of literature to another work of
literature, or to a well-known person, place or event outside of
literature
i.Mythological Allusion: Magnus is the Adonis of the class.
ii.Literary Allusion: Political Pied Pipers try everything.
iii.Historical Allusion: Some call Marcos a modern day Hitler.
iv.Biblical Allusion:
I took my power in my hand
And went against the world
‘Twas not as much as David had,
But I was twice as bold.

I aimed my pebble, but myself

Was all the one that fell
Was it Goliath was too large,
Or only I too small
- “The Duel” by Emily Dickinson
f) Antonomasia is a special type of allusion which makes use of a
title or an epithet (a descriptive word or phrase) instead of a
proper name. It uses a proper name to convey an idea. Often
these names are taken from history, myths, legends and the
Bible.
1. Abraham – father of his people
2. Achilles’ heel – flaw or weakness
3. Apollo – manliness
4.Cain – murderer of his brother
5.David and Jonathan – friendship
6. Juliet – young, tragic love
7. Napoleon – strategy in war
8. Penelope – faithful wife
9. Salome – temptation
10. Solomon – wisdom
11.Thomas – doubt
12. Waterloo – cause of defeat/ weakness
BASED ON EMPHASIS:
g) Hyperbole – the use of excessive exaggeration for effect
Waves mountain high broke over the reef.
I think of you every minute of the day.
h) Litotes – makes a deliberate understatement used to affirm by
negating its opposite
Regine Velasquez is not a bad singer.
Edgar Allan Poe is no mean writer.
i) Meiosis is a positive understatement intended to suggest a
strong affirmative.
I am a bit worried because I am falling in almost all of my
subjects.
We were a little disappointed to learn that the guest of honor
could not come.
j) Repetition is repeating words, phrases, or whole construction in
order to intensify feeling or meaning.
Never give in. Never give in. Never, never, never, never yield
to force.- Winston Churchill
BASED ON PARALLELISM/CONTRAST
k) Irony is the use of words to convey the opposite of their literal
meaning.
You’re so beautiful; you look like a Christmas tree!
You gave ma a good plan. Its only problem is that it can never
be done.”
l) Antithesis – a contrast of words or ideas
She looks like an innocent flower but watch out for the serpent
under it.
m) Oxymoron – the combining of contraries to portray a particular
image or to produce a striking effect
Parting is such sweet sorrow.
He is an honest liar.
BASED ON PARALLELISM/CONTRAST

n) Paradox – uses a phrase or statement that on surface seems

contradictory, but makes some kind of emotional sense. It is a
seemingly, contradictory but true example
Let us go to war for peace.
There is a grief in happiness.

o) Chiasmus is parallelism in sentence element of similar or

contrasting ideas, so arranged that the parallel elements of the
second part of the structure are in inverted order.
He was slow in resolution, in performance quick.
BASED ON SUBSTITUTION:
p) Metonymy – substitutes a word that closely relates to a person
or thing
Have you no respect for gray hairs?
The “pen and plume” can be used to represent a writer.
q) Periphrasis is the substitution of a descriptive phrase for a
name or vice-versa
The sleeping giant has broken ties with its neighbors.
r) Synecdoche – uses a part to represent the whole
Give us this day our daily bread.
Life is so hard when you have eight hungry stomachs to feed.
Ten brilliant minds instead of ten intelligent people
BASED ON ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS:
6. Climax is the arrangement of words or ideas
according to their degree of importance; thus, the
last set appears most valuable
I came, I saw, I conquered. – Julius Caesar
7. Anti-climax is abruptly ending a climax build-up
with an insignificant item.
I die. I faint. I fail.
BASED ON SOUND EFFECTS:

8. Onomatopoeia is a use of words that imitate the sounds

associated with the object or actions they refer to
The cat meows in the dark.
9. Pun is a play on words with humorous, witty effects
“The Tooth, the Whole Tooth and Nothing but the Tooth.”- An
essay by Robert Benchley
10. Euphemism is the substitution of an in offensive term for one
considered offensively explicit.
Senior citizens for old people / Passed away for dead
Say “He didn’t make it.” instead of “He lost the game.”
11. Rhetorical Devices. These are sound devices used to convey
meaning through rhyme and rhythm.
a) Onomatopoeia – uses a word having a sound that imitates
what it denotes
hiss, bang, buzz, hush , swoosh
BASED ON SOUND EFFECTS:
11. Rhetorical Devices
b) Alliteration – involves the repetition of initial consonant sounds
wicked and wan, threatening throngs
c) Assonance – uses repetition of vowels without repetition of
consonants, also called a vowel rhyme
alone, alone, all, all, alone
d) Consonance – repeats the final consonant sounds, also called a
slant rhyme
dreary and weary; odds and ends
e) Rhyme – employs identical sounds from the vowel of the
accented syllables to the end
hold, told, mold, gold; die, sky, my, fly, pie
f) Anaphora – repeats a word or words at the beginning of two or
more successive clauses or verses
Cannons to the right of them/Cannons to the left of them
Words and Expressions Commonly Misused. Many
words and expressions are not so much bad English as bad
style, the commonplaces of careless writing.

1. ACCEPT -to receive

Example: He accepts defeat well.
EXCEPT -to take or leave out
Example: Please take all the books off the shelf except for the red
one.
2. ACCESS - availability
Example: The lawyer was given access to the grand jury records.
EXCESS - too much
Example: His expenses are for the past three months are far in excess of
income.
3. ADAPT - to change
Example: She adapted the piano piece to make it more appropriate
for the children’s concert.
ADOPT - to take as one’s own
Example: The impressionable young man adopted his hero’s style of
dress.
Words and Expressions Commonly Misused. Many words and
expressions are not so much bad English as bad style, the
commonplaces of careless writing.

4. ADVICE- a noun meaning opinion

Example: I asked my guidance counselor for advice about what courses to take
next semester.
ADVISE- a verb meaning to give an opinion to
Example: My guidance counselor advised me to take a science course and a
foreign language.
5. AFFECT-to influence
Example: Lack of sleep affects the quality of your work.
EFFECT -n., result, v., to accomplish
Examples: The subtle effect of the lighting made the room look ominous.
Can the university effect such a change without disrupting
classes?
6. AIN’T – originally a contraction of am not. It is not considered standard English.
Nonstandard: John ain’t ready yet.
Correct: John isn’t ready yet.
7. ALLUSION-an indirect reference
Example: The professor made an allusion to Virginia Woolf's work.
ILLUSION -a false perception of reality
Example: They saw a mirage: that is a type of illusion one sees in the
desert.
Words and Expressions Commonly Misused. Many words and
expressions are not so much bad English as bad style, the
commonplaces of careless writing.

8. ALL READY-prepared
Example: Dinner was all ready when the guests arrived.
ALREADY -by this time
Example: The turkey was already burned when the guests arrived.
9. ALTERNATE- means every other one in a series or a substitute
Example: When the experiment failed, they tried the alternate
method.
ALTERNATIVE- one of the two possibilities
Example: She always reminds everyone that failing is not an
alternative to passing.
10. ALTOGETHER -entirely
Example: Altogether, I thought that the student's presentation
was well-planned.
ALL TOGETHER -gathered, with everything in one place
Example: We were all together at the family reunion last spring.
11. AMONG - a preposition that implies three or more.
Example: The dog sat down among the tulips.
BETWEEN -is generally used with two.
Example: Please sit between your mom and me.
Words and Expressions Commonly Misused. Many words and
expressions are not so much bad English as bad style, the
commonplaces of careless writing.

12. ANYONE- all or everyone

Example: Anyone can do what I have done.
ANY ONE- a particular person or thing
Example: I do not like any one of the proposed programs.
13. APART-to be separated
Example: The chain-link fence kept the angry dogs apart. or My old car fell
apart before we reached California.
A PART-to be joined with
Example: The new course was a part of the new field of study at the
university. OR A part of this plan involves getting started at dawn.
14. ASCENT- climb
Example: The plane's ascent made my ears pop.
ASSENT-agreement
Example: The martian assented to undergo experiments.
15. AWHILE-an adverb which means ‘for a while.’
Example: Lie down awhile and rest. (Adverb)
A WHILE-an article and a noun usually used after the preposition for
Example: For a while he lay still without moving. (Noun)
Words and Expressions Commonly Misused. Many words and
expressions are not so much bad English as bad style, the
commonplaces of careless writing.

16. BESIDE-means ‘at the side of’ or ‘close to’.

Example: The garden is beside the house.
BESIDES-means ‘in addition to’
Example: Who is going to the concert besides me?
17. BETTER-means recovering.
Example: He is better now than he was a week ago.
WELL- means completely recovered
Example: In a few more weeks, he will be well.
18. BIANNUAL- means twice a year
Example: The organizers meet biannually.
BIENNIAL-means done every two years or lasting for two years.
Example: The members pay biennial institutional fee.
19. BREATH-noun, air inhaled or exhaled
Example: You could see his breath in the cold air.
BREATHE-verb, to inhale or exhale
Example: If you don't breathe, then you are dead.
Words and Expressions Commonly Misused. Many words and
expressions are not so much bad English as bad style, the commonplaces of
careless writing.

20. BRING- means ‘to carry from a distant place to a nearer one’
Example: Bring those books here, please.
TAKE- means to carry from a nearer place to a more distant one
Example: Take these forms to the principal’s office.
21. CANVAS- a kind of cloth
Example: The actors need a canvas for their stage play.
CANVASS- a survey of opinions
Example: He canvassed the whole studentry re RH Bill.
22. CAPITAL-seat of government. It also financial resources.
Examples: The capital of Virginia is Richmond.
The firm had enough capital to build the new plant.
CAPITOL-the actual building in which the legislative body meets
Example: The governor announced his resignation in a speech given at the capitol today.
23. CITE-to quote or document
Example: I cited ten quotes from the same author in my paper.
SIGHT-vision
Example: The sight of the American flag arouses different emotions in different parts of
the world.
SITE-position or place
Example: The new office building was built on the site of a cemetery.
Words and Expressions Commonly Misused. Many words and
expressions are not so much bad English as bad style, the commonplaces of
careless writing.

24. COARSE- means vulgar or harsh

Example: He was reprimanded because of his coarse behavior
COURSE-a path or a study
Example: What course are you taking?
25. COMPLEMENT-noun, something that completes; verb, to complete
Example: A nice dry white wine complements a seafood entree.
COMPLIMENT-noun, praise; verb, to praise
Example: The professor complimented Betty on her proper use of a comma.
26. CONSCIENCE-sense of right and wrong
Example: The student's conscience kept him from cheating on the exam.
CONSCIOUS-awake
Example: I was conscious when the burglar entered the house.
27. CONTINUAL- means close occurrence, with interval
Example: Their class has continual discussion on moral issues.
CONTINUOUS- uninterrupted occurrence
Example: Continuous rains last week caused flashfloods.
28. COUNCIL-a group that consults or advises
Example: The men and women on the council voted in favor of an outdoor concert in their
town.
COUNSEL-to advise
Example: The parole officer counseled the convict before he was released.
Words and Expressions Commonly Misused. Many words and
expressions are not so much bad English as bad style, the commonplaces of
careless writing.

29. ELICIT-to draw or bring out

Example: The teacher elicited the correct response from the student.
ILLICIT-illegal
Example: The Columbian drug lord was arrested for his illicit activities.
30. EMERGE- to rise out of
Example: The swimmer emerged from the pool.
IMMERGE- to plunge into
Example: The student immerged himself in his studies.
31. EMINENT-famous, respected
Example: The eminent podiatrist won the Physician of the Year award.
IMMANENT-inherent or intrinsic
Example: The meaning of the poem was immanent, and not easily recognized.
IMMINENT-ready to take place
Example: A fight between my sister and me is imminent from the moment I enter my
house.
32. FARTHER- refers to distance
Example: My house is farther away than yours.
FURTHER- means ‘additional’ or ‘to a greater degree or extent’
Example: I need further advice
Words  and  Expressions  Commonly  Misused.    Many  words  and  expressions  are  not  so  much  bad  
English  as  bad  style,  the  commonplaces  of  careless  wriXng.  
 
33.  FEWER-­‐  is  used  for  things  that  can  be  counted.  
   Example:  fewer  calories,  fewer  assignments  
 LESS-­‐  is  used  for  quanXXes  that  can  be  counted.    
34.  FORMER-­‐  the  first  of  two  
   Example:  The  former  half  of  the  book  was  in  prose.  
 LATTER-­‐  the  second  of  two  
   Example:  The  la-er  half  of  the  book  was  in  poetry.    
35.  GRATEFUL-­‐  means  thankful  
   Example:  We  are  all  grateful  for  your  support.  
 GRATIFIED-­‐  means  saXsfied  
   Example:  The  lady  was  graXfied  that  her  acXon  was  commended.      
36.  HANGED-­‐  is  used  in  reference  to  a  person  
   Example:  The  prisoner  was  hanged  at  dawn.  
 HUNG-­‐  is  used  in  reference  to  a  thing  
   Example:  The  picture  was  hung  above  the  fireplace.  
37.  HEALTHFUL-­‐is  used  for  things  
   Example:  Fresh  green  salads  are  healthful.  
 HEALTHY-­‐is  used  for  people  
   Example:  She  is  fit  and  healthy.  
 
 
 
 
 
Words and Expressions Commonly Misused. Many words and
expressions are not so much bad English as bad style, the commonplaces of
careless writing.

38. IN-refers to position

Example: The plates are in the cabinet.
INTO-suggests motion
Example: Let’s go into the next room.
39. INGENIOUS- having special skill to discover
Example: His ideas were all ingenious.
INGENUOUS- means having a childhood simplicity
Example: Her reaction to what was they said was ingenuous.
40. ITS-of or belonging to it
Example: The baby will scream as soon as its mother walks out of the room.
IT'S-contraction for it is
Example: It's a beautiful day in the neighborhood.
41. LEAD-noun, a type of metal
Example: Is that pipe made of lead?
LED-verb, past tense of the verb "to lead"
Example: She led the campers on an over-night hike.
42. LEARN-means to receive knowledge
Example: I learned a new word today.
TEACH- means to give knowledge.
Example: Sir Ralph taught us that new word.
Words and Expressions Commonly Misused. Many words and
expressions are not so much bad English as bad style, the commonplaces of
careless writing.

43. LIE-to lie down (a person or animal. hint: people can tell lies)
Example: I have a headache, so I'm going to lie down for a while.
The dog has lain in the shade all day.
Yesterday, the dog lay there for twelve hours.
LAY-to lay an object down.
Example: The town lay at the foot of the mountain.
At that point, Pappy laid the shotgun on the ground.
44. LOSE--verb, to misplace or not win
Example: Mom glared at Mikey: "If you lose that new lunchbox, don't even
think of coming home!"
LOOSE--adjective, to not be tight; verb (rarely used)--to release
Example: The burglar's pants were so loose that he was sure to lose the
race with the cop chasing him.
45. PASSED- verb, past tense of "to pass," to have moved
Example: The tornado passed through the city quickly, but it caused great damage.
PAST-belonging to a former time or place
Example: Go past the fire station and turn right.
46. PRECEDE-to come before
Example: Pre-writing precedes the rough draft of good papers.
PROCEED-to go forward
Example: He proceeded to pass back the failing grades on the exam.
Words and Expressions Commonly Misused. Many words and
expressions are not so much bad English as bad style, the commonplaces of
careless writing.

47. PRINCIPAL-adjective, most important; noun, a person who has authority

Examples: The principal ingredient in chocolate chip cookies is chocolate chips.
The principal of the school does the announcements each morning.
PRINCIPLE-a general or fundamental truth
Example: The study was based on the principle of gravity.
48. QUOTE-verb, to cite
Example: I would like to quote Dickens in my next paper.
QUOTATION-noun, the act of citing
Example: The book of famous quotations inspired us all.
49. RELUCTANT-to hesitate or feel unwilling
Example: We became reluctant to drive further and eventually turned back
when the road became icy.
RETICENT- to be reluctant to speak; to be reserved in a manner. Note that The American
Heritage Dictionary lists "reluctant" as a synonym for "reticent," as the third definition. For
nuance and variety, we recommend "reticent" for reluctance when speaking or showing
emotion (after all, even extroverts can become reluctant).
Example: They called him reticent, because he rarely spoke. But he listened
carefully and only spoke when he had something important to say.
50. RAISE-usually takes a direct object
Example: Our landlady raises the tent on our apartment every year at this time.
RISE- never takes a direct object
Example: The hot air balloons rise above the treetops.
Words and Expressions Commonly Misused. Many words and
expressions are not so much bad English as bad style, the commonplaces of
careless writing.

51. RESPECTIVELY- in the same order as the people or things already mentioned.
Example: Lisa visited Paris and Vatican respectively.
RESPECTFULLY- means in a respectful manner
Example: She greets her teachers respectfully.
52. SET- means ‘to put something in a certain place’
Example: Set the plates on the table.
SIT- means to be seated
Example: I will sit in his placer tonight.
53. STATIONARY-standing still
Example: The accident was my fault because I ran into a stationary object.
STATIONERY-writing paper
Example: My mother bought me stationery that was on recycled paper.
54. SOME TIME- a portion of time
Example: I will need some time to make a decision.
SOMETIME- at an indefinite time in the future
Example: Let us meet sometime after 12 noon.
SOMETIMES- adverb, means occasionally
Example: Sometimes it is better to hesitate before signing a contract.
55. THAN-use with comparisons
Example: I would rather go out to eat than eat at the dining hall.
THEN-at that time, or next
Example: I studied for my exam for seven hours, and then I went to bed.
Words and Expressions Commonly Misused. Many words and
expressions are not so much bad English as bad style, the commonplaces of
careless writing.

56. THEIR-possessive form of they

Example: Their house is at the end of the block.
THERE-indicates location (hint: think of "here and there")
Example: There goes my chance of winning the lottery!
THEY'RE-contraction for "they are"
Example: They're in Europe for the summer--again!
57. THROUGH-by means of; finished; into or out of
Example: He plowed right through the other team's defensive line.
THREW-past tense of throw
Example: She threw away his love letters.
THOROUGH-careful or complete
Example: John thoroughly cleaned his room; there was not even a speck of
dust when he finished.
THOUGH-however; nevertheless
Example: He's really a sweetheart though he looks tough on the outside.
THRU-abbreviated slang for through; not appropriate in standard writing
Example: We're thru for the day.
Words and Expressions Commonly Misused. Many words and
expressions are not so much bad English as bad style, the commonplaces of
careless writing.

58. TO-toward
Example: I went to the University of Richmond.
TOO-also, or excessively
Example: He drank too many screwdrivers and was unable to drive home.
TWO-a number
Example: Only two students did not turn in the assignment.
59. WHO-pronoun, referring to a person or persons
Example: Jane wondered how Jack, who is so smart, could be having difficulties in Calculus.
WHICH-pronoun, replacing a singular or plural thing(s); not used to refer to persons
Example: Which section of history did you get into?
THAT-used to refer to things or a group or class of people
Example: I lost the book that I bought last week.
60. WHO-used as a subject or as a subject complement
Example: John is the man who can get the job done.
WHOM-used as an object
Example: Whom did Sarah choose as her replacement?
Reading comprehension questions usually fall
into several general categories.
•  1. Main Idea. This usually refers to the passage as a
whole, not to some segment or part of the passage.
Questions are usually about the main idea or theme of
the passage, about a possible title, or about the
author’s primary objective. The main idea is typically
(but not always) found in the first paragraph. It is the
statement that gives the overall theme of the passage.
In many cases, it is in the form of an argument,
including a premise and conclusion.

World War II brought new demands and needs to the

nation in the 1940s. Financing the war meant
additional taxes and changes to payroll processing. An
armed force with millions of people produced new
challenges in administration and record keeping. New
weapons required countless calculations and tests.
Defense research demanded the development of large-
scale computing devices.
2. Supporting Ideas. This is about the idea expressed in one
part of the passage rather than about the passage as a whole.
This type of question is to distinguish between the main idea
and those themes that support it, some of which may be
implicit or implied rather than explicitly stated.
Males and females are each associated with different kinds of
behavior, and what is considered masculine and feminine
differs from society to society. These concepts of masculinity
and femininity extend to how people walk, sit, talk, and dress.
In our society, as in all others, men walk and talk in certain
ways and until very recently dressed very differently from
women. In some societies, different spatial areas are
associated with males and females – women in many Middle
Eastern societies are restricted to certain parts of the house
and may only come into contact with the males who are
members of their family. In such societies, the coffee house
and the market are defined as male domains. In contrast, in
some African societies, women predominate in the
marketplace.
•  3. Drawing Inferences. This asks about ideas that are not
explicitly stated in a passage. The question refers meanings
implied by the author based on information given in the
passage.
The procedure is actually quite simple. First, you arrange the
items into different groups. Of course one pile may be
sufficient depending on how much there is to do. If you have
to go somewhere else due to lack of facilities that is the next
step; otherwise, you are pretty well set. It is important not to
overdo things. That is, it is better to do too few things at
once than too many. In the short run this may not seem
important but complications can easily arise. A mistake can
be expensive as well. At first, the whole procedure will seem
complicated. Soon, however, it will become just another facet
of life. It is difficult to foresee any end to the necessity for
this task in the immediate future, but then, one never can tell.
After the procedure is completed one arranges the materials
into different groups again. Then they can be put into their
appropriate places. Eventually they will be used once more
and the whole cycle will then have to be repeated. However,
that is part of life.
 BASIC  READING  SKILLS  

•  1. Skimming and Scanning. Skimming is the

selective reading of material to survey the purpose and
the general idea. Scanning, on the other hand, is a
quick search for a specific information in the text.
•  2. Finding the Topic Sentence. The topic sentence
gives the key to an entire paragraph. It is usually found
in the beginning of a paragraph. However, there is no
absolute rule. Some paragraphs build up to a
conclusion hence the key sentence is at the end.
•  3. Finding the General Theme. A more advanced
skill is the ability to read several paragraphs and relate
them to one general theme or main idea. This involves
careful reading of the entire passage and deciding which
idea is the central or main one. The general theme is
usually most frequent or most important and every
sentence relates to it
•  4. Finding Logical Relationships. The best
way to fully understand the meaning of a
passage is to look for the general theme and
then relate the ideas and opinions found in the
passage to this general theme. It is important
to determine not only what is important in the
passage but also how the ideas interrelate to
form the whole.

•  5.Making Inferences. An inference is not

stated. It is assumed by the reader from
something said by the writer. An inference is
the likely or probable conclusion rather than
the direct, logical one. It usually involves an
opinion or viewpoint that the writer wants the
reader to follow or assume.
LITERATURE
•  Literature is derived from the Latin word litera which means
letter.
•  It refers to any printed matter written within a book or
magazine.
•  It is a reproduction of man’s manifold experiences blended
into one harmonious expression.
•  It relates to man’s love, griefs, dreams, and aspirations
coached in a beautiful language.
•  It is a story of man.

Reasons for Studying literature

•  To better appreciate our literary heritage
•  To trace the rich heritage of ideas handed down to us by our
forefathers
•  To understand the great and noble tradition of the different
races of the world
•  As Filipinos, to take pride in our own culture and manifest
deep concern for our own literature.
TYPES OF LITERATURE
The prose
•  The NOVEL is a long narrative divided into chapters. The events are
taken from the true-to-life stories and spans a long period of time.
•  SHORT STORY is a narrative involving one or more chapters, one
plot and one single impression.
•  PLAYS are presented on stage divided into acts and each act has
many scenes.
•  LEGENDS are fictions, narratives and usually about origins.
•  FABLES are stories about animals and inanimate things that speak
and act like people and their purpose is to enlighten the minds of
children to events that can mold their ways and attitudes.
•  ANECDOTES are products of the writer’s imagination and the main
aim is to bring out lessons to the reader.
•  ESSAY expresses the viewpoint or opinion of the writer about a
particular problem or event. Best example is an editorial.
•  BIOGRAPHY deals with the life of a person which may be about
himself or that of others.
The  poetry  
NarraEve  
•  EPIC  is  an  extended  narraXve  about  heroic  exploits  ooen  
under  supernatural  control.  
     Examples:  Biag  ni  Lam-­‐ang  of  Ilocos,  Phl  
       Beowulf  of  England  
       Iliad  and  Odyssey  of  Greece  
       Ramayana  and  Mahabarata  of                      India  
•  TALES  are  stories  about  supernatural  beings.  
•  BALLADS  are  short  poems,  adapted  for  singing,  simple  in  
plot  and  metrical  structure.  
•  Lyric  poetry  expresses  emoXons  and  feelings  of  the  poet.  It  is  usually  short,  simple  and  
easy  to  understand.  
•  Folksongs/AwiEng  Bayan  are  intended  to  be  sung  poems  about  love,  despair,  grief,  
doubt,  joy,  hope  and  sorrow.  
 Example:  Chit-­‐Chirit-­‐Chit  
•  Sonnet  is  a  14-­‐line  poem  dealing  with  emoXons,  feelings  or  ideas  
 Example:  Sonnets  of  Shakespeare  
•  Elegy  is  a  poem  for  the  dead.    
 Annabel  Lee  by  Edgar  Allan  Poe  
•  Ode  is  a  poem  of  a  noble  feeling,  expressed  with  dignity  on  a  certain  thing/object.  
 Example:  Ode  to  the  West  Wind    
•  Psalms  are  songs  praising  God  and  containing  a  philosophy  of  God.  
 Example:  Psalm  of  David  
•  Awit  is  a  realisXc  poem  sung  with  12  syllables  per  line.  
 Example:  Florante  at  Laura  
•  Corrido  is  an  8-­‐syllable  recital  with  element  of  fantasy.    
 Example:  Ibong  Adarna  
Dramatic Comedy
•  Tragedy involves the hero who struggles
mighty against dynamic forces until he meets
death.
Example: Hamlet
•  Comedy comes from the Greek word ‘komos’
meaning festivity. Its purpose is to give
amusement through s happy ending.
•  Melodrama arouses immediate and intense
emotion and is usually sad but there is a
happy ending for the principal character.
•  Force is an exaggerated comedy where the
situations are too ridiculous to be true.
 LITERATURE  
Famous Works

THE ILIAD by Homer

This consists of 24 books covering the last 49 days of the 10th year
of the Trojan War. Most books give detailed accounts of the fierce
battles waged on the plains of Troy.

THE ODYSSEY by Homer

This consists of 24 books that represents the 10-year struggle of the
Greek Ulysses (Odysseus) to reach and save his own kingdom,
Ithaca, after the fall of Troy.

BEOWULF by Homer
This is the England’s oldest epic. It is about the heroic deeds Beowulf
who helps save the Kingdom of Heorot.

The SHAH NAMAH by Firdausi

A great epic of Persia meaning “Singer of Paradise”- the story tells
about the struggle of Persia to overthrow her enemies.
•  The SONG OF ROLAND
A great epic of France –depicts the great struggle of Christian knights of France
under Charlemagne against the Moors of Mohammedans
•  The CID
A great folk-epic of Spain- tells the deeds of the great Cid or “lord” Rodrigo in his
wars with the Moors.
•  The DIVINE COMEDY
A great folk-epic of Italy written by Dante- has three parts: Inferno, Purgatorio,
and Paradiso, great purpose was the salvation of the soul.
•  SIR GAWAIN and the GREEN KNIGHT
A story of courage, loyalty and faith in God
•  THE CANTERBURY TALES by Geoffrey Chaucer- a large collection of
isolated stories. It features the different people of Medieval England
•  The DECAMERON by Giovanni Boccaccio- a collection of tales told by a group
of young people escaping the black death from the City
•  A DOLL’S HOUSE by Henrik Ibsen- the husband in the story treats Nora, the
wife, as a doll, a plaything, a pet, instead as a person
The Pre-Spanish era

•  Own literature that reflects our own race

•  Shows our customs and tradition in everyday life
•  Own alphabet known as ‘alibata’
•  Records were written on leaves and bamboo cylinder, bark of trees and
caves.
•  Beginning of legends, folktales, epics, folk songs, riddles, chants,
proverbs and sayings

The Spanish Period

•  Alibata was replaced by the Roman alphabet
•  Teachings of Christian Doctrine became the basis of religious practices.
•  Spanish language gave many of its words to our language.
•  European legends and traditions were assimilated in our songs, corridos
and moro moro.
•  Ancient literature was collected and translated to Tagalog and other
dialects.
•  Grammar books were printed in Filipinos
•  Periodicals gained a religious tone.
FIRST BOOKS WRITTEN
•  DOCTRINA CHRISTIANA was the first book printed in the Philippines in 1593. It was
written by Fr. Juan de Placencia & Fr. Domingo Nieva.
•  BARLAAN at JOSEPHAT was the first Tagalog novel published in the Philippines.
•  PASION is about life and sufferings of Jesus Christ
•  URBANA at FELISA was written by Modesto de Castro (Father of Classic Prose in Tagalog)
about the letters of two sisters dealing with good behavior.
•  VOCABULARIO DELA LENGUA TAGALA was the first Tagalog dictionary by Fr. Pedro de
San Buenaventura.
•  NINAY was the first social novel in Spanish by Jose Panganiban.
•  Recreational plays
•  Tibag was a search of St. Helena for the cross on which Jesus died.
•  Cenaculo was a dramatic performance commemorating the passion and death of Jesus
Christ.
•  Panunuluyan was a presentation of the search of Virgin Mary and St. Joseph for an inn to
deliver the baby Jesus.
•  Salubong is an Easter play that dramatizes the meeting of the risen Lord and His mother.
•  Zarzuela is the father of drama musical comedy/melodrama dealing with man’s passion
and emotion.
•  Moro-moro is a play about the fighting between Moros and Christians
•  Duplo/Karagatan is played during wakes for the dead. The princess who dropped her ring
into the middle of the sea.
•  Balagtasan
•  Awit/Corrido
PERIOD OF ENLIGHTENMENT (NATIONALISM)
•  The period where the Filipinos demanded changes in the government
and in the church.
•  The Rise of Propaganda Movement

Leaders:
•  Jose Rizal – Laong Laan & Dimasalang
Wrote: Noli and Fili
•  Marcelo H. Del Pilar – Plaridel, Pupdoh, Piping Dilat, Dolores Manapat
Wrote: Pag-ibig sa Tinubuang Lupa, Dasalan at Tuksuhan
•  Graciano Lopez Jaena
Wrote: La Solidaridad (first magazine), Fray Botod
PERIOD OF ACTIVE REVOLUTION
•  Reforms demanded by propagandists were not given attention.
•  There was no other way except to revolt.
Leaders:
•  Andres Bonifacio - the Father of Democracy, Father of KKK, and
•  Emilio Jacinto – Brain of the Katipunan, wrote Liwanag at Dilim
•  Apolinario Mabini- Sublime Paralytic, Brains of the Revolution

Japanese literature
•  English newspapers were stopped by the Japanese.
•  LIWAYWAY was placed under strict surveillance.
•  Beginning of HAIKU and TANAGA
•  Movie houses showing American Films were closed
•  Writers: Jose Ma. Hernandez, Francisco Rodrigo, Liwayway Arceo,
Carlos Romulo, Carlos Bulosan
Rebirth of freedom
•  American returned in 1945.
•  Proliferation of newspapers such as FREE PRESS, MORNING SUN,
MANILA TIMES, PHIL. HERALD, CHRONICLE, BULLETIN
•  Famous work:
‘Kwento ni Mabuti’ by Genoveva Edroza- her first Palanca Award

PERIOD OF ACTIVISM
•  Because of the ills of society, the youth moved to seek reforms.
•  Martial Law
•  Writings were rebellious.
•  Period of terror and wrath
•  Age of Ninoy’s martyrdom
•  People Power
•  Rebirth of newspapers and books
American Literature
•  Colonial Period:
1.William Bradford – wrote Of Plymouth Plantation
2.Anne Bradstreet – wrote The Tenth Muse lately Sprung Up in America
3.Edward Taylor
4.Jonathan Edwards – wrote the powerful sermon “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry
God”

•  Period of Enlightenment

1.Benjamin Franklin
•  Wrote the Autobiography, a self-help book written to share pieces of advice to his
son
•  An important figure in the 1787 Convention which drafted the US Constitution
•  Was President of the Anti-slavery Association
2.Thomas Paine – wrote the pamphlet The Common Sense in which he wrote, “The
cause of America is in great measure the cause of all mankind.”
3.Philip Freneau – the poet of the American Revolution
4.Washington Irving – wrote Legend of the Sleepy Hollow and Rip Van Winkle
5.James Fennimore Cooper – wrote The Leatherstocking Tales that feature the life of
frontiersman Natty Bumpo. His masterpiece is the Last of the Mohicans
6.Phyllis Wheatley was the second published African American poet whose writings
helped create the genre of African American literature
Chinese literature
•  Chinese literature is one of the major cultural heritage of the world.
•  Poetry was characterized by compactness and brevity.
Confucius or Kung Fu-tze was the first sage of China who wanted to make
education available to all men. He was the great teacher who founded Chinese
literature.
•  SHIH CHING was the first anthology of Chinese poetry
Five Books of Confucius
•  YIKING (Book of Changes) – divination
•  LIKING (Book of Ceremonies) – etiquette
•  SHUKING (Book of Historical Documents) – political ideals and good governance.
•  SHIKING (Book of Poetry) – best poems
•  CHUN CHIU (Spring and Autumn) – history of Confucius’s native province.
Teachings of Confucius
•  Principles of Courage and Prudence
•  Filial Duty
•  Selecting friends
•  Good human relations, good government, values education and self-criticism
ANALECTS are selections or parts of literary works.
•  Examples:
•  I am not concerned that I am not known but I seek to be worthy to be known.
•  Give man a fish and you feed him for a day, teach man to fish and you feed him
for a life.
Arabic literature
•  A Thousand and One Night’ was a collection of stories and folk tales
compiled in Arabic.
Example:
Alladin, Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves, Sinbad, The Sailor
•  Kahlil Gibran – great poet

Indian literature
•  The oldest sacred literature found in four VEDAS (knowledge)
•  Rigveda – Veda of Praise (oldest)
•  Brahmanas – rituals and prayers
•  Upanishads – discourses between teachers and pupils
•  Puranas – history of the Aryan race
•  Mahabharata Hindu epic – the longest poem in the world about the
bitter quarrel of two brothers- Pandu and Kuru
•  Ramayana – defects the duties of relationship portraying ideal
characters like the ideal servant, ideal brother, ideal wife and ideal king.
•  Kalidasa – poet known for Sakantula/greatest Sanskrit playwright and
poets
•  Rabindranath Tagore – best known of all writers in India
Hebrew literature
•  Bible- book of all books with 39 Old Testament books and 27
New Testaments. This is a literature that provokes another
literature.

Japanese Literature
•  NOH DRAMA – a dramatic dance with lyrical poetic texts and
masked actors.
•  HAIKU – a 7-syllable poetic form usually about nature.
•  WAKA – a 31-syllable classical poetry
•  KABUKI
•  KOJOKI (Record of Ancient Matters) earliest surviving work in
Japan.
 Famous  Literary  PersonaliXes  (Summary)  
•  Geoffrey  Chaucer  :  The  Canterbury  Tales  
•  Dante  Alighieri    :  The  Divine  Comedy  
•  Victor  Hugo    :  Hunchback  of  Notre  Dame/Les  Miserables  
•  Charles  Dickens  :  Tale  of  Two  CiXes  
•  Virginia  Wolf    :  Mrs.  Dalloway  
•  Gabriel  Garcia  Marquez:  One  Hundred  Years  of  Solitude  
•  William  Shakespeare  :  Romeo  and  Juliet  
•  Edith  Wharton  :  The  Age  of  Innocence  
•  Robert  Frost    :  The  Road  Not  Taken  
•  Jane  Austen    :  Emma  
•  Fyodor  Dostoyevsky  :  Crime  and  Punishment  
•  Rudyard  Kipling  :  The  Jungle  Book  
•  William  Golding  :  Lord  of  the  Flies  
•  George  Orwell  :  Animal  Farm  
•  Edgar  Allan  Poe  :  Annabel  Lee  
•  Homer    :  Iliad  and  Odyssey  
•  Plato      :  The  Republic  
•  Leo  Tolstoy    :  God  Sees  the  Truth  but  Waits  
•  John  Milton    :  The  Paradise  Lost  
•  Jose  Rizal    :  Noli  Me  Tangere          
Questions?