Qualitative research

Qualitative research is a range of kinds of research, the common feature of which is reliance on
unstructured data and on forms of data analysis that are non-numerical. The data may take the form of
fieldnotes written by the researcher in the course of observation or interviews, audio or video recordings
carried out by the researcher in natural settings or interviews, documents of various kinds (publicly available
or personal; paper-based or electronic; already available or elicited by the researcher) and even material
artefacts. The use of these data is informed by various methodological or philosophical assumptions, as part
of various methods, such as ethnography (of various kinds), discourse analysis (of various kinds),
interpretative phenomenological analysis and other phenomenological methods.

Qualitative research approaches are employed across many academic disciplines, particularly in the social
sciences and applied fields like education, health sciences, and criminology.[1] They are also used in market
research and in research concerned with human–computer interaction.

Contents
Background
History
Data collection
Coding
Data analysis
Interpretive techniques
Recursivity
Recursive abstraction
Computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software (CAQDAS)
Coding and "thinking"
Specialized uses
Distinct qualitative paradigms
Trustworthiness
Journals
In psychology
Qualitative research in psychology using social media
See also
References
Further reading
External links
Videos

Background
As a field of study, qualitative approaches include research concepts and methods from multiple established
academic fields.[2] The aim of a qualitative research project may vary with the disciplinary background,
such as a psychologist seeking in-depth understanding of human behavior and the reasons that govern such
behavior for example. Qualitative methods are best for researching many of the why and how questions of
human experience,[1] in making a decision for example (not just what, where, when, or "who"); and have a
strong basis in the field of sociology to understand government and social programs. Qualitative research is
widely used by political science, social work, and education researchers.[3][4]

In the conventional view of statisticians, qualitative methods produce explanations only of the particular
cases studied (e.g., as part of an ethnography of a newly implemented government program). Any general
conclusions beyond the study context are considered tentative propositions (informed assertions), since the
general propositions are not usually arrived at on the basis of statistical theory. Quantitative methods are,
therefore, needed to seek mathematical evidence and justification for such hypotheses for further research.

In contrast, a qualitative researcher might argue that understanding of a phenomenon or situation or event,
comes from exploring the totality of the situation (e.g., phenomenology, symbolic interactionism), often
with access to large amounts of "hard data" of a nonnumerical form. It may begin as a grounded theory
approach with the researcher having no previous understanding of the phenomenon; or the study may
commence with propositions and proceed in a 'scientific and empirical way' throughout the research process
(e.g., Bogdan & Taylor, 1990).[5]

"We can distinguish between those which follow the logic of quantitative methods in their rules
and criteria and make generalizations in a numerical sense (i. e. from numerous cases to more
numerous cases), and those clearly qualitative methods where interpretations and
generalizations are not based on the frequency of occurrence of certain social phenomena but
on a logic of generalizing from an individual case, whether this case is a personal biography, an
organization or a particular milieu or social setting; this includes making microscopic and thick
descriptions (see Geertz 1973) of the phenomena in which we are interested, likewise with the
aim of generalizing from an individual case."

— Gabriele Rosenthal, (2018: 13): Interpretive Social Research. An Introduction.

Göttingen: Universitätsverlag Göttingen.

A popular method of qualitative research is the case study (Stake 1995,[6] Yin 1989[7]), which examines in
depth 'purposive samples' to better understand a phenomenon (e.g., support to families; Racino, 1999);[8] the
case study method exemplifies the qualitative researchers' preference for depth, detail, and context, often
working with smaller and more focused samples, compared with the large samples of primary interest to
statistical researchers seeking general laws.[1]

Qualitative methods are an integral component of the five angles of analysis fostered by the data percolation
methodology.[9] These methods may be used alongside quantitative methods, scholarly or lay reviews of the
literature, interviews with experts, and computer simulation, as part of multimethod attitude to data
collection and analysis (called Triangulation).[1]

To help navigate the heterogeneous landscape of qualitative research, one can further think of qualitative
inquiry in terms of 'means' and 'orientation'.[10] In particular, one could argue that qualitative researchers
often reject natural science models of truth, prefer inductive, hypothesis-generating research processes and
procedures (over hypothesis-testing models), are oriented towards investigations of meaning(s) rather than
behaviour, and prefer data in the form of words and images, that are ideally naturally derived (e.g. in-depth
observation as opposed to experimentation).[11]
History
Sociologist Earl Babbie notes that qualitative research is "at once very old and very new."[12] He documents
that qualitative methods have been used for several centuries, but anthropologists brought qualitative field
research methods to the forefront through their 19th century observations of preliterate societies.

Robert Bogdan in his advanced courses on qualitative research traces the history of the development of the
fields, and their particular relevance to disability and including the work of his colleague Robert Edgerton
and a founder of participant observation, Howard S. Becker.[13] As Robert Bogdan and Sari Biklen describe
in their education text, "historians of qualitative research have never, for instance, included Freud or Piaget
as developers of the qualitative approach, yet both relied on case studies, observations and indepth
interviewing".[14]

In the early 1900s, some researchers rejected positivism, the theoretical idea that there is an objective world
which we can gather data from and "verify" this data through empiricism. These researchers embraced a
qualitative research paradigm, attempting to make qualitative research as "rigorous" as quantitative research
and creating myriad methods for qualitative research. Such developments were necessary as qualitative
researchers won national center awards, in collaboration with their research colleagues at other universities
and departments; and university administrations funded Ph.D.s in both arenas through the ensuing decades.
Most theoretical constructs involve a process of qualitative analysis and understanding, and construction of
these concepts (e.g., Wolfensberger's social role valorization theories).[15]

In the 1970s and 1980s, the increasing ubiquity of computers aided in qualitative analyses, several journals
with a qualitative focus emerged, and postpositivism gained recognition in the academy. In the late 1980s,
questions of identity emerged, including issues of race, class, gender, and discourse communities, leading to
research and writing becoming more reflexive. Throughout the 1990s, the concept of a passive
observer/researcher was rejected, and qualitative research became more participatory and activist-oriented
with support from the federal branches, such as the National Institute on Disability Research and
Rehabilitation (NIDRR) of the US Department of Education (e.g., Rehabilitation Research and Training
Centers for Family and Community Living, 1990). Also, during this time, researchers began to use mixed-
method approaches, indicating a shift in thinking of qualitative and quantitative methods as intrinsically
incompatible. However, this history is not apolitical, as this has ushered in a politics of "evidence" (e.g.,
evidence-based practices in health and human services) and what can count as "scientific" research in
scholarship, a current, ongoing debate in the academy.

Data collection
Qualitative researchers face many choices for techniques to generate data ranging from grounded theory[16]
development and practice, narratology, storytelling, transcript poetry, biographical narrative interviews,
classical ethnography, state or governmental studies, research and service demonstrations, focus groups,
case studies, participant observation, qualitative review of statistics in order to predict future happenings, or
shadowing, surveys (including telephone surveys and consumer satisfaction surveys), among many others.
Qualitative methods are used in various methodological approaches, such as action research which has
sociological basis, or actor-network theory.

The interview (structured, semi-structured or unstructured) is a common source of data on the

qualities/categories of interest. Interviewees are often identified through sophisticated and sometimes, elitist,
snowballing techniques. In fields that study households, a much debated topic is whether interviews should
be conducted individually or collectively (e.g. as couple interviews).
Another method of qualitative data collection is the use of focus groups. The focus group technique (e.g.,
Morgan, 1988) involves a moderator facilitating a small group discussion between selected individuals on a
particular topic, with video and written data recorded, and is useful in a coordinated research approach
studying phenomenon in diverse ways in different environments with distinct stakeholders often excluded
from traditional processes. This method is a particularly popular in market research and testing new
initiatives with users/workers.

Other sources include focus groups, observation (without a predefined theory like statistical theory in mind
for example), reflective field notes, texts, pictures, photographs and other images, interactions and practice
captured on audio or video recordings, public (e.g. official) personal documents, historical items, and
websites and social media.[17][18][19][12]

In participant observation[20] researchers typically become members of a culture, group, or setting, and
adopt roles to conform to that setting. In doing so, the aim is for the researcher to gain a closer insight into
the culture's practices, motivations, and emotions. It is argued that the researchers' ability to understand the
experiences of the culture may be inhibited if they observe without participating. Participant observation is a
strategy of reflexive learning, not a single method of observing.[21] and has been described as a continuum
of between participation and observation. The ways of participating and observing can vary widely from
setting to setting as exemplified by Helen Schwartzman's primer on Ethnography in Organizations
(1993).[22] or Anne Copeland and Kathleen White's "Studying Families" (1991).[23]

Coding
In general, coding refers to the act of associating meaningful ideas with the data of interest. In the context of
qualitative research, interpretative aspects of the coding process are often explicitly recognized, articulated,
and celebrated; producing specific words or short phrases believed to be useful abstractions over the data.

As an act of sense making, most coding requires the qualitative analyst to read the data and demarcate
segments within it, which may be done at multiple and different times throughout the data analysis
process.[24] Each segment is labeled with a 'code' – usually a word or short phrase suggesting how the
associated data segments inform the research objectives. In contrast with more quantitative forms of coding,
mathematical ideas and forms are usually under-developed in a 'pure' qualitative data analysis. When coding
is complete, the analyst may prepare reports via a mix of: summarizing the prevalence of codes, discussing
similarities and differences in related codes across distinct original sources/contexts, or comparing the
relationship between one or more codes.

Some qualitative data that is highly structured (e.g., open-ended responses from surveys or tightly defined
interview questions) is typically coded with minimal additional segmentation of the data. Quantitative
analysis based on codes from statistical theory is typically the capstone analytical step for this type of
qualitative data. A common form of coding is open-ended coding, while other more structured techniques
such as axial coding or integration have also been described and articulated (Strauss & Corbin, 1990).[25]
Because qualitative analyses are often more inductive than the hypothesis testing nature of most quantitative
research, the existing 'theoretical sensitivity' (i.e., familiarity with established theories in the field) of the
analyst becomes a more pressing concern in producing an acceptable analysis.

Data analysis
The data that is obtained is streamlined (texts of thousands of pages in length) to a definite theme or pattern,
or representation of a theory or systemic issue or approach. This step in a theoretical analysis or data
analytic technique is further worked on (e.g., gender analysis may be conducted; comparative policy
analysis may be developed). An alternative research hypothesis is generated which finally provides the basis
of the research statement for continuing work in the fields.

To analyze qualitative data, the researcher seeks meaning from all of the data that is available. The data may
be categorized and sorted into patterns (i.e., pattern or thematic analyses) as the primary basis for organizing
and reporting the study findings (e.g., activities in the home; interactions with government).[26] Qualitative
researchers, often associated with the education field, typically rely on the following methods for gathering
information: Participant Observation, Non-participant Observation, Field Notes, Reflexive Journals,
Biographical Narrative Interviews, Structured Interview, Semi-structured Interview, Unstructured Interview,
and Analysis of documents and materials.[27][28][29] The research then must be "written up" into a report,
book chapter, journal paper, thesis or dissertation, using descriptions, quotes from participants, charts and
tables to demonstrate the trustworthiness of the study findings.

Interpretive techniques

As a form of qualitative inquiry,[1] students of interpretive inquiry (interpretivists) often disagree with the
idea of theory-free observation or knowledge. Whilst this crucial philosophical realization is also held by
researchers in other fields, interpretivists are often the most aggressive in taking this philosophical
realization to its logical conclusions. For example, an interpretivist researcher might believe in the existence
of an objective reality 'out there', but argue that the social and educational reality we act on the basis of
never allows a single human subject to directly access the reality 'out there' in reality (this is a view shared
by constructivist philosophies, see also subtle realism).

To researchers outside the qualitative research field, the most common analysis of qualitative data is often
perceived to be observer impression. That is, expert or bystander observers examine the data, interpret it via
forming an impression and report their impression in a structured and sometimes quantitative form.

Recursivity
In qualitative research, the idea of recursivity is expressed in terms of the nature of its research procedures,
which may be contrasted with experimental forms of research design. From the experimental perspective, its
major stages of research (data collection, data analysis, discussion of the data in context of the literature, and
drawing conclusions) should be each undertaken once (or at most a small number of times) in a research
study. In qualitative research however, all of the four stages above may be undertaken repeatedly until one
or more specific stopping conditions are met, reflecting a nonstatic attitude to the planning and design of
research activities. An example of this dynamicism might be when the qualitative researcher unexpectedly
changes their research focus or design midway through a research study, based on their 1st interim data
analysis, and then makes further unplanned changes again based on a 2nd interim data analysis; this would
be a terrible thing to do from the perspective of an (predefined) experimental study of the same thing.
Qualitative researchers would argue that their recursivity in developing the relevant evidence and reasoning,
enables the researcher to be more open to unexpected results, more open to the potential of building new
constructs, and the possibility of integrating them with the explanations developed continuously throughout
a study.[30]

Recursive abstraction

As defined by Leshan 2012,[31][32] this is a method of qualitative data analysis where qualitative datasets are
analyzed without coding. A common method here is recursive abstraction, where datasets are summarized;
those summaries are therefore furthered into summary and so on. The end result is a more compact summary
that would have been difficult to accurately discern without the preceding steps of distillation.
A frequent criticism of recursive abstraction is that the final conclusions are several times removed from the
underlying data. While it is true that poor initial summaries will certainly yield an inaccurate final report,
qualitative analysts can respond to this criticism. They do so, like those using coding method, by
documenting the reasoning behind each summary step, citing examples from the data where statements were
included and where statements were excluded from the intermediate summary.

Computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software (CAQDAS)

Contemporary qualitative data analyses are often supported by computer programs (termed computer-
assisted qualitative data analysis software) used with or without the detailed hand coding and labeling of the
past decades. These programs do not supplant the interpretive nature of coding, but rather are aimed at
enhancing analysts' efficiency at applying, retrieving, and storing the codes generated from reading the data.
Many programs enhance efficiency in editing and revision of codes, which allow for more effective work
sharing, peer review, recursive examination of data, and analysis of large datasets.

Common qualitative data analysis software includes:

MAXQDA (mixed methods)

QDA MINER
ATLAS.ti
Dedoose (mixed methods)
NVivo

A frequent criticism of quantitative coding approaches is against the transformation of qualitative data into
predefined (nomothetic) data structures, underpinned by 'objective properties'; the variety, richness, and
individual characteristics of the qualitative data is argued to be largely omitted from such data coding
processes, rendering the original collection of qualitative data somewhat pointless.

To defend against the criticism of too much subjective variability in the categories and relationships
identified from data, qualitative analysts respond by thoroughly articulating their definitions of codes and
linking those codes soundly to the underlying data, thereby preserving some of the richness that might be
absent from a mere list of codes, whilst satisfying the need for repeatable procedure held by experimentally
oriented researchers.

Coding and "thinking"

Some data analysis techniques rely on using computers to scan and reduce large sets of qualitative data. At
their most basic level, numerical coding relies on counting words, phrases, or coincidences of tokens within
the data; other similar techniques are the analyses of phrases and exchanges in conversational analyses.
Often referred to as content analysis, a basic structural building block to conceptual analysis, the technique
utilizes mixed methodology to unpack both small and large corpuses. Content analysis is frequently used in
sociology to explore relationships, such as the change in perceptions of race over time (Morning 2008), or
the lifestyles of temporal contractors (Evans, et al. 2004).[33][34] Content analysis techniques thus help to
provide broader output for a larger, more accurate conceptual analysis.

Mechanical techniques are particularly well-suited for a few scenarios. One such scenario is for datasets that
are simply too large for a human to effectively analyze, or where analysis of them would be cost prohibitive
relative to the value of information they contain. Another scenario is when the chief value of a dataset is the
extent to which it contains "red flags" (e.g., searching for reports of certain adverse events within a lengthy
journal dataset from patients in a clinical trial) or "green flags" (e.g., searching for mentions of your brand in
positive reviews of marketplace products). Many researchers would consider these procedures on their data
sets to be misuse of their data collection and purposes.

A frequent criticism of mechanical techniques is the absence of a human interpreter; computer analysis is
relatively new having arrived in the late 1980s to the university sectors. And while masters of these methods
are able to write sophisticated software to mimic some human decisions, the bulk of the "analysis" is still
nonhuman. Analysts respond by proving the value of their methods relative to either a) hiring and training a
human team to analyze the data or b) by letting the data go untouched, leaving any actionable nuggets
undiscovered; almost all coding schemes indicate probably studies for further research.

Data sets and their analyses must also be written up, reviewed by other researchers, circulated for
comments, and finalized for public review. Numerical coding must be available in the published articles, if
the methodology and findings are to be compared across research studies in traditional literature review and
recommendation formats.

Specialized uses
There are several different research approaches, or research designs, that qualitative researchers use.[35][36]
In the academic social sciences, the most frequently used qualitative research approaches include the
following points:

1. Basic/generic/pragmatic qualitative research, which involves using an eclectic approach taken

up to best match the research question at hand. This is often called the mixed-method
approach.
2. Ethnographic research. An example of applied ethnographic research is the study of a
particular culture and their understanding of the role of a particular disease in their cultural
framework.
3. Grounded theory is an inductive type of research, based or "grounded" in the observations or
data from which it was developed; it uses a variety of data sources, including quantitative data,
review of records, interviews, observation and surveys.[37]
4. Phenomenology describes the "subjective reality" of an event, as perceived by the study
population; it is the study of a phenomenon.[38]
5. Biographical research is aligned to the social interpretive paradigm of research and is
concerned with the reconstruction of life histories and the constitution of meaning based on
biographical narratives and documents. The starting point for this approach is the
understanding of an individual biography in terms of its social constitution, as influenced by
symbolic interactionism, phenomenological sociology of knowledge (Alfred Schütz, Peter L.
Berger, and Thomas Luckmann), and ethnomethodology (Harold Garfinkel).
6. Philosophical research is conducted by field experts within the boundaries of a specific field of
study or profession, the best qualified individual in any field of study to use an intellectual
analysis, in order to clarify definitions, identify ethics, or make a value judgment concerning an
issue in their field of study their lives.
7. Critical Social Research, used by a researcher to understand how people communicate and
develop symbolic meanings.
8. Ethical Inquiry, an intellectual analysis of ethical problems. It includes the study of ethics as
related to obligation, rights, duty, right and wrong, choice etc.
9. Social science and Governmental Research to understand social services, government
operations, and recommendations (or not) regarding future developments and programs,
including whether or not government should be involved.
10. Activist research which aims to raise the views of the underprivileged or "underdogs" to
prominence to the elite or master classes, the latter who often control the public view or
positions.
11. Foundational research, examines the foundations for a science, analyzes the beliefs, and
develops ways to specify how a knowledge base should change in light of new information.
12. Historical research allows one to discuss past and present events in the context of the present
condition, and allows one to reflect and provide possible answers to current issues and
problems. Historical research helps us in answering questions such as: Where have we come
from, where are we, who are we now and where are we going?
13. Visual ethnography. It uses visual methods of data collection, including photo, voice, photo
elicitation, collaging, drawing, and mapping. These techniques have been used extensively as
a participatory qualitative technique and to make the familiar strange.[39][40]
14. Autoethnography, the study of self, is a method of qualitative research in which the researcher
uses their personal experience to address an issue.
15. Cognitive testing, or pilot testing, is used in the development of quantitative survey items.
Survey items are piloted on study participants to test the reliability and validity of the items.
This approach is similar to psychological testing using an intelligence test like the WAIS
(Wechsler Adult Intelligence Survey) in which the interviewer records "qualitative" (i.e., clinical
observations) throughout the testing process. Qualitative research is often useful in a
sociological lens. Qualitative research can shed light on the intricacies in the functionality of
society and human interaction.
16. Arts-based research is an approach to qualitative study that uses art as data or for
reporting.[41][17] The approach recognizes that artful text (such as a poem or play script),
performance art (such as a dance performance or instrumental music concert) and visual art
(such as painting or sculpture) can be analyzed and interpreted to contribute to a researcher's
understanding of emerging themes.[42][17] Art-based research includes participant-produced
art either as visual data[43][42] or for elicitation purposes,[42] and researcher-produced art as a
means for reporting.[44][43]

Distinct qualitative paradigms

Contemporary qualitative research has been conducted using a large number of paradigms that influence
conceptual and metatheoretical concerns of legitimacy, control, data analysis, ontology, and epistemology,
among others. Qualitative research conducted in the twenty-first century has been characterized by a distinct
turn toward more interpretive, postmodern, and critical practices.[45] Guba and Lincoln (2005) identify five
main paradigms of contemporary qualitative research: positivism, postpositivism, critical theories,
constructivism, and participatory/cooperative paradigms.[45] Each of the paradigms listed by Guba and
Lincoln are characterized by axiomatic differences in axiology, intended action/impact of research, control
of research process/outcomes, relationship to foundations of truth and knowledge, validity and trust (see
below), textual representation and voice of the researcher and research participants, and commensurability
with other paradigms. In particular, commensurability involves the extent to which concerns from 2
paradigms e.g., "can be retrofitted to each other in ways that make the simultaneous practice of both
possible".[46] Positivist and post positivist paradigms share commensurable assumptions, but are largely
incommensurable with critical, constructivist, and participatory paradigms of research and knowledge.
Likewise, critical, constructivist, and participatory paradigms are commensurable on certain issues (e.g., the
intended action and textual representation of research).

Qualitative research in the 2000s has also been characterized by concern with everyday categorization and
ordinary storytelling. This "narrative turn" is producing an enormous literature as researchers present
sensitizing concepts and perspectives that bear especially on narrative practice, which centers on the
circumstances and communicative actions of storytelling. Catherine Riessman (1993)[47] and Gubrium and
Holstein (2009)[48] provide analytic strategies, and Holstein and Gubrium (2012)[49] present the variety of
approaches in recent comprehensive texts. More recent developments in narrative practice has increasingly
taken up the issue of institutional conditioning of such practices (see Gubrium and Holstein 2000).

However, not all scholars agree on the usefulness of paradigms. A critical view of understanding qualitative
inquiry vis-à-vis paradigms has been recently put forth by Pernecky (2016),[10] who has argued that
problems arise when paradigms are "interpreted in a rigid fashion and compartmentalized into static
schemata" (p. 18). It is therefore more fruitful to think in terms of flows and continuums, and even embrace
a post-paradigmatic qualitative research. In his words:

"The problem with laying down prescriptive rules about what qualitative research is and how it
ought to proceed lies in the narrowing of the possibilities of an abundant and constantly
devolving body of philosophical thought. When we accept paradigms uncritically as the
'givens', qualitative knowledge becomes habituated, and paradigms grow into hegemonic
systems of organization (Pernecky, 2016, p. 194)".

Trustworthiness
A central issue in qualitative research is trustworthiness (also known as credibility, or in quantitative studies,
validity). There are many different ways of establishing trustworthiness, including: member check,
interviewer corroboration, peer debriefing, prolonged engagement, negative case analysis, auditability,
confirmability, bracketing, and balance. Most of these methods are described in Lincoln and Guba
(1985).[50] As exemplified by researchers Preston Teeter and Jorgen Sandberg, data triangulation and
eliciting examples of interviewee accounts are two of the most commonly used methods of establishing
trustworthiness in qualitative studies.[51] Dependability is equivalent to the notion of reliability in
quantitative methods and is the extent to which two or more people are likely to come to the same
conclusions by examining the same evidence. Again, Lincoln and Guba (1985) is the salient reference.

Journals
By the end of the 1970s many leading journals began to publish qualitative research articles[52] and several
new journals emerged which published only qualitative research studies and articles about qualitative
research methods.[53] In the 1980s and 1990s, the new qualitative research journals became more
multidisciplinary in focus moving beyond qualitative research's traditional disciplinary roots of
anthropology, sociology, and philosophy.[53] In the late 1980s to 1990s, early academic articles emerged
beginning the transformation from institutional studies (e.g., Taylor's "Let them eat programs") to studies of
community, community services and community life reviewed and cited in professional journals.[54][55]
These studies ranged from extremely controversial concerns involving the death penalty and disability
(Bogdan, 1995)[56] to the efforts of families with service providers (O'Connor, 1995)[57] to the government
divisions which regulate families by "coming to take" the children away (Taylor, 1995).[58]

In psychology
Wilhelm Wundt, the founder of scientific psychology, was one of the first psychologists to conduct
qualitative research. Early examples of his qualitative research were published in 1900 through 1920, in his
10-volume study, Völkerpsychologie (translated to: Social Psychology). Wundt advocated the strong relation
between psychology and philosophy. He believed that there was a gap between psychology and quantitative
research that could only be filled by conducting qualitative research. Qualitative research dove into aspects
of human life that could not adequately be covered by quantitative research; aspects such as culture,
expression, beliefs, morality and imagination.[59]

There are records of qualitative research being used in psychology before World War II, but prior to the
1950s, these methods were viewed as invalid. Owing to this, many of the psychologists who practiced
qualitative research denied the usage of such methods or apologized for doing so. It was not until the late
20th century when qualitative research was accepted in elements of psychology though it remains
controversial. The excitement about the groundbreaking form of research was short-lived as few novel
findings emerged which gained attention. Community psychologists felt they didn't get the recognition they
deserved.[59] A selection of autobiographical narratives of community psychologists can be found in "Six
Community Psychologists Tell Their Stories: History, Contexts and Narratives" (Kelly & Song, 2004),
including the well known Julian Rappaport.[60]

Qualitative research in psychology using social media

Since the advent of social media in the early 2000s, formerly private accounts of personal experiences have
become widely shared with the public by millions of people around the world. Disclosures are often made
completely openly, which has contributed to social media's key role in movements like the #metoo
movement.[61]

This has presented a previously unprecedented opportunity for qualitative and mixed methods researchers:
mental health issues can now be investigated qualitatively much more widely, at a lower cost, and with no
intervention by the researchers.[62] To take advantage of this data, researchers need to have the appropriate
toolkit for extracting and analyzing this kind of data.[63]

See also
Living educational theory
Hermeneutics
Participatory action research
Quantitative research
Real world data
Methodological dualism
Computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software (CAQDAS)

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Further reading
Adler, P. A. & Adler, P. (1987). : context and meaning in social inquiry / edited by Richard
Jessor, Anne Colby, and Richard A. Shweder] OCLC 46597302 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/
46597302)
Baškarada, S. (2014) "Qualitative Case Study Guidelines", in The Qualitative Report, 19(40):
1-25. Available from [1] (http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR19/baskarada24.pdf)
Boas, Franz (1943). "Recent anthropology". Science. 98 (2546): 311–314, 334–337.
Bibcode:1943Sci....98..334B (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1943Sci....98..334B).
doi:10.1126/science.98.2546.334 (https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.98.2546.334).
PMID 17794461 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17794461).
Creswell, J. W. (2003). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed method
approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (2000). Handbook of qualitative research ( 2nd ed.). Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (2011). The SAGE Handbook of qualitative research ( 4th ed.).
Los Angeles: Sage Publications.
DeWalt, K. M. & DeWalt, B. R. (2002). Participant observation. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira
Press.
Fischer, C.T. (Ed.) (2005). Qualitative research methods for psychologists: Introduction through
empirical studies. Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-088470-4.
Franklin, M. I. (2012), "Understanding Research: Coping with the Quantitative-Qualitative
Divide (http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415490801/)". London/New York.
Routledge
Giddens, A. (1990). The consequences of modernity. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Gubrium, J. F. and J. A. Holstein. (2000). "The New Language of Qualitative Method." New
York: Oxford University Press.
Gubrium, J. F. and J. A. Holstein (2009). "Analyzing Narrative Reality." Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage.
Gubrium, J. F. and J. A. Holstein, eds. (2000). "Institutional Selves: Troubled Identities in a
Postmodern World." New York: Oxford University Press.
Hammersley, M. (2008) Questioning Qualitative Inquiry, London, Sage.
Hammersley, M. (2013) What is qualitative research?, London, Bloomsbury.
Holliday, A. R. (2007). Doing and Writing Qualitative Research, 2nd Edition. London: Sage
Publications
Holstein, J. A. and J. F. Gubrium, eds. (2012). "Varieties of Narrative Analysis." Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage.
 Kaminski, Marek M. (2004). Games Prisoners Play. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-
11721-7.
Mahoney, J; Goertz, G (2006). "A Tale of Two Cultures: Contrasting Quantitative and
Qualitative Research". Political Analysis. 14 (3): 227–249. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.135.3256 (https://
citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.135.3256). doi:10.1093/pan/mpj017 (http
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Miles, M. B. & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative Data Analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Pamela Maykut, Richard Morehouse. 1994 Beginning Qualitative Research. Falmer Press.
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ub.com/en-gb/oce/epistemology-and-metaphysics-for-qualitative-research/book242187).
London, UK: Sage Publications.
Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research & evaluation methods ( 3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks,
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Riessman, Catherine K. (1993). "Narrative Analysis." Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Rosenthal, Gabriele (2018). Interpretive Social Research. An Introduction (https://www.univerla
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Ziman, John (2000). Real Science: what it is, and what it means. Cambridge, Uk: Cambridge
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External links
www.qualitativephilosophy.com (http://qualitativephilosophy.com/)
C.Wright Mills, On intellectual Craftsmanship, The Sociological Imagination,1959 (https://web.a
rchive.org/web/20080527231135/http://ddl.uwinnipeg.ca/res_des/files/readings/cwmills-intel_cr
aft.pdf)
Participant Observation, Qualitative research methods: a Data collector's field guide (http://ww
w.fhi360.org/resource/qualitative-research-methods-data-collectors-field-guide)
Analyzing and Reporting Qualitative Market Research (https://web.archive.org/web/201303261
75632/http://answers.mheducation.com/marketing/marketing-research/analyzing-and-reporting
 -qualitative-market-research)
Overview of available QDA Software (http://www.sosciso.de/en/software/datenanalyse/qualitati
v/)

Videos
Qualitative analysis, with a focus on interview data (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DRL4P
F2u9XA) on YouTube
Living Theory Approach to Qualitative Action Research (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AF
l3PUrwG_8) on YouTube
Yale University series by Leslie Curry (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wbdN_sLWl88&list=
PLqHnHG5X2PXCsCMyN3_EzugAF7GKN2poQ) on YouTube

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