The Four Fundamentals Effect and Use of the Flight Controls

To master any subject, one must first master the fundamentals. The airplane flies in an environment that allows it to travel
An attempt to move on to advanced maneuvers prior to up and down as well as left and right. That up or down can
mastering the four fundamentals hinders the learning process. be relative to the flight conditions. If the airplane is right
To be a competent pilot first requires that the pilot is skilled in side up relative to the horizon, forward control stick or wheel
the basics of fundamental airmanship. This requires mastery of (elevator control) movement will result in a loss of altitude.
the four basic flight maneuvers upon which all flying tasks are If the same airplane is upside down relative to the horizon
based: straight-and-level flight, turns, climbs, and descents. that same forward control movement will result in a gain
of altitude. In any regard, that forward movement of the
Consider the following: a takeoff is a combination of straight- elevator control will always move the airplane in the same
and-level and a climb, turning on course to the first navigation direction relative to the pilot’s perspective. Therefore, the
fix after departure is a climb and a turn, and the landing at airplane controls always function the same relative to the
the destination is a combination of airplane ground handling, pilot. Depending on the airplane’s orientation to the Earth,
acceleration, pitch and a climb. the same control actions may result in different movements
of the airplane. [Figure 3-1] The pilot is always considered
The flight instructor must impart competent knowledge of the referenced center of effect as the flight controls are used.
these basic flight maneuvers so that the beginning pilot is able [Figure 3-2] The following is always true, regardless of the
to combine them at a performance level that at least meets airplane’s attitude in relation to the Earth’s horizon.
the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) Practical Test
Standards (PTS) or Airman Certification Standards (ACS), With the pilot’s hand:
as appropriate. The importance of this phase of flight training • When pulling the elevator pitch control toward the
cannot be overstated. As the beginning pilot progresses to pilot, which is an aft movement of the aileron and
more complex flight maneuvers, any deficiencies in the elevator controls, control stick, or side stick controller
mastery of the four fundamentals are likely to become barriers (referred to as adding back pressure), the airplane’s
to effective and efficient learning. Many beginning pilot nose will rotate backwards relative to the pilot around
difficulties in advanced maneuvers are likely caused by a lack the pitch (lateral) axis of the airplane. Think of this
of understanding, training, or practice in the four fundamentals. movement from the pilot’s feet to the pilot’s head.

Aileron bank

Propeller

Throttle Mixture

Elevator pitch

Rudder Yaw Trim

Push in/out

Figure 3-1. Basic flight controls and instrument panel.

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 relation to the pilot. Think of this movement from the
Ele pilot’s right shoulder to the pilot’s left shoulder.
va Rudder—Yaw
La tor—
te P Vertical axis
ra itch While in flight, the flight controls have a resistance to a pilot’s
la
oll
xis n—R movement due to the airflow over the airplane’s control
Ailero is
al ax surfaces, and the control surfaces remain in a fixed position
itudin
Long as long as all forces acting upon them remain balanced. The
amount of force that the passing airflow exerts on a control
surface is governed by the airspeed and the degree that
the surface is moved out of its streamlined position. This
resistance increases as airspeed increases and decreases as
airspeed decreases. While the airflow over the control surfaces
changes during various flight maneuvers, it is not the amount
of control surface movement that is important. What is
important, is that the pilot maneuvers the airplane by applying
sufficient flight control pressures to obtain the desired result.
Primary control surface Airplane movement Axes of rotation

Aileron Roll Longitudinal The pitch and roll flight controls (aileron and elevator
Elevator/stabilator Pitch Lateral controls, stick, or side-stick control) should be held lightly
Rudder Yaw Vertical with the fingers and not grabbed or squeezed by the hand.
When flight control pressure is applied to change a control
Figure 3-2. The pilot is always considered the referenced center of surface position, pressure should only be exerted on the
effect as the flight controls are used. aileron and elevator controls with the fingers. This is an
important concept and habit to learn which benefits the pilot
• When pushing the elevator pitch control toward the as they progress to greater challenges such as instrument
instrument panel, which is the forward movement of the flying. A common error with beginning pilots is that they
aileron and elevator controls, control stick, or side stick grab the aileron and elevator controls with a closed palm
controller (referred to as increasing forward pressure), with such force that the sensitive feeling is lost. This must
the airplane rotates the nose forward relative to the be avoided as it prevents the development of “feel,” which
pilot around the pitch axis of the airplane. Think of this is an important aspect of airplane control.
movement from the pilot’s head to the pilot’s feet.
The pilot’s feet should rest comfortably against the rudder
• When right pressure is applied to the aileron control,
pedals. Both heels should support the weight of the feet
which is a clockwise rotation of aileron and elevator
on the cockpit floor with the ball of each foot touching the
controls or the right deflection of the control stick or
individual rudder pedals. The legs and feet should be relaxed.
side stick controller, the airplane’s right wing banks
When using the rudder pedals, pressure should be applied
(rolls) lower in relation to the pilot. Think of this
smoothly and evenly by pressing with the ball of one foot.
movement from the pilot’s head to the pilot’s right hip.
Since the rudder pedals are interconnected through springs
• When left pressure is applied to the aileron control, or a direct mechanical linkage and act in opposite directions,
which is a counterclockwise rotation of aileron and when pressure is applied to one rudder pedal, foot pressure
elevator controls or the left deflection of the control on the opposite rudder pedal must be relaxed proportionately.
stick or side stick controller, the airplane’s left wing Remember, the ball of each foot must rest comfortably on the
banks (rolls) lower in relation to the pilot. Think of this rudder pedals so that even slight pressure changes can be felt.
movement from the pilot’s head to the pilot’s left hip.
In summary, during flight, it is pressure the pilot exerts on the
With the pilot’s feet: aileron and elevator controls and rudder pedals that causes the
• When forward pressure is applied to the right rudder airplane to move about the roll (longitudinal), pitch (lateral),
pedal, the airplane’s nose moves (yaws) to the right and yaw (vertical) axes. When a control surface is moved
in relation to the pilot. Think of this movement from out of its streamlined position (even slightly), the air flowing
the pilot’s left shoulder to the pilot’s right shoulder. across the surface exerts a force against that surface and it
tries to return it to its streamlined position. It is this force
• When forward pressure is applied to the left rudder
that the pilot feels as resistance on the aileron and elevator
pedal, the airplane’s nose moves (yaws) to the left in
controls and the rudder pedals.

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