4 Enhancing Sequence Stratigraphic Concepts Through the Integration of

Seismic Stratigraphy and Seismic Geomorphology with Process

Sedimentology—Positive Feedback Loops that Result in Improved
7 Stratigraphic and Lithologic Predictions

Posamentier, Henry W.
Consultant
25 Topside Row Drive
The Woodlands, TX 77380
e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
Seismic stratigraphic and seismic geomorpho- implies an early erosional phase associated with rela-
logic observations can yield comprehensive sequence tively large flows, which commonly characterize early
stratigraphic interpretations. When these interpretations lowstand periods. This early erosional phase, having lit-
incorporate process sedimentological inferences, more tle to no preserved deposits due to repeated
robust interpretations are produced. In practice, each cannibalization, creates the “container” that will ulti-
informs the other, creating a strong positive feedback mately provide the accommodation for sedimentation.
loop that results in a more comprehensive interpreta- Subsequently, this sedimentation occurs during late
tion. Moreover, considerations of process lowstand, which is characterized by relatively smaller,
sedimentology can lead to extension of interpretations less energetic flows that result in a net depositional
both up-system and down-system of study areas. The phase. Considerations of process sedimentology shed
end result will be enhanced regional lithologic predic- light both on the genesis of deposits within the channel
tion. Two examples are used to illustrate this work as well as what has occurred up-system where associ-
flow: deep-water channels and deep-water terminal ated flows originated. In the case of deep-water
fans. In the former, the architecture of channel fills terminal fans, the succession of depositional systems as

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 documented by seismic stratigraphic and seismic geo- and enhanced lithologic predictability. In this case as
4 morphologic data is interpreted through the lens of well, this integrated work flow results in predictions
3 process sedimentology, resulting in enhanced under- relevant to both up-system and down-system deposits.
standing of the depositional sequence that is preserved
7
7
Introduction
Modern sequence stratigraphic concepts origi- stratigraphic analyses, detailed understanding of plan-
nated with the analysis of stratigraphic architecture view landforms was not possible and mapping of paleo-
(Vail et al., 1977) as imaged on 2D seismic data as landscapes necessarily required significant interpola-
shown in Figure 1. Subsequently, as it became clear that tion. With the gradually increasing availability of high-
similar stratigraphic architecture could be interpreted quality 3D seismic data along with computer hardware
using various other forms of data, sequence strati- and software to process those data, the discipline of
graphic concepts evolved to embrace multiple seismic geomorphology has been provided the means to
disciplines involving the integration of multiple data access a level of detail heretofore not possible (Posa-
types (Wilgus et al., 1988). Posamentier and Allen mentier, 2004). Work flows integrating seismic
(1999) recognized that although these concepts were stratigraphy and seismic geomorphology enhance the
generally applicable in all geologic settings, in detail degree to which geologic insights can be extracted from
the stratigraphic expression could vary significantly. seismic data.
Consequently, rather than comprising a classical Sequence stratigraphy, which recognizes the
“model,” the sequence stratigraphic concepts should be sequential nature of sediment deposition, subdivides
best applied as a set of rules, and in that way the general stratigraphic sequences into several components com-
concepts are applicable in virtually all settings. Thus, monly related to relative sea-level cyclicity. These
variations on the general theme are countless as no two sequence subunits, referred to as systems tracts (Posa-
geologic settings are ever completely identical. The mentier and Vail, 1988), commonly include the
integration of process sedimentology with sequence highstand systems tract, the lowstand systems tract,
stratigraphic analyses has the potential of further add- which can be subdivided into early and late lowstand
ing precision and accuracy to sequence stratigraphic systems tracts (or alternatively into forced regressive
analyses while also improving understanding of how and lowstand systems tracts), and transgressive systems
sediments are deposited. Nonetheless before the advent tracts. Several factors influence the detailed architec-
and incorporation of 3D seismic data into sequence ture of each systems tract. In addition to relative sea-
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 level change, these factors can include basin margin image are not at all apparent in the section view.
4 physiography (e.g., shelf width, slope relief, and gradi- Although the same channels are present in both images,
3 ent), magnitude of sediment supply, and sediment grain the level of detail that can be observed and brought to
size. Implicit in sea-level change is eustatic variations bear on an interpretation is significantly greater in plan
7 that are more or less globally effective, integrated with view. The channels in the section view are nearly
7
local subsidence/uplift. Local subsidence/uplift can be impossible to discern. Only after having observed them
driven by plate tectonic motions, flexural loading (as is in plan view might an interpreter be able to identify the
the case in foreland basins), crustal cooling, and sedi- channels in section view. Once observed in the plan
ment compaction. Understanding the effects of relative view, the level of detail apparent in this image can
sea-level changes, a principal driver for sequence strati- afford interpreters potential insights to process sedi-
graphic effects, on sedimentary process can mentology and ultimately to lithology prediction.
significantly enhance lithologic prediction in both time The amplitude map (Fig. 2B) clearly shows an
and space. Relative sea-level changes can have a pro- elongate fan-shaped deposit, which can be interpreted
found effect on sedimentary process and associated as a terminal submarine fan. Superimposed on the fan
depositional products. are several low-sinuosity channels, presumably turbid-
Seismic data, comprising both section and plan ite filled. These two types of deposits, co-imaged on the
views, can provide insight to process sedimentology. same amplitude map suggest that general fan deposition
Plan views in particular can provide a level of detail can be associated with either syn-depositional or imme-
that might not be apparent in section views. Figure 2 diately post-depositional channels. Understanding the
illustrates a deep-water basin floor turbidite system. genesis of these deposits can improve predictability of
The channels that are clearly observed in the plan view sediment grain-size distribution.

Deep-Water Deposition
To illustrate the interrelationship between from shallow shelf to ultra-deep water depths. It is the
sequence stratigraphy and process sedimentology and lowering of relative sea level that profoundly influences
incorporating the role of seismic stratigraphic/geomor- sedimentologic process that, in turn, profoundly
phologic analyses, aspects of lowstand deposition will impacts the stratigraphic architecture of resulting
be addressed. With the onset of relative sea-level fall, deposits. As a result, no sequence stratigraphic analysis
which initiates lowstand systems tract time, effects that tasked with prediction of lithologic distribution is com-
can influence stratigraphic architecture can be observed plete without considering how sedimentologic
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 processes and associated depositional products vary ley incision (Posamentier and Allen, 1999;
4 with changing sea level. Posamentier, 2001). At the same time, lowered relative
3 Lowering relative sea level has its most direct sea level can have significant indirect effects on the
influence on the shelf and at the shelf edge to upper slope and deep water, well below storm wave base and
7 slope. On the shelf, lowered relative sea-level results in well beyond the shelf-slope break. These indirect
7
lowered wave base and consequently a modification in effects can include (1) changed oceanic currents as sea
what constitutes equilibrium. The balance between level falls and oceanic circulation may be modified.
deposition and erosion will be reset. Erosion or at least Changed circulation patterns can result in local changes
non-deposition likely will occur on the shelf. With low- of depositional processes and associated depositional
ered relative sea level, decreased sediment products; and (2) Lowered sea level and lowered storm
accommodation will characterize shelf settings. And wave base can result in changes in sea-floor pressure
with this decrease in accommodation coupled with a and temperature within the section immediately below
continuing sediment flux (which, for the purposes of mudline that may affect the stability of shallow hydrate
this discussion, will be assumed to be held constant), accumulations. These changes in substrate conditions
accelerated shoreline regression in the form of forced can potentially result in abrupt dissociation of hydrates
regression will occur. Concomitantly, lowered relative that can drastically affect the stability of slope sub-
sea level may be associated with associated incised val- strates and lead to mass flows.

Case Study: Deep-Water Channel Fill

During the course of a sea-level lowstand epi- the lower slope and basin floor and would constitute the
sode, sedimentological processes at the shelf edge can basal deposits of a sequence. As this is occurring in the
vary predictably and consequently can have a profound deep-water environment, forced regression would be
influence on the style of depositional products farther occurring in the shallow shelf environment.
down-system. At the outset of a period of falling rela- As relative sea level continues to fall, slope fail-
tive sea level, even when river mouths are well inboard ure becomes more common, and as rivers get closer to
of the shelf edge, slope instability associated with delivering sediment loads to the shelf edge, turbidite
hydrate dissociation and lowered wave base can occur. deposition in the deep-water would begin to dominate
Mass failure can be the result of this instability and her- (Fig. 3). With time, progressively more sediments are
ald the onset of lowstand deposition. Such mass failure supplied to the outer shelf and upper slope, resulting in
would result in deposition of mass transport deposits on enhanced sediment loading of the upper slope and
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 increased potential for upper slope failure. Slope failure associated with the immediately preceding flow. In this
4 would be most active as sea level lowstand is reached way, the channel becomes progressively deeper. Little
3 and river mouths and associated depocenters achieve preservation of the early flow events occurs within the
their farthest seaward position. Gravity flows at this channels; the record of such early events would poten-
7 time would be most intense and the magnitude of grav- tially be found in both the associated levee deposits as
7
ity flows would be greatest. The link between “source” well as the terminal fan down-system. Ultimately, the
and “sink” would be most well developed at this time. filling of these channels likely occurs later in the sea-
Consequently, at this time of lowest sea-level position, level cycle as gravity flows diminish in size and energy,
maximum delivery of sand-prone sediments to the so that subsequent flows no longer completely erode
vicinity of the shelf edge would result in gravity flows the deposits of immediately preceding flows. The mor-
characterized by relatively high sand content. This, in phology of these last-deposited channelized sediments
turn, would result in a greater tendency to form turbid- represents an equilibrium condition for the condition
ity flows rather than mass flows. that exist at this time (i.e., the latter stage of the low-
In order to explain how erosive-based channels stand depositional episode). With the next lowstand
form and subsequently fill, it is critical to incorporate sea-level episode associated with higher-energy flows,
an analysis of how sedimentological processes change dis-equilibrium conditions return and the cycle begins
within a relative sea-level cycle. As relative sea level anew.
falls, gravity flows down the slope become more In detail, mass failures at the shelf edge likely
intense and more energetic. The surfaces across which occur in “swarms” such that an initial failure event is
they now flow has achieved a delicate balance between quickly followed by smaller scale events as slopes
erosion and deposition that characterized the last phase strive to re-equilibrate. Figure 4 illustrates this tendency
of the previous sea-level lowstand episode. With the for large failures to be immediately followed by succes-
arrival of these high energy gravity flows, this equilib- sively smaller failure events. Consequently on a small
rium condition is upset and erosion will dominate as scale, this progression, which likely occurs over a short
systems seek to achieve a new equilibrium condition, period of time, results in initial scour and subsequent
which they do by eroding the substrate and forming fill on the slope downdip of shelf-edge slope failure
channels. Although at the tail end of each gravity flow scars. However, because during early lowstand succes-
event deposition commonly occurs, the next flow event, sive failure events with associated flows would likely
being progressively higher energy as sea-level lowstand increase in size, each successive flow would be larger
is approached, completely erodes through the deposits than the one that preceded it and progressive deepening

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 of a “master channel” occurs with little or no associated within turbidity currents, levee construction associated
4 channel fill preserved (Figs. 5 and 6). with down-system channels will be favored, and longer
3 Once relative sea-level lowstand is achieved and trunk channels with smaller terminal fans will form. In
sea level then starts to rise, shelf fluvial downcutting detail, after each major shelf-edge or mid-slope failure
7 ceases, sediment load partitioning results in less sand event, subsequent re-equilibrating failures should
7
and less volume of sediment delivered to river mouths, occur, resulting in slope and basin-floor channel filling
and river mouths with associated depocenters progres- by subsequently smaller mass flow events (Fig. 4).
sively step landwards, slowly at first and then more These successively smaller and less energetic flows
rapidly as sea-level rise accelerates. Consequent shelf- would result in “underfit” flows and net deposition
edge failures leading to turbidity currents tend to be within a previously erosional “master channel” (Figs. 5
progressively smaller and lead to more mud rich gravity and 6). Figure 7 illustrates such deposits, which can be
flow events. In response to increased mud content described as channel fill stages.

Case Study: Deep-Water Terminal Fans

Sequence stratigraphic models have long sug- Figure 8 illustrates an example of the strati-
gested that periods of relative sea-level lowstand tend graphic architecture of deep-water deposits associated
to be associated with increased rates of deposition in with a lowstand episode. Examination of cross-section
deep-water settings (Vail et al, 1977; Posamentier et al, view images constitute seismic stratigraphic analyses.
1991; Posamentier and Erskine, 1991). Detailed The context for this example is a deep-water environ-
sequence stratigraphic interpretations can benefit ment, in excess of 2000m. The base of these deposits is
greatly through an integration of seismic stratigraphy a high-amplitude reflection that can be mapped region-
and seismic geomorphology within the context of pro- ally and is interpreted as a condensed section.
cess sedimentology. Seismic cross-sections can Immediately overlying this reflection is a terminal sub-
illustrate stratigraphic architecture, whereas seismic marine fan fed by a single leveed channel.
horizon slices (i.e., stratal slices) can illustrate the evo- Interpretation of numerous channels within the early
lution of depositional systems through time. When lowstand section is based upon observing the reflection
examined within the context of process sedimentology, characteristics within this stratigraphic unit. The high-
the resulting interpretation will be significantly more amplitude, discontinuous character of the seismic
robust and can have far-reaching impact on system- reflections imaged in the cross-section view image is
wide lithology prediction. suggestive of a complex of small channels. However,
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 until plan-view images are incorporated into the inter- filled. Consequently, overbank settings peripheral to
4 pretation, the confidence level of this interpretation is these channels likely would have high sand content as
3 somewhat limited in that there could be other explana- well.
tions for the discontinuous, high-amplitude reflection In contrast with this pattern, the single channel
7 character. that characterizes the late lowstand is confined by mas-
7
Figure 9 illustrates in plan view the same feature sive levees on either side of the channel. From a process
imaged in Figure 8. The presence of a channel network perspective, we would infer that this channel complex
inferred from the stratigraphic cross-section view is consisted of isolated channels that did not completely
confirmed by the seismic geomorphologic interpreta- fill before the next gravity flow event came down the
tion of the plan-view amplitude field. A network of system. Thus, when the next flow came through, flow
weakly confined distributary channels can be clearly confinement is still relatively effective and conse-
seen from the stratal slices at Times 1-3 in Figure 8. quently avulsions are rare. Sand distribution would be
Times 1 through 3 comprise the early lowstand depos- largely confined to the narrow ribbon corresponding to
its. These channels can be observed to bifurcate the nested channels and relatively low sand content in
repeatedly. Also noteworthy here is the apparent the overbank environment.
absence of seismically resolvable associated levees; Looking farther afield and leveraging seismic
hence the interpretation of weakly confined channels stratigraphic and seismic geomorphologic interpreta-
(Fig. 10A). Eventually, the system transitions fairly tions based on imagery shown in Figures 8-10
abruptly to a single-leveed channel transiting across the integrated with process geomorphology, we can infer
earlier deposited weakly confined channel complex. what likely has been occurring farther up-system. The
This leveed channel system comprises the late lowstand transition from early to late lowstand, characterized by
stratigraphic unit. Note that this channel complex com- weakly confined channels transitioning to a single lev-
prises a succession of predominantly vertically eed-channel complex, suggests that flows became
aggrading nested channels, which can be described as progressively muddier as evidenced by enhanced con-
“organized” in the sense of McHargue et al. (2011) struction of massive overbank levee deposits. This
(Fig. 10B). transition suggests that the staging area for these flows
From a process sedimentological perspective, the located at or near the shelf edge, was the site of progres-
weakly confined channel pattern implies a process of sively less sand content. This, in turn likely is due to a
frequent avulsion, typical of a channel system charac- progressive backstep of fluvial deltaic delivery systems
terized by small levees and channels likely being sand as would be expected to occur in association with grad-

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 ual sea-level rise and slow transgression during the late would infer that for the late lowstand leveed channel
4 lowstand. In addition, during slow relative sea level system, as levee height gradually decreased from proxi-
3 rise, gradually rising base level could result in partition- mal to distal, the channels eventually would feed a
ing of sand-prone sediments farther up-system within terminal fan; however, given the muddier content of the
7 the alluvial environment Concomitantly, looking farther flows, it would be a significantly smaller terminal fan.
7
down-system from the area shown in Figures 8-10, we

Conclusion
Integration of seismic stratigraphic and seismic inform process sedimentologic inferences, thus creating
geomorphologic interpretations yields a robust high- a powerful interpretation feedback loop that operates in
confidence interpretation of not only the character of two directions.
each depositional unit but also the progressive evolu- In the two deep-water examples illustrated, the
tion of the depositional environment through a interpreter leverages what he can observe and subse-
depositional episode. Adding inferences drawn from quently interpret directly from seismic data and
process sedimentology and looking up- and down-sys- leverages process sedimentology to infer and predict
tem provides a more robust, higher-confidence what may be occurring both up-system and down-sys-
interpretation having enhanced lithologic predictability. tem of his study area. Conducting these analyses within
In effect, process sedimentology informs the interpreta- the context of sequence stratigraphy and integrating all
tion of stratigraphic and geomorphologic images, available data represents a robust workflow designed to
whereas stratigraphic and geomorphologic images mitigate risk associated with lithologic prediction.

References
McHargue, T., M. J. Pyrcz, M.D. Sullivan, J. D. Clark, A. Posamentier, H.W., 2001, Lowstand alluvial bypass systems:
Fildani, B. W. Romans, J. A. Covault, M. Levy, H. W. Incised vs. unincised: AAPG Bulletin, v. 85, no. 10, p.
Posamentier, N. J. Drinkwater, 2011, Architecture of 1771–1793.
turbidite channel systems on the continental slope: Posamentier, H.W., 2004, Seismic geomorphology: imaging
Patterns and predictions: Marine and Petroleum Geol- elements of depositional systems from shelf to deep
ogy, v. 28, p. 728-743. basin using 3D seismic data: implications for explora-
tion and development, in R. J. Davies, J. A. Cart-

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 wright, S. A. Stewart, M. Lappin, and J. R. Underhill, SEPM, Concepts in Sedimentology and Paleontology
4 eds., 3D Seismic Technology: Application to the No. 7, 210 p.
3 Exploration of Sedimentary Basins: Geological Soci- Posamentier, H.W., R. D. Erskine, and R. M. Mitchum, Jr.,
ety, London, Memoirs, v. 29, p. 11-24 1991, Submarine fan deposition in a sequence strati-
7 Posamentier, H. W., and P. R. Vail, 1988, Eustatic controls on graphic framework, in P. Weimer, and M. H. Link,
7 clastic deposition II—sequence and systems tract eds., Seismic Facies and Sedimentary Processes of
models, in C. K. Wilgus, B. S. Hastings, C. G. St. C. Submarine Fans and Turbidite Systems: New York,
Kendall, H. W. Posamentier, C. A. Ross, and J. C. Van Springer-Verlag, p. 127–136.
Wagoner, eds., Sea level change—An integrated Vail, P. R., R. M. Mitchum, Jr., and S. Thompson, III, 1977,
approach: SEPM Special Publication 42, p. 125–154. Seismic stratigraphy and global changes of sea level,
Posamentier, H. W., and H. D. Erskine, 1991, Seismic part 3: relative changes of sea level from coastal
expression and recognition criteria of ancient subma- onlap, in C. E. Peyton, ed., Seismic Stratigraphy—
rine fans, in P. Weimer and M. Link, eds., Seismic Applications to Hydrocarbon Exploration: AAPG,
facies and sedimentary processes of submarine fans Memoir 26, p. 63–81.
and turbidite systems: Springer-Verlag, New York, p. Wilgus, C. K., B. S. Hastings, C. G. St. C. Kendall, H. W.
197-222. Posamentier, C. A. Ross, and J. C. Van Wagoner, eds.,
Posamentier, H. W., and G. P. Allen, 1999, Siliciclastic 1988, Sea level change—An integrated approach:
Sequence Stratigraphy—Concepts and Applications: SEPM Special Publication 42.

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 4
3
7
7

Figure 1. Interpreted and uninterpreted seismic stratigraphy of the Cretaceous Woodbine delta, East Texas.
3

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 4 A
3
7
7
100ms

1km

One km

Figure 2. Plan and section view of deep-water turbidite fan and associated channels. Section view analysis yields strati-
graphic insights, whereas plan view analysis yields geomorphologic insights. Integrating the two perspectives yields a
more robust interpretation than either on its own.
3

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 4
3
7
7

SHELF

SLOPE

1km

Figure 3. Continental shelf margin characterized by numerous shelf-edge failures, affecting the “staging area.”
3

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 4 A)
3 Time 1

7
Progressively smaller failures

7 Time 2

Time 3

Time 4 Figure 4. Schematic depiction of initial slope

profile later eroded by successively smaller
slope failures. Successive failure events are
B) progressively smaller as the slope re-equili-
brates. Associated flows are also progres-
sively smaller and less energetic. This
Progressively smaller
Failure/flow magnitude

progression results in an initial incision fol-

failures/flows lowed by flows that are underfit resulting in
net deposition.

Time

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 4 Early Lowstand Late Lowstand
3
7
7
Failure/flow magnitude

Channel erosion and deepening Channel filling

Each successive event completely Each successive event only partially
removes deposits of earlier events as removes deposits of earlier events
the “master channel” deepens

Time
Figure 5. Schematic depiction of the changing magnitude of successive slope failures. During the early lowstand, ever
larger slope failures occur as river mouths deliver their sediment load ever closer to the shelf edge. With increasing
sediment load delivered to the staging area (defined as the outer shelf/upper slope), successive slope failures are both
larger as well as coarser grained. This results in repeated cannibalization of earlier flow deposits and progressive
“master channel” deepening. In contrast, during the late lowstand, progressively less sediment is delivered to the stag-
ing area, resulting in successively smaller and less energetic flows. Incomplete cannibalization by successive flows
results in an architecture of nested channel deposits.
3
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 4
with little or no preservation of fill
Progressive channel deepening

3 Time 1
7
Early lowstand

7
Time 2

Figure 6. Schematic illustration of channel cut and fill.

Time 3 During early lowstand, there are successive flows of
increasing magnitude, channel floor erosion, and little
preserved sedimentation occurs. During late lowstand,
flows of progressively decreasing magnitude result in
“underfit” conditions and net deposition.
Progressive channel infill by

Time 4
Late lowstand
“underfit” flows

Time 5

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 4
3
7 100 msec
7

1 km

Nested channel fill

Pre-channel surface
Erosional channel base
Figure 7. Deep-water channel complex. The erosional based “master channel” constitutes a conduit that contains
within it numerous smaller channels and their associated fill. The fill of the master channel likely occurs during the lat-
ter part of a lowstand episode, when flows commonly are smaller and hence, underfit.
3

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 4 A) Late Lowstand
3
7 Levee Levee
7

Early Lowstand Condensed section

Late Lowstand
B)
X X’

Early Lowstand
Figure 8. (A) Seismic section view of deep-water terminal turbidite fan succession during a lowstand depositional epi-
sode. (B) Schematic representation of stratigraphic succession. The early lowstand component consists of a network of
weakly confined distributary channels directly overlying a condensed section. The late lowstand component comprises
a vertically aggrading leveed channel system.
3

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 4 Time 1 Time 2

3
7
7
100 msec

One km

Time 3 Time 4

Time 1

Time 4

Figure 9. Seismic horizon slice view of deep-water terminal turbidite fan succession during a lowstand depositional epi-
sode illustrating high level of detail (see also Fig. 10) not apparent from cross-section views. The succession of time
slices (i.e., stratal slices) illustrates the value of seismic geomorphological analyses. The turbidite systems evolves from
a network of weakly confined distributary channels (Times 1 through 3) that characterize the early lowstand to a sys-
tem dominated by a single channel characterizing the late lowstand.
3

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 A B
3
7

Figure 10. Detailed comparison of distributary channel complex (A) and single-leveed channel complex (B). Note the
disorganized channel pattern in A compared with the organized channel pattern in B.
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