Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, Inc.

(TESOL)

Form-Focused Instruction: Isolated or Integrated?

Author(s): Nina Spada and Patsy M. Lightbown
Source: TESOL Quarterly, Vol. 42, No. 2 (Jun., 2008), pp. 181-207
Published by: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, Inc. (TESOL)
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Farm-Focused Instruction:
Isolated or Integrated?
NINA SPADA

University of Toronto
Toronto, Ontario, Canada

PATSY M. LIGHTBOWN
Concordia University (Emeritus)
Montreal, Quebec, Canada

There is increasing consensus that form-focused instruction he

learners in communicative or content-based instruction to learn fea-
tures of the target language that they may not acquire without guid-
ance. The subject of this article is the role of instruction that is provided
in separate (isolated) activities or within the context of communicative
activities (integrated). Research suggests that both types of instruction
can be beneficial, depending on the language feature to be learned, as
well as characteristics of the learner and the learning conditions. For
example, isolated lessons may be necessary to help learners who share
the same first language (LI) overcome problems related to LI influ-
ence on their interlanguage; integrated instruction may be best for
helping learners develop the kind of fluency and automaticity that are
needed for communication outside the classroom. The evidence sug-
gests that teachers and students see the benefits of both types of in-
struction. Explanations for the effectiveness of each type of instruction
are drawn from theoretical work in second language acquisition and
cognitive psychology as well as from empirical research.

the 1970s, a new pedagogy of communicative language teaching

(CLT) and a new theoretical view of second language acquisition
(SLA) emphasized the importance of language development that takes
place while learners are engaged in meaning-focused activities. Teachers
and methodologists developed language classroom activities that fea-
tured interaction among learners, opportunities to use language in seek-
ing and exchanging information, and less attention to learning metalin-
guistic rules or memorizing dialogues and practicing patterns (Brumfit,
1984; Howatt, 1984). One type of CLT that has become especially wide-
spread is content-based instruction (CBI) in which the new language is
a vehicle for learning subject matter that is of interest and value to the

TESOL QUARTERLY Vol. 42, No. 2, June 2008 181

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learner. It has been hypothesized that in CBI "language learning may
even become incidental to learning about the content" (Snow, Met, &
Genesee, 1992, p. 28). However, some researchers have observed that
good content teaching may not always be good language teaching
(Swain, 1988), and since the introduction of CLT and CBI, debates have
continued about whether and, if so, how attention to language form
should be included in approaches to language instruction that are pri-
marily meaning-focused.

THE ROLE OF FORM-FOCUSED INSTRUCTION

Some individuals, especially those who begin learning as young c

acquire high levels of second language ability without form-foc
struction (FFI). This outcome supports the hypothesis that F
necessary for SLA. However, it is rare for students in second or
language classes to reach such high levels. Some claim that this f
master a new language is due to physiological changes that oc
age. Others point to the limitations inherent in classroom
Whatever the reason, learners who begin learning when they ar
early childhood, especially those whose exposure to the target la
occurs primarily or exclusively in classrooms where other stude
the same LI, appear to benefit from FFI that helps them ma
efficient use of their limited exposure to the sounds, words
tences of the language they are learning (Lightbown & Spad
One thing is certain: Language acquisition is not an event that o
an instant or as a result of exposure to a language form, a
lesson, or corrective feedback. It is an evolving and dynamic
enon that is perhaps better characterized by the word developm
gesting ongoing change) than by the word acquisition (if this is
mean that the language user has complete and irrevocable posses
some linguistic knowledge or behavior).1
Some SLA researchers have hypothesized that when instruc
cuses on the language itself, it is beneficial only in marginal way
even have a negative impact on language acquisition (Krash
1994; Truscott, 1996, 1999). They argue that, at most, explicit F
language performance but does not change learners' underlyi
mar, which develops only through exposure to the language
interaction. In their view, instruction may allow second lang
users to acquire metalinguistic knowledge, but this kind of kno
processed and stored separately from language that is acquired t

1 See Norris and Ortega (2003) for a review and discussion of definitions and mea
of second language knowledge and skill.

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interactive language use (Schwartz, 1993; Sharwood Smith, 2004; see
Ellis, 2005, for review).
Some of the empirical work investigating the kind of knowledge that
is acquired during form-focused instruction has shown that FFI can play
a role in helping classroom learners in CLT and CBI use their L2 with
greater fluency and accuracy (e.g., Spada & Lightbown, 1993; Lyster,
2004) and to use language forms that represent more advanced devel-
opmental levels (e.g., Doughty & Varela, 1998). In these studies, efforts
were made to develop tasks that elicited samples of spontaneous oral
production. In a meta-analysis of the instructed SLA research, Norris and
Ortega (2000) also report benefits for FFI, in particular the positive
effects of explicit instruction on L2 learning. However, the majority of
studies included in the meta-analysis used discrete-point, metalinguistic
tests as measures of instructional effectiveness. This bias has led to the
call for more studies to examine the benefits of instruction on implicit
knowledge (Doughty, 2003; Ellis, 2002a; Norris & Ortega, 2000).
Improvements in language performance may reflect learners' ability
to make appropriate use of units of language that they have learned as
whole unanalyzed chunks during form-focused practice or to use meta-
linguistic knowledge they have acquired during grammar lessons to
monitor their output. When learners produce language under condi-
tions of time pressure or competing demands on attention, they may
reveal that the underlying internal grammar of their interlanguage has
not been substantially affected. Even if this is the case, however, learners'
ability to use language with greater accuracy and fluency - at least in
some circumstances - can contribute to language acquisition in several
ways. For example, in producing monitored or unanalyzed chunks of
language, learners can create for themselves a sort of input and feedback
loop that provides them with samples of the language that may be in-
corporated into their underlying grammatical systems later, when they
are developmentally ready (Lightbown, 1998; Sharwood Smith, 2004).
Another possible advantage of this ability to produce more correct or
advanced language is that the contextually appropriate use of unana-
lyzed and/or monitored language allows learners to keep interactions
going, thereby increasing their access to language input (Krashen,
1982). Further, the ability to use unanalyzed chunks of language may
free cognitive resources for use in attending to external input (Ellis,
2005). Some language acquisition theories assume a more direct rela-
tionship between metalinguistic or formulaic knowledge and spontane-
ous language use. Skill acquisition theorists hypothesize that language
learned first as metalinguistic knowledge can, through repeated mean-
ingful practice, eventually become so well incorporated and automatized
that the language user forgets the metalinguistic information and may
forget having learned it in the first place (DeKeyser, 2003).

FORM-FOCUSED INSTRUCTION: ISOLATED OR INTEGRATED? 183

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 The value of FFI within instruction that is primarily meaning-focused
has been demonstrated by research conducted in CLT and CBI pro-
grams over the past 20 years. In addition, teachers who have experience
with the strong version of CLT - an exclusive focus on meaning with no
attention to language form (Howatt, 1984; Spada, 2006a) - have ob-
served that, without FFI, some language features never emerge in learn-
ers' language, and some nontarget forms persist for years. Experience
with CLT and CBI shows that meaning-based exposure to the language
allows L2 learners to develop comprehension skills, oral fluency, self-
confidence, and communicative abilities, but that they continue to have
difficulties with pronunciation as well as with morphological, syntactic,
and pragmatic features of the L2 (see, e.g., Harley & Swain, 1984; Lyster,
1987). Research in CLT and CBI classrooms shows that the introduction
of FFI has contributed to changes in learners' knowledge and use of
certain language features (e.g., Day & Shapson, 1991; Doughty & Varela,
1998; Harley, 1989; White, Spada, Lightbown, & Ranta, 1991; Lyster,
2004; Sheen, 2005). 2 Advocates of CBI have increasingly emphasized the
importance of planning lessons that have both content objectives and lin-
guistic objectives (Echevarria, Vogt, & Short, 2004; Pica, 2002; Schlepper-
grell, Achugar, & Oteiza, 2004).
Thus, both research and teaching experience have led to a growing
consensus that instruction is most effective when it includes attention to
both form and meaning.3 As a result, the most engaging questions and
debates in L2 pedagogy are no longer about whether CLT should in-
clude FFI but rather how and when it is most effective. This article
compares the role of FFI in lessons that are isolated from communicat
or content-based interaction with that of FFI that is integrated withi
activities where the primary emphasis remains on meaning (e.g., in ta
or content-based lessons). Some teachers and students have strong opin
ions about this question (see Barkhuizen, 1998; Yorio, 1986), but
searchers have not directly compared the effects of integrating or isol
ing form-focused and meaning-focused practice in CLT and CBI p
grams.
There are theoretical and pedagogical arguments for both isolat
and integration of form and meaning in L2 instruction. In our vi

2 These studies differ in several ways, including the degree of explicitness of instruct
Nonetheless, they can all be categorized as studies of FFI using the broad definition of F
as proposed by Ellis (2001). This includes the primarily metalinguistic instruction asso
ated with more traditional approaches to L2 teaching as evidenced in Sheen (2005) as w
as instruction that is more implicit in nature, drawing learners' attention to form
functional and meaning-based contexts as evidenced in Harley (1989).
We thank the anonymous TESOL Quarterly reviewer who reminded us that all grammat
forms have meaning and that a simple binary distinction between form and meanin
problematic. We agree and use this terminology as a kind of shorthand referring to
emphasis on the structural or semantic properties of language.

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making a choice between integrated and isolated FFI is not necessary (or
advisable). Rather, the challenge is to discover the conditions under
which isolated and integrated FFI respectively are most appropriate.
These conditions are likely to involve a number of factors, including the
nature of the language feature (e.g., its complexity, and its frequency
and salience in the input), learners' developmental levels in the acqui-
sition of the feature, and the relationship between comparable features
in the learners' LI and the L2. Other important factors include teachers'
and learners' preferences for how to teach/learn about form, learners'
literacy and metalinguistic sophistication (especially in their LI), and
their age and overall L2 proficiency.

ISOLATED AND INTEGRATED FFI

Johnson (1982) made a distinction between what he called th

cationist and separationist positions on the teaching of language
language structure. He described the separationist position as o
"structure being taught first (through a structural syllabus) follow
second communicative stage at which use is taught and where str
are 'activated' or 'recycled'" (p. 129). According to Johnson, th
tionist position implies "a divorce between the teaching of fo
uses, though other kinds of related separation are often also bein
plied - as between knowledge and its 'activitation,' between corre
and fluency" (p. 129). In contrast, from the uniftcationist perspe
"the divorce of form and use is seen as undesirable and prob
untenable on linguistic and psycholinguistic grounds. The pos
gues for a communicative framework from the very beginning"
Other writers have used different labels to distinguish differen
of FFI. Long (1991) has made a distinction between focus on fo
focus on form. Focus on forms refers to lessons in which language
are taught or practiced according to a structural syllabus that sp
which features are to be taught and in which sequence. Focus on
might involve teaching approaches as varied as mimicry and mem
tion or grammar translation, but all are based on the assumpt
language features should be taught systematically, one at a
contrast, Long's focus on form refers to instruction in which th
emphasis remains on communicative activities or tasks but in
teacher intervenes to help students use language more accurately
the need arises. Originally, Long (1991) denned focus on form
tive and incidental. That is, it was limited to those classroom eve
which the teacher responded to a difficulty that arose as stud
gaged in communicative activities or tasks. The language feat

FORM-FOCUSED INSTRUCTION: ISOLATED OR INTEGRATED? 185

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required focus was not determined in advance. More recent interpreta-
tions of focus on form have expanded the definition to include instruc-
tion in which teachers anticipate that students will have difficulty with a
particular feature as they engage in a communicative task and plan in
advance to target that feature through feedback and other pedagogical
interventions, all the while maintaining a primary focus on meaning
(Doughty & Williams, 1998; Long & Robinson, 1998).
In this article, we have chosen to use the terms isolated and integrated
to describe two approaches to drawing learners' attention to language
form in L2 instruction.4 Isolated FFI is provided in activities that are
separate from the communicative use of language, but it occurs as part
of a program that also includes CLT and/or CBI. Isolated FFI may be
taught in preparation for a communicative activity or after an activity in
which students have experienced difficulty with a particular language
feature. In isolated FFI, the focus on language form is separated from the
communicative or content-based activity. This approach differs from
Long's focus on forms, which refers to language instruction and practice
organized around predetermined points of grammar in a structural syl-
labus, that is, form-based instruction that is not directly tied to genuinely
communicative practice.
In integrated FFI, the learners' attention is drawn to language form
during communicative or content-based instruction. This definition cor-
responds to focus on form (both planned and incidental) as defined by
Ellis (2002a) and by Doughty and Williams (1998). That is, although the
form focus occurs within a communicative activity, the language features
in focus may have been anticipated and planned for by the teacher or
they may occur incidentally in the course of ongoing interaction.
Before discussing the role we see for each approach, a few comments
are in order on how the distinction between isolated and integrated FFI
is related to other contrasts in L2 research and pedagogy, such as inten-
tional Versus incidental learning (Hulstijn, 2003) and explicit versus implicit
instruction (DeKeyser, 2003).

4 One reviewer suggested that the term isolated carries "a clearly negative connotation." We
understand that interpretation and agree that the term certainly has had that connotation
in much writing about language teaching. Nevertheless, we have chosen to retain this term
because it allows us to emphasize the importance of instruction in which teachers and
students focus their attention on language features that are almost impossible to perceive
or acquire when they occur in ordinary communicative interaction, either because they are
acoustically imperceptible (e.g., most grammatical morphology in English) or redundant
and unlikely to affect comprehension (e.g., word order in English questions). We suggest
that it is sometimes necessary to isolate such forms - much as one might place a specimen
under a microscope - so that learners have an opportunity to perceive these features and
understand their function in the language they encounter in communicative interaction.
As we have stated previously, learners cannot be expected to benefit from brief, integrated
focus on form if they do not understand what the teacher is calling their attention to
(Lightbown, 1998, p. 194).

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 Isolated FFI is the provision of instruction in lessons whose primary
purpose is to teach students about a particular language feature because
the teacher believes that students are unlikely to acquire the feature
during communicative activities without an opportunity to learn about
the feature in a situation where its form and meaning can be made clear.
From the teacher's perspective, isolated FFI always implies intentional
learning and explicit instruction. However, classroom observation re-
search shows that even in traditional classrooms in which grammar les-
sons are based on a structural syllabus, students are not always sure of the
teacher's intended focus (Slimani, 1992). That is, the explicitness and
intentionality that the teacher has in mind may not be recognized by the
students.
Integrated FFI occurs in classroom activities during which the primary
focus remains on meaning, but in which feedback or brief explanations
are offered to help students express meaning more effectively or more
accurately within the communicative interaction. Some writers seem to
assume that drawing learners' attention to form during meaning-based
activities always involves implicit feedback and incidental learning, but
that is not necessarily the case. Again, the perceptions of teachers and
learners may be different. Adult learners sometimes show that they in-
terpret the teacher's implicit feedback (e.g., in the form of recasts) as
explicit guidance, creating an opportunity for intentional language
learning (e.g., Ohta, 2000; Ellis, Basturkmen, & Loewen 2001). However,
even when they recognize the teacher's implicit feedback as relevant to
language form, learners may not correctly identify the object of the
teacher's attention (see Mackey, Gass, & McDonough, 2000, for a related
study) .
Both isolated and integrated FFI can include explicit feedback on
error, metalinguistic terminology, the statement of rules, and explana-
tions. Consider the following example of explicit, integrated FFI. The
context is a communicative activity. Grade 6 students are playing a game
in which they have to correctly guess the location of different dolls in a
doll house to gain enough points to win the game. Note that, in prepa-
ration for the game, examples of appropriate questions had been written
on the board.

Student: Is George is in the living room?

Teacher: You said "is" two times, dear. Listen to you - you said, "Is George
is in ... Look on the board. "Is George in the . . ." and then you
say the name of the room.
Student: Is George in the living room?
Teacher: Yeah

Student: I win! (Lightbown & Spada, 2006, p. 167)

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 In this example, the teacher provided explicit corrective feedback to
a student when he made an error of form, even though the meaning he
conveyed was comprehensible. First, she drew attention to the error,
providing information as to what the error was. Although she explicitly
focused on form, and the student appeared to understand and use the
feedback, it seems that this did not interfere with his continuing interest
in the ongoing game. Such FFI is thus both integrated and explicit. From
the teacher's perspective, the focus on question forms was also inten-
tional: She had prepared for the activity with an isolated lesson on ques-
tion forms, writing examples of appropriate questions on the board.
Another example of integrated FFI, one that includes the statement of
rules and metalinguistic explanations, is an activity in which pairs of
students respond to true-false (T/F) statements about medical history
using a timeline showing names, dates, and descriptions of discoveries.
Some of the T/F statements are expressed in the active voice while
others are in the passive (e.g., Freud developed a method for examining mental
processes known as psychoanalysis; Penicillin was discovered by Alexander Flem-
ing in 1928). The focus is on content and meaning. As students discuss
their responses to the questions, the instructor selects the two T/F state-
ments above and asks the students to examine them with the following
questions in mind: "What is given more emphasis in the first sentence -
'Freud [the subject] or psychoanalysis [the object]?'" "What is more
prominent in the second sentence?" This leads into a brief explanation
(5 or 6 minutes) of active/passive sentences, how they are formed and
how they function, using one or two other examples. The teacher then
asks students to return to responding to the T/F questions using the
information on the timeline to assist them. (See Samuda, 2001, for an
example of integrated FFI targeting the use of modal auxiliaries.)
One final note is essential before we discuss the different roles of
isolated and integrated FFI. For purposes of the discussion, we present
these approaches as if they were entirely distinct. It is clear, however, that
they are really the ends of a continuum, especially as we are examining
their role within CLT and CBI contexts for teaching and learning. That
is, we do not see isolated and integrated FFI as being in competition with
each other; rather, we see them as complementary parts of a complete
language learning environment. Although we are convinced that there is
a role for isolated FFI, we see it as occurring within instruction that is
primarily interactive and communicative. Ultimately, the ability to use
language automatically in communicative settings requires experience in
doing exactly that. Providing integrated FFI in CLT and CBI contexts is
the instructional model that has the greatest potential for facilitating the
development of fluent and accurate language that is available for use
outside the classroom. We concur with DeKeyser (1998), who, in his
critique of rote drill in audiolingual language teaching, commented that

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practice is valuable for language learning when it involves practice in
"conveying personal meanings" (pp. 53-54) .

The Role of Integrated FFI

In the pedagogical literature, there is considerable support for inte-

grating form focus within communicative activities as well as consider-
able skepticism about the effectiveness of instruction that separates form
focus from meaningful interaction (see, e.g., Calvé, 1994). Celce-Murcia
(1991) argues that "grammar should never be taught as an end in itself
but always with reference to meaning, social factors or discourse - or a
combination of these factors" (pp. 466-467). Brumfit (1984) asserts that
"teachers should not prevent learners . . . from combining a concern
with language use with worry about formal accuracy in terms of specific
language items" (p. 53). Brumfit's assertion may be taken as evidence
that, for some learners at least, feedback that comes during communi-
cative interaction may have a positive effect on motivation.5 Knowing
that help is available when it is needed may respond to the expectations
and preferences of students - especially adult students - in language
classes (see Cathcart & Olsen, 1976; Schulz, 1996, 2001).
Theoretical support for integration comes from both SLA and cogni-
tive psychology. Long (1991) has argued that focus on language form
should be fully integrated into ongoing communicative interaction. In
fact, as noted earlier, in some of his writing, Long (e.g., 1991) argued
that teachers should provide focus on form only on those language
features that occur naturally in the course of a task or activity in which
students are using the language in meaningful interaction. In his revised
interaction hypothesis, Long (1996) states that while comprehensible
input and meaningful interaction provide the raw material for language
acquisition, they also provide the ideal context for spontaneous (i.e.,
integrated) attention to language form. Other SLA concepts such as
negotiation of form (Lyster, 1994a, 1994b) and metatalk (Swain & Lapkin,
2002) also point to the benefits of reflecting on language form during
communicative language use. There are differences among these theo-
retical constructs, but all of them are compatible with the hypothesis that
while instruction may not directly alter learners' underlying language
systems, it can help them notice features in the input, making it more

5 It is important to note that we do not equate integrated FFI with CLT. As evident in the
research literature and in classroom practice, CLT has many different meanings, some of
which include no attention to language form (i.e., the strong version of CLT) and others
that include attention to form, albeit in different ways (see Howatt, 1984 and Spada, 2006a
for discussions of the evolution and interpretations of CLT) .

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likely that they will acquire them (Gass, 1997; Lightbown, 1998; Schmidt,
1990).
One theoretical approach that has recently been used to explain the
possible benefits of integrated FFI is transfer appropriate processing (TAP) .
According to TAP, learners retrieve knowledge best if the processes for
retrieval are similar to those that were used in the learning condition
(Blaxton, 1989; Franks, Bilbrey, Lien, & McNamara, 2000; Morris, Brans-
ford, & Franks, 1977). In addition, the situation, objects, and events that
are present at the time of learning are connected through a network of
associations. Therefore, retrieval is likely to be easier when learners find
themselves using similar processes or in the presence of the same objects
or situations.
TAP has only recently begun to receive attention in the SLA literature,
but research on bilinguals' memory for lexical items provides some in-
dications of what SLA research may reveal. In these studies, bilingual
participants are consistently more successful in retrieving the words they
learned when the testing tasks are similar to the learning tasks (Basden,
Bonilla-Meeks, & Basden, 1994; Durgunoglu & Roediger, 1987). Re-
search on the learning and retrieval of more complex units of language
remains to be done. However, it seems that TAP would predict that
language learned during communicative activities in which learners' at-
tention is briefly drawn to form (i.e., integrated FFI) would be more
easily retrieved in communicative situations than, say, on decontextual-
ized tests. In contrast, L2 knowledge learned outside communicative
activities in isolated FFI would be more difficult to retrieve in commu-
nicative situations outside the classroom (Doherty, Hilberg, Pinal, &
Tharp, 2003; Segalowitz 8c Gatbonton, 1995; Segalowitz & Lightbown,
1999). This hypothesis is consistent with the observation of many teach-
ers and researchers: Students who perform well on tests are not neces-
sarily fluent users of the test items in spontaneous speech, just as many
fluent speakers whose language acquisition has taken place primarily
outside the classroom perform poorly on tests requiring metalinguistic
knowledge or the retrieval of individual language features outside
communicative context.

Although support for integrated FFI comes primarily from theoretical

extrapolations and pedagogical principles, there is also some evidence of
its effectiveness in classroom-based studies of CLT and CBI. In our re-
search in intensive ESL classes that were almost exclusively meaning-
focused, young students were successful in acquiring certain language
features when their teachers provided ongoing, integrated FFI on a lim-
ited number of these features (Lightbown, 1991; Lightbown & Spada,
1990). Those receiving integrated FFI were substantially more likely to
acquire these features than students in classes where there was never any
attention to form. Research in French immersion programs (Day &

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Shapson, 1991; Harley, 1989, 1998; Lyster, 1994a, 1994b, 2004) and in
other content-based and communicative classrooms with child and adult
ESL learners (Doughty & Varela, 1998; R. Ellis, Basturkmen, & Loewen
2001; Williams & Evans, 1998) also supports the hypothesis that attention
to language form within the context of communicative practice can lead
to progress in learners' language development. Although this progress
has been observed in the short term for most studies, long-term improve
ment has also been reported (e.g., Spada & Lightbown, 1993). However
the research in CLT and CBI classes was not designed to directly inves
tigate the different roles of integrated and isolated FFI. That is, none of
the studies compared the outcomes of L2 learners receiving isolated FFI
with learners receiving integrated FFI.
Jean's (2005) study of French as a second language (nonimmersion)
in a Canadian secondary school provides some related evidence of the
effectiveness of integrated FFI. Jean designed an experimental study in
which learners either (a) practiced target forms in mechanical drills that
were separate from the communicative activities in which the forms were
expected to be used later or (b) received FFI during ongoing meaning-
based activities. She found no difference in the two groups' ability to us
the target forms on subsequent measures of accuracy. However, she
found that students whose FFI had been integrated with meaningful
communicative activities used the forms with a greater variety of vocabu-
lary. Jean concludes that, at least for the verb morphology targeted in her
study, isolated mechanical drills were not a necessary step in L2 teaching
and that integrated FFI was an effective way of teaching certain verb
forms. She also found that the high school students in her study did not
express a clear preference for one type of instruction over the other.

The Role of Isolated FFI

Stern (1992) asserted that although "communicative activities are

essential component of a language curriculum, there is a still a place f
a separate analytic language syllabus" (p. 180, emphasis added). M
recently, Ellis (2002b) has argued that "we [should] teach gramm
separately, making no attempt to integrate it with the task-based com
ponent (except perhaps, methodologically through feedback)" (p. 3
One frequently heard argument in support of isolating FFI is related t
maintaining learners' positive motivation. The concern is that learn
will become discouraged or disinterested if their attention is drawn to
form while they are trying to engage in communicative practice (s
e.g., Raimes, 2002). Thus, it is sometimes suggested that teachers make
note of problems that arise during interaction activities and then brin
them up for instruction and explanation in separate isolated activit

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outside the communicative activity. As noted earlier, however, there is
relatively little evidence that language learners themselves object to FFI
that occurs during communicative activities.
Some pedagogical and theoretical arguments to support the separa-
tion of form and communicative practice include the assumption that
FFI should precede communicative use of a new language feature. There
is a long and strong tradition in the field of L2 teaching that the first
phase in a lesson is the presentation of a specific language form. This
presentation phase is followed by controlled practice (pattern practice,
structural drills, etc.), and only later by activities that permit more sponta-
neous use of language. In a controversial article, Higgs and Clifford (1982)
argued that "the premature immersion of a student into an unstructured
or 'free' conversational setting before certain fundamental linguistic struc-
tures are more or less in place is not done without cost" (pp. 73-74) .
More recently, drawing on research in cognitive psychology, specifi-
cally in the early work of Anderson (1982) on skill acquisition theory,
DeKeyser (1998) has argued that "grammar should first be taught ex-
plicitly to achieve a maximum of understanding and then should be
followed by some exercises to anchor it solidly in the students' conscious-
ness in declarative form so that it is easy to keep in mind during com-
municative exercises" (p. 58). In the framework of this article, DeKey-
ser's first two phases (explicit instruction and anchoring exercises) rep-
resent isolated FFI, although our definition of isolated FFI includes the
possibility that such instruction may occur after students have discovered
the need for certain language features during communicative activity.6
Further support for isolated FFI comes from information processing
theory, which argues that because the human mind has limited process-
ing capacity, it is difficult for learners to focus on form and meaning at
the same time (Ellis, 1997). VanPatten (1990) suggested that noticing
some aspects of language form (e.g., verb morphology) while trying to
grasp the meaning of a text may be particularly problematic for begin-
ning learners. VanPatten and his colleagues have shown how isolating
specific features of the target language in the input can help learners
change the way they process certain form-meaning mappings (VanPat-
ten, 1996, 2004; VanPatten & Cadierno, 1993).
Recent studies by Barcroft (2002) and Trofimovich (2005) also illus-
trate situations in which isolated FFI may be beneficial to students. In
these studies, students were exposed to the material to be learned either
in contexts where they needed to focus on form while also processing
semantic aspects of the language to be learned or where some formal
feature was itself the primary focus. Both Barcroft and Trofimovich

6 Doughty and Williams (1998) refer to the work by DeKeyser and Lightbown regarding the
sequencing of FFI as sequential focus on form.

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found that attention to meaning was associated with poorer recall of
formal features such as the spelling or pronunciation of words. They
interpreted their findings in terms of the TAP hypothesis. As noted
earlier, according to TAP, the best predictor of success in retrieving
information is the degree of similarity between the conditions and pro-
cessing demands present during learning and those present during re-
trieval. Thus, a learning task in which cognitive effort is devoted to
semantic features of a word is not a good preparation for a test in which
learners need to retrieve information about perceptual or formal fea-
tures of the word. If the assessment task requires learners to recall or
recognize the correct spelling or pronunciation of a word, the learning
task should create conditions in which learners can devote more pro-
cessing capacity to those features. To be sure, the goal of most language
learning is ultimately to be able to use language forms correctly in com-
municative contexts that include multiple demands on attention. How-
ever, what the research by VanPatten, Barcroft, and Trofimovich shows is
that such contexts may not be conducive to the initial perception and
interpretation of certain language features.
To our knowledge, no empirical classroom-based research directly
compares the effects of isolated and integrated instruction.7 It is impor-
tant to keep in mind that our definition of isolated FFI is attention to form
in separate lessons that occur within a program that is primarily com-
municative in orientation. In that sense, it is not the same as Long's
definition of focus on forms, which is associated with traditional discrete-
point metalinguistic instruction provided in a context where little or no
meaning-based instruction or practice occurs. Similarly, our definition of
integrated FFI is not the same as Long's original definition of focus on form,
which includes only reactive FFI whereas integrated FFI includes both
reactive and proactive FFI. In this way, our definition of integrated FFI is
similar to Ellis's (2001) definition of planned and incidental focus on form.

7 A reviewer argues that such studies do exist and points to Sheen (2005) as an example.
While Sheen's study does show the benefits of instruction in helping young francophone
students make more accurate use of questions and the placement of adverbs in English
sentences, it is not a comparison of integrated and isolated FFI as we define them in this
paper. As we read the report of that research, it seems to show that the students in the
comparison group received almost no FFI at all. It is important to emphasize, again, that
integrated FFI is not simply a synonym for CUT with little or no attention to language form.
Integrated FFI includes brief explanations, corrective feedback, explicit elicitations of
correct forms, and input enhancement provided within the context of meaning-based
instruction. Sheen's description of the comparison class in his study indicates that the
instructor did not make any special attempt to integrate FFI related to questions and
adverbs in his regular classroom activities. In the experimental class, students received
instruction that is best described as focus on forms not as isolated FFI. The distinction
between the two is that isolated FFI is provided in separate lessons that are directly related
to the activities within a communicative or content-based syllabus whereas focus on forms
lessons typically occur within a structural syllabus that is not closely linked to the ongoing
communicative activities.

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 This review of the theoretical, pedagogical, and empirical support for
integrated and isolated instruction indicates that there are arguments on
both sides and that the choice between the two is likely not an absolute
one, but rather a choice that is dependent on other factors. In the next
section, we outline some of those factors.

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE CHOICE OF

ISOLATED OR INTEGRATED FFI

SLA research shows that some linguistic features are acquired

tally, that is, without intentional effort or conscious awareness by
or guidance from teachers. However, it is also evident that s
guage features develop very slowly, or not at all, in the absence o
attention and that some types of FFI can increase the likelih
learners will make progress in learning these features (Norris &
2000). Some language features develop according to a natural
of stages that is not altered by instruction. (For overviews, see El
Gass & Selinker, 2001; Lightbown & Spada, 2006; Mitchell &
1998.) However, while instruction may have only a limited effec
path learners follow through developmental sequences, it may af
rate at which learners pass through a sequence (see, e.g., El
Larsen-Freeman & Long, 1991; Mackey & Philp, 1998; Pienema
Spada & Lightbown, 1993). Several factors may influence the
ship between instruction and learning outcomes. These factor
namic, changing over the course of learners' language acquis
within different teaching contexts.8

LI Influence

One hypothesis is that isolated FFI is particularly useful when the

has a strong influence on L2 forms. Errors caused by LI influence ca
problematic in classrooms where learners share the same first langua
and reinforce each other's Ll-based errors (Lightbown, 1991; Lys
1987). In situations like these, isolated FFI may be needed to cla
misleading similarities between the LI and L2. Harley (1993) poin
the distinction between French avoir/être and have/be in English as
example. Isolated FFI may also help in those cases where learners
developed, based on LI influence, an interlanguage rule that is m

8 We thank one of the anonymous reviewers for emphasizing the dynamic nature o
factors that influence instructional choices.

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general than the related rule in the L2. White (1991) discusses this
problem with specific reference to differences between adverb place-
ment in French and English subject-verb-object sentences and advocates
isolated FFI as a way of helping learners perceive those differences.

Salience in the Input

Isolated FFI may be beneficial with features that are relatively simple
to explain or illustrate but are not particularly salient in oral language.
Drawing attention to them in isolation may help learners see/hear lan-
guage features they have not been noticing in the input, the first step on
the path to acquisition. Although some studies have reported benefits of
input enhancement, that is, increasing frequency and/or salience of lan-
guage features in the input (Alanen, 1995; Doughty, 1991), others have
reported partial or no benefits (Spada & Lightbown, 1999; Trahey &
White, 1993; White, 1998). These conflicting findings appear to be re-
lated to differences in the kind of enhancement. More explicit enhance-
ment appears to lead to more L2 progress than less explicit enhance-
ment (Norris & Ortega, 2000) .9 This finding suggests that isolated FFI
might be useful for creating the necessary salience to help learners no-
tice language forms that occur frequently but are semantically redun-
dant or phonologically reduced or imperceptible in the oral input. Such
forms could include, for example, third-person -s in English and adjec-
tive agreement morphology in French.

Input Frequency

Isolated FFI may also help ensure that students have opportunities to
learn forms that are rare or absent in the language they are exposed to
in the CLT or CBI classroom. Lyster (1994b) reports findings to support
this idea in his investigation of the effects of FFI on the learning of the
sociolinguistic distinction between second-person pronouns tu and vous
in French immersion classrooms. Students were familiar with the singu-
lar/plural distinction between these two words, but the social dynamics
of the classroom in which they were learning French did not give them
opportunities to observe the politeness distinctions that are signaled by
the different pronoun forms. Lyster developed an instructional interven-

9 It may also be that explicit instruction seems to have some benefits because the assessment
measures used favor explicit knowledge (see Doughty, 2003 for discussion). Norris and
Ortega (2000, p. 501) themselves acknowledge this possibility but argue that their findings
cannot be explained by this single variable.

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tion that included opportunities for isolated FFI. Drawing students' at-
tention to this distinction probably prepared them to notice the use of
the forms in the communicative and integrated FFI activities that fol-
lowed, and their ability to use these forms improved significantly.

Rule Complexity

It has been suggested that integrated FFI may be a more appropriate

approach to instruction for language features that are complex and have
rules that are difficult to describe. However, although there is some
intuitive agreement about a distinction between hard and easy rules, it is
not always clear what is meant by these terms (see Hulstijn, 1995; Hulstijn
& DeGraaff, 1994, for useful attempts to define them). Furthermore, as
DeKeyser (2003) points out, in addition to the inherent difficulty of a
form or a rule, there is also subjective difficulty: "Rule difficulty is an
individual issue that can be described as the ratio of the rule's inherent
linguistic complexity to the students' ability to handle such a rule - a rule
of moderate difficulty for one student may be easy for a student with
more language learning aptitude or language learning experience" (p.
331).
A fairly widespread assumption in the SLA literature is that that while
easy rules can be taught, hard rules are by their very nature too complex
to be successfully taught in isolated instruction and thus are difficult to
learn through traditional explanation and practice pedagogy that is iso-
lated from communicative use of the language. Thus, integrated FFI may
be more suitable for complex/abstract features, such as the article sys-
tem in English. In laboratory studies to investigate the learning of simple
and complex morphosyn tactic rules, DeKeyser (1995) and Robinson
(1996) provide some support for this idea. Participants in those studies
learned simple morphosyntactic rules better under conditions of ex-
plicit-deductive learning and more complex rules better under implicit-
inductive conditions. Conclusions drawn from these studies remain con-
troversial, however, and are perhaps best seen as hypotheses in need of
further study.

Communicative Value

Integrated FFI may also be particularly useful with features in which

errors are more likely to lead to communication breakdowns (e.g., En
glish possessive pronouns his and her). Lightbown (1998) suggests tha
L2 learners at various levels of proficiency are more likely to be able to
focus on form and meaning at the same time when the "farm in focus (...

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is an important carrier of the meaning in focus" (p. 192). However, when
errors do not interfere with meaning (e.g., the absence of inversion in
questions such as What she is reading?), isolation from communicative
interaction may be necessary if learners are to notice the difference
between what they say and the correct way to say what they mean (Spada,
Lightbown, & White, 2005). The relative importance of using the right
word as compared with using the right grammar is also reflected in
Schwartz's (1993) observation that instruction and feedback are more
likely to lead to changes in learners' knowledge and use of lexical items
than of morphology and syntax. Mackey, Gass, and McDonough (2000)
have observed that recasts, a typical characteristic of integrated FFI, are
more likely to be noticed when the element being recast is a lexical item
than when it is a morphosyntactic element (see also Lyster, 1998).

Learners' Developmental Level

Once a language feature has emerged in learners' interlanguage (see

Pienemann, 1998) , more fluent and accurate use of that feature may best
be encouraged through integrated FFI. Several studies on FFI have re-
ported that L2 learners benefit most from FFI when they are at a devel-
opmental level in their language acquisition that enables them to com-
pare their use of particular forms with that of native and more proficient
speakers (Mackey & Philp, 1998; Spada & Lightbown, 1999). Related to
this finding is the observation that learners' receptive and productive
abilities do not develop in the same way or at the same rate. However,
recent research investigating the effects of both input- (i.e., comprehen-
sion) and output- (i.e., production) based practice on L2 development
indicates that both comprehension and production improve as long as
the practice is meaningful and learners are encouraged to make form-
meaning connections (Morgan-Short & Wood Bowden, 2006; see also
DeKeyser, 1998).
As noted earlier, learners may need isolated FFI, such as VanPatten's
processing instruction, to help them detect and understand form-
meaning relationships for language features that have low salience, low
frequency, or low communicative value. Once the features have emerged
in the interlanguage or once the form-meaning connections have been
made, the development of greater fluency is likely to be favored by
integrated FFI. Ammar and Spada (2006) found that French-speaking
children who were already more proficient in using possessive determin-
ers his and her were able to take advantage of integrated instruction,
whether in the form of recasts (where the teacher provides the correct
form) or prompts (where the teacher elicits a correction from the stu-
dent) . However, students who were less proficient benefited more from

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prompts than recasts, suggesting that they had greater difficulty recog-
nizing the purpose of the feedback.

Learners' Age

In general, older learners, especially those with experience in the

study of their own or other languages, are more receptive to isolated
grammatical instruction (see, e.g., Barkhuizen, 1998). Outside the class-
room, in environments where they are completely immersed in the tar-
get language, very young learners often acquire L2 proficiency with little
or no FFI. Older children, adolescents, and adults, however, appear to
benefit from instruction and may even depend on it because of the ways
in which their language-learning abilities differ from those of young
children (Bley-Vroman, 1988; DeKeyser, 2000), especially if their contact
with the language is limited to the second or foreign language classroom.
Research in CLT and CBI contexts has shown that children do not
always recognize integrated FFI (including enhanced input and implicit
recasts) as responses to language form rather than meaning (e.g., Lyster
& Ranta, 1997). However, they do respond to integrated feedback which
is explicit (e.g., through the use of emphasis, prompting, and elicitation
as well as other nonverbal signals; see, e.g., Ammar & Spada, 2006;
Doughty & Varela, 1998; Lyster, 2004) or which is provided within the
context of language teaching where the overall orientation includes a
strong focus on language form (Lyster & Mori, 2006). Adult learners, in
a variety of language learning contexts, have been shown to be more
aware of integrated FFI as feedback on language form (see, e.g., Ellis,
Basturkmen, & Loewen, 2001; Ohta, 2000).

Language-Learning Aptitude

Learners who perform well on language aptitude tests or have more

metalinguistic knowledge and skill in their LI may be better able to
notice and focus on language form within a communicative context than
those with poorer aptitude and metalinguistic ability. It has been hypoth-
esized that learners with poor metalinguistic skills in their own language
may require more explicit (possibly isolated) instruction to help them
identify some form-meaning connections (Ranta, 2002). Mackey, Philp,
Egi, Fujii, and Tomoaki (2002) found that adult learners with higher
scores on tests of working memory were more likely to report that they
noticed interactional (integrated) feedback in the form of recasts (see
also Robinson, 2002).

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Learner and Teacher Preferences for How to Teach or Learn
About Form

Research on students' beliefs and opinions about FFI (i.e., instruction

and corrective feedback) has revealed that teachers' and students' views
often differ. In two large-scale studies, Schulz (1996, 2001) found tha
virtually all students expressed a desire to have their errors corrected, bu
very few teachers felt this was desirable. In addition, students were more
likely than teachers to say that formal study of the language is "essential
to the eventual mastery of a [foreign language]" (2001, p. 247). Mis
matches like these have long been reported in the literature (Cathcart &
Olsen, 1976; Yorio, 1986). The effects of matches and mismatches on L2
learning have also been investigated (e.g., Spada, 1987; Wesche, 1981)
and there is some evidence that learners benefit most from instruction
that suits their preferences (see Dôrnyei, 2005, for summary and discus-
sion).
Other factors such as individual learning styles and previous experi-
ence learning languages can also lead to different preferences for learn-
ing. As indicated earlier, some L2 learners who have learned languages
via traditional structure-based approaches often have strong preferences
for continuing to learn via isolated grammar practice. Other L2 learners
who have learned languages informally may respond more positively to
FFI that is integrated with meaning. What is clear is that characteristics
such as these can interact with type of instruction in complex ways,
leading to more or less successful learning (Skehan, 1989).
It is not only learners who have different preferences for isolated
and/or integrated FFI. So do teachers. Research on teacher cognition
has revealed that L2 teachers often teach grammar in the way in which
they were taught it themselves (Borg, 2003; Farrell, 1999). There is also
evidence of a direct relationship between what teachers know about
grammar and how they teach it. That is, the extent to which grammar is
taught deductively depends on how much metalinguistic knowledge
teachers possess (Borg, 2001; Brumfit, Mitchell, & Hooper, 1996). Of
course, there are L2 instructors who do not believe that grammar in-
struction is useful. In a study comparing second (English) and foreign
(French) language instruction, Mitchell and Hooper (1992) observed
that the English teachers rarely focused on language or explicit grammar
work but the foreign language teachers regularly did so. When inter-
viewed about this finding, the English teachers expressed the opinion
that this type of activity was not of primary importance for developing
students' linguistic ability - a response that is not atypical of L2 instruc-
tors who have adopted the strong version of CLT.
It is often observed that teachers who are teaching their own native
language may not have as good a grasp of the formal grammar of the

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language as those whose learning has included form-focused L2 instruc-
tion. In a study of teachers' practices, Borg (1998) observed that deci-
sions to include explicit formal instruction are not always based on teach-
ers' belief that grammar instruction works but rather on their belief that
students expect it. He also observed that when teaching grammar, teach-
ers do not necessarily adhere exclusively to one particular approach
(e.g., deductive or inductive) but will combine and alternate between
them. Similarly, in a study of 48 teachers' attitudes to explicit or implicit
teaching of grammar in an English for academic purposes (EAP) pro-
gram, Burgess and Etherington (2002) report that the majority of teach-
ers believed that it is useful to integrate grammar within authentic texts
rather than teach it explicitly using a grammatical syllabus. At the same
time, however, they also expressed the belief that not all grammatical
knowledge can be learned implicitly and thus advocated explicit instruc-
tion as well. In our research investigating the preferences of teachers and
adult learners for integrated or isolated FFI, we have found that neither
group expresses a consistent preference for one over the other. They
value both (Spada, 2006b).

CONCLUSION

Research and theory suggest that there is a role in CLT an

both isolated and integrated FFI. Each type of instruction m
different role in promoting language acquisition. Research a
ence in CLT and CBI affirm that not all language features n
taught in isolated lessons. Instead, the current research on
learning shows that incidental learning allows students to acqu
deal of language while focused on meaning in CLT and CBI.
tion of integrated FFI can contribute to the automatization of
features that have emerged in students' language but that are n
reliably when there are competing demands for attention.
Integrated FFI includes a wide range of approaches, inclu
kind of implicit feedback that occurs as the need or opportuni
as well as the kind of planned interaction that requires the rep
natural, use of a particular language form. Nevertheless, isolate
may be useful, or even essential, in promoting the acquisitio
language features. These features include those that are hard to
in the normal stream of communicative speech, those for whic
a misleading similarity to the LI, and those that are unlikel
communication breakdown. We are currently designin
experimental studies to explore the contributions of both type
The importance of isolated lessons will be determined by diff

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in the specific language feature that is being taught as well as by differ-
ences in learners' and teachers' characteristics, abilities, and prefer-
ences. We find no evidence to support a suggestion that isolated gram-
mar lessons without opportunities for communicative language use
should again become the dominant approach to language instruction.
Isolated lessons are a starting point or a follow-up for communicative or
content-based activities. Above all, they should not be expected to result
in students' immediate incorporation of the feature in focus into their
communicative language use. Nevertheless, such lessons can prepare
students to make the best use of opportunities for continuing their lan-
guage acquisition in meaning-focused activities and integrated FFI when
it occurs.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The reviewers who provided feedback on earlier versions of the manusc

us to make this a better article. We did not always agree with the revie
indeed, strongly disagreed with each other) , but their feedback helped
stand and present our own views better. We are also grateful to the graduat
and research assistants in N. Spada's research group at OISE/UT for their
comments on this manuscript and related literature.

THE AUTHORS

Nina Spada is a professor in the Second Language Education program

University of Toronto, Ontario, Canada, where she teaches courses in L
and learning. Her research focuses on the contributions of form-focused
to the L2 development of children and adults in communicative progra

Patsy M. Lightbown is Distinguished Professor Emeritus of Concordia U

Montreal, Canada, and a former president of AAAL. Her research explor
ships between L2 teaching and learning, especially for children and ado

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