CANISLIBRARY

AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING

BY

NGANG TANGIE FRU

Industrial Engineer & Mechanical Engineer

(2020 edition)
Table of Contents
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION TO AUTOMOBILE STRUCTURE AND ENGINE
COMPONENTS 1

I.1 History of Automobiles ............................................................................................... 2

I.2 Vehicle Construction and Classification ..................................................................... 3

A. Requirements of an Automobile .............................................................................. 3

B. General Classification of Vehicles........................................................................... 3

C. Vehicle Construction ............................................................................................... 5

I.3 Chassis ....................................................................................................................... 12

A. Classification of Chassis ........................................................................................ 12

B. Chassis components and drive system ................................................................... 13

C. Frame Construction................................................................................................ 17

D. Load on Chassis Frame (Various Resistances and Moments involved) ................ 19

E. Materials for Frame................................................................................................ 19

I.4 Vehicle Body ............................................................................................................. 20

A. Importance of Vehicle Body Design...................................................................... 20

B. Requirements of Vehicle Body .............................................................................. 21

C. Body Construction ................................................................................................. 21

D. Materials for Body Construction ........................................................................... 22

E. Body Resistances to Motion .................................................................................. 23

A. Calculations of the Aerodynamics of Automobile Body ....................................... 25

I.5 Engine ........................................................................................................................ 27

A. Engine Construction............................................................................................... 28

B. Components of IC Engines .................................................................................... 29

C. Classification of IC engines ................................................................................... 39

CHAPTER II. IGNITION, FUEL SUPPLY AND EMISSION CONTROL SYSTEM .... 41

II.1 Ignition System .......................................................................................................... 41

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 A. Basic requirements of ignition systems ................................................................. 42

B. Magneto ignition system ........................................................................................ 43

C. Mechanically switched coil ignition system .......................................................... 44

D. Electronic Ignition ................................................................................................. 46

II.2 Fuel Systems .............................................................................................................. 50

A. Carburettors............................................................................................................ 50

B. Types of petrol injection systems .......................................................................... 52

C. Electronically controlled gasoline injection system .............................................. 53

II.3 Diesel Injection System ............................................................................................. 56

A. Electronic diesel injection system .......................................................................... 57

II.4 Automobile Emissions and Control ........................................................................... 61

A. Automobile Pollutants ........................................................................................... 62

B. Pollution Control .................................................................................................... 63

C. Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) System ............................................................ 65

D. Crankcase emission control system ....................................................................... 66

E. Engine emission control by catalytic converter ..................................................... 66

F. Emission norms ...................................................................................................... 69

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 CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION TO AUTOMOBILE
STRUCTURE AND ENGINE COMPONENTS
The term automobile or automotive stands for a vehicle which can be self-propelled.
Therefore, an automobile is a self-propelled vehicle. It is used for the transportation of
passengers and goods from one place to another on the ground. A vehicle producing power
within itself for its- propulsion is known as self-propelled vehicles. Examples include;
scooters, mopeds, cars, lorry, bus, jeep, tractors, ship, airplanes, helicopters, rockets etc.

Automobile vehicles differ from aeronautical vehicle; such as ships, airplanes, helicopters,
rockets etc., which fly in air and from marine vehicles such as motor boat which sail in water
Modern automobiles are produced by using complex components of machineries and
therefore, its production requires careful attention. It is generally made up of; a frame
supported by the body, power producing units and power transmitting units. These units are
further-supported by tyres and Wheels which are connected by springs and axles.

In general, the power is produced by internal combustion engines. This power in turn is
transmitted to the rear/front wheels through various transmission systems such as clutch,
propeller shaft, gear box, differential units etc.

These various units are held together in a proper position and arranged on the frame. The
automobile is propelled through the friction between tyre and ground. The super structure or
body of the automobile provides protection and comfort to the passenger. The essential
features of the typical automobile can be seen on the figure below.

Figure 1: Typical automobile (truck and is features)

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I.1 History of Automobiles
The first idea of an automobile dates as far back as the 15th century (i.e. during Leonardo Da
Vinci's period). But this remained just an idea until the 18th century.

Captain Nicholas Cugnot, a French engineer is considered to be the father of "Automobiles".

He built the first road vehicle in 1769, propelled by its own-power. Actually, this vehicle was
a 3 wheeler with a steam engine having four seats. It attained a speed of 2.5 miles per hour
only for a period of 15 minutes. During 1770s, he built another self-propelled vehicle which
could run at 8mph carrying up 4 to 5 tons of weight.

 Richard Trevithick of England first built a practical full sized steam automobile in
1801.
 Julis Griffith of England built the first comfortable steam vehicle in 1821.
 Onesiphore Pacquaur of France took out a patent on the differential for road vehicles
in 1827.
 Etienne Lenoir of France (Paris) constructed an internal combustion engine which was
run by gas during 1860. Two years later, he fitted one of his engines in a vehicle. He
drove it for about 6 miles.
 Nikolaus A.Otto and Engen Langen of Germany invented four stroke engine in 1876
which was run by gas. It was further improved by Gottlieb Daimler of Germany (in
1885) who substituted oil for gas. The present day automobile is the development of
this vehicle.
 Karl Benz of Germany built a tricycle with an l.C, engine in 1885-86 which was
working on an Otto cycle. The speed of this engine was 10mph and produced 8HP.
 In 1886, Daimler produced a four-wheeled vehicle with high-speed gas engine (800
rpm to 1000 rpm) which was considered as the greatest achievement in the history of
automobile.
 In 1890, Charles Duryea, J. Frank Duryea, Elwood Haynes, Henry Ford and Ransom
E. Olds, and Alexander Winton manufactured a gasoline automobile in America.
Penhard and Levassor of France developed a first gasoline automobile which incorporated
many essential features of the present day automobile in 1895. This car contained a vertical
engine, modern type of chassis, sliding gear transmission operated by right hand, clutch, brake
and a foot operated accelerator. The commercialisation of automobiles did not start until
1900.
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I.2 Vehicle Construction and Classification

A. Requirements of an Automobile
The following requirements must be fulfilled for an automobile.

1. It should develop power by itself.

2. The rate of power development must be easily controlled.
3. There should be an arrangement to transmit developed power to wheels.
4. An arrangement must exist to continue and discontinue power flow to wheels.
5. It should be possible to control or vary the torque.
6. The driving thrust should successfully be carried in the vehicle.
7. It must have a directional control.
8. An arrangement must exist to stop the vehicle while it is running.

All above requirements are fulfilled by the following arrangements.

1. The power is developed by the engine.

2. The rate of power development is controlled by an accelerometer.
3. The power developed by the engine is transmitted to wheels by transmission system.
4. The gear box is provided for varying or changing the torque.
5. The driving thrust is carried to the chassis frame through the suspension system.
6. Directional control is maintained through the steering.
7. The moving vehicle is stopped by means of brakes.

B. General Classification of Vehicles

There are various types of automobiles vehicles used in the world. In general, these
automobiles can be classified into three main groups.

1. Single unit vehicles or load carriers

2. Articulated vehicles
3. Heavy tractor vehicles.

Single Unit Vehicles

These are conventional four-wheel types. The great majority of vehicles are of two axle
design. In these vehicles, the front axle is a steering or non-driving axle. With the passage of
time; many changes have taken place in axles and driving arrangements.

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Articulated Vehicles Automobile Engineering
A lower powered three-wheeler with a single steering wheel in front and a conventional rear
driving axle are an example of articulated vehicles. It has a greater handling ability in
awkward places. It can be turned about its own tail due to three-wheel construction. The
coupling mechanism between semi-trailer and tractor in most of these vehicles is arranged for
automatic connection and coupling up. If it is necessary, it is reversed into a position. But for
uncoupling operation, a lever is provided within the driver's cabin to reverse the whole
process. A pair of retractable wheels in front is also provided. Along with the coupling or
uncoupling operation, they can be automatically raised or lowered.

Heavy Tractor Vehicles

Heavy tractor or independent tractor vehicles are used to move heavy loads. They commonly
operate in pair either in tendon or as 'puller' or 'pusher'. While descending appreciable
gradients, the stability is provided by the 'puller' or 'pusher' arrangement.
Automobiles can be classified with respect to different purposes. A general classification of
the automobiles is shown below;

Figure 2: Classification of automobiles

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 C. Vehicle Construction

Different layouts of a car

Due to various developments in technology and changes in lifestyle, a motor vehicle has
changed to meet upcoming requirements. Recent days, many types of layouts are used with
their own specific advantages and disadvantages. These changes occur in the location of the
engine and the driving arrangement in terms of number of wheels driven and location of
wheels. The engine can be positioned laterally or longitudinally to drive either front wheels or
rear wheels or all four wheels.

a. Front engine
Many reasons are involved for placing the engine at the front of a car as shown in the figure
below. The large mass of an engine placed at the front of the car gives the occupants
protection in the event of a head-on collision. The engine cooling is simple as it can get
benefit of air movement against the motion of vehicle. Also, the cornering ability of a vehicle
is generally better if the weight is concentrated at the front because the weight of the engine is
placed over steered wheels.

Figure 3: Front engine

b. Rear engine
Most rear-engine layouts have been restricted to comparatively small cars because the weight
of the engine at the rear has poor effect in handling of the car. So, it makes the 'tail heavy'.
The engine mass on a rear-engine car acts behind the rear axle line. It creates a pendulum
effect during cornering. So, it makes difficult for most drivers due to high speeds.
Volkswagen Beetle and Porsche sports cars are examples of a rear engine location. Rear
located engines can also take up a large amount of space which would have been used for
carrying luggage on a front engine car. Most of the space vacated by moving the engine from

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the front can be used for luggage. At the same time, this space is usually less than available
space in rear side. Vertical engines are used in rear-engine cars. A 'flat' engine or a
conventional engine mounted on its side will provide the additional space for luggage above
the engine.
The main advantage of a rear-engine layout is the increased load on the rear driving wheels
which will provide better grip on the road. The figure that follows shows the typical layout of
a rear-engine car.

Figure 4: Rear engine

c. Central or Mid-Engine
Generally, the central or mid-engine location is applied in sports cars. In a rear-engined car,
the engine overhangs the rear axle line but in a mid-engined car, the engine is forward of the
rear axle line. This location provides excellent weight distribution to achieve both good
handling and maximum traction from driving wheels. This advantage attracts and makes
useful for sports and special cars but it becomes disadvantages when it is applied to traditional
passenger cars. The main disadvantage is that the mid-engine location takes up space which
will normally be occupied by passengers in conventional layout cars. Most cars using a mid-
engine position are always sports cars fitted with only two seats, one for the driver and the
other for passenger.
The mid-engine layout shown in the figure combines the engine and transmission components
in one unit. Mid-engine cars are normally rear-wheel driven.

Figure 5: Mid-engine

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 d. Front engine front wheel drive
The majority of light vehicles have the engine at the front of the vehicle with the driving
power being transmitted to front wheels. In the arrangement shown below, the engine and
transmission units are placed transversely at the front of the vehicle. So, they are at right
angles to the main axis of the vehicle.

Figure 6: Front engine front wheel drive

No propeller shaft is used in the front engine front wheel drive and differentials are included
in the engine assembly. This layout provides an optimum body-luggage space and a flat front
line resulting to a transverse longitudinal engine position. A good road adhesion is provided
by the large proportion of vehicle's weight acting on driven wheels. The benefits of such a
layout include;

1. Because the engine and transmission system are placed over the front wheels the road
holding is improved especially in wet and slippery conditions.
2. Good steering stability is achieved because the driving force at the wheels is in the
direction that the vehicle is being steered. There is also a tendency for front-wheel
drive vehicles to under steer which can improve drivability when cornering.
3. Passenger and cargo spaces are good because there is no need for a transmission shaft
to the rear axle.
4. Good road adhesion is obtained due to a large part of the vehicle weights are carried
on driving wheels under normal conditions.
5. Under steady conditions, this drive is preferred by many drivers.
6. Lower flat floor line is provided due to dispensing with the propeller shaft resulting to
a lower centre of gravity.

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 7. The engine clutch, gear box and final drive are combined similar to a rear engine car.
It provides a more comfortable drive due to final drive spring.

There equally exist the following limitations to this layout;

1. Complicated drive shafts are needed for constant velocity Joints.

2. Acceleration is affected because the load transfer to rear of the vehicle lightens the
load on the drive axle at the front.
3. The turning circle radius is limited by the angle through which a constant-velocity
joint can function.
4. Due to the combination of steered and driven wheels with short shafts, special
universal joints and more complicated assembly are required
5. To prevent the rear wheels from skidding under heavy brake, the required weight at
the rear usually necessitates a special arrangement.
6. The tractive effort is reduced which is mostly required on steep gradients and during
acceleration.

e. Front Engine Rear Wheel Drive

In this layout, a front mounted engine-clutch-gear box unit drives a beam type rear axle
suspended on leaf springs through a propeller shaft with two universal joints. With the help of
coil springs, the front wheels are independently sprung.

Figure 7: Front engine rear wheel drive

This layout is one of the oldest layouts which remain unchanged for many years. Some of the
advantages provided by this system are as follows.

1. It is reasonably balanced weight distribution between front and rear wheels providing
good handling characteristics.

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 2. For easy front wheel steering movement, the engine occupies the reduced width
between arches.
3. Behind the rear seats, a large luggage space is available by providing the increased
carrying capacity as well as space for easy body movement.
4. Accessibility to various components such as engine, gear box and rear axle are better
compared to other layouts.
5. The control linkages such as accelerator, choke, clutch and gear box are short and
simple.
6. For the full benefits of the natural air stream created by vehicles, the movement is
taken by the forward facing radiator in reduced power losses from a large fan.

The limitations include;

1. A single or split propeller shaft with universal joints and supporting bearings between
front mounted gearbox and rear axle may generate vibration, drumming, howl and
other noises under certain operating conditions.
2. The floor tunnel is necessary to provide a clearance for the operation of a propeller
shaft system and it may interfere with passenger leg-room.
3. In case of a rigid casing for the axle and final drive, more weight is not supported by
the suspension system so that the quality of the suspension ride may be reduced.
4. Additional universal joints and drive shafts are required for independent rear
suspension.
5. A rear-wheel-drive vehicle when stuck in mud, tends to plough further into the ground
when attempts are made to drive away.

f. Rear Engine Rear Wheel Drive

This arrangement eliminates the necessity for a propeller shaft when the engine IS mounted
adjacent to driven wheels. The engine-clutch-gearbox-final drive forms a single unit in this
layout. In order to reduce the 'overhang' distance between wheel centres and the front side of
the engine, the final drive is generally placed between clutch and gear box.

The benefits of this layout include;

1. Short driveline because the engine, gearbox and final drive can be built into a single
unit.

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 2. A majority of weight at the rear of the vehicle gives improved traction during hill
climbing and acceleration.

Figure 8: Rear engine rear wheel drive

3. It has a simple drive shaft layout compared to a front wheel drive.

4. Effective rear wheel braking is possible with this layout.
5. Due to the absence of the propeller shaft, the obstructed floor space is reduced.
6. The exhaust gases, fumes, engine heat and noises are carried away from passengers.
7. The drive arrangement results a compact layout and short car.
8. The front of the vehicle can be designed for good visibility and smooth air flow.

Some of the layout limitations include;

1. The rearward concentration of weight causes the vehicle to be more affected by side
winds at high speeds. It makes the vehicle unstable resulting over-steering and turning
very sharply into a curve.
2. It is difficult to accommodate the liquid cooling of the engine.
3. It is difficult to accommodate the fuel tank in a safe zone of the vehicle.
4. Space for luggage is reduced.
5. Steering is difficult in slippery conditions.
6. It has a restricted luggage compartment due to narrow front which houses the fuel tank
also.
7. Natural air cooling is not possible because it requires a powerful fan.
8. Long linkages are required for the engine, clutch and gear box controls.

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 g. Four-Wheel Drive
To increase the effective use of the vehicle required to travel on rough unconstructed roads
and trucks, a special arrangement known as four-wheel drive is provided. Due to all four
wheels getting driven, the whole weight of the vehicle is available for traction. The system is
provided in jeeps which are known as 4x4 wheel drive or all-wheel drive vehicles. These
vehicles are also called off-road vehicles as it is constructed mainly for the purpose of
unformed or off-road driving conditions. Some benefits of this layout include;

1. The increased traction is obtainable from four driven wheels which is especially useful
on soft or slippery ground.
2. If the front wheel drops into a ditch, they tend to climb out with a rear wheel drive.
3. Wear of tyres and other driveline components are more evenly shared.

Figure 9: Four-wheel drive

Some of their limitations include;

1. It increases weight and bulk.

2. It increases cost.
3. It increases fuel consumption.
4. It increases maintenance due to complexity of transmission system.
5. It is possibly difficult to accommodate an anti-locking brake system

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I.3 Chassis
To construct any automobile, chassis is the basic requirement: Chassis is a French term, and it
was initially used to denote the frame or main structure of a vehicle. A vehicle without a body
is called a chassis. Chassis is the back bone of the vehicle. The components of the vehicle
such as power plants, transmission system, axles, wheels and tyres, suspension, controlling
systems such as braking, steering etc., and also electrical system parts are mounted on the
chassis frame. It is the main mounting of all components including the body. So, it is also
called carrying unit. A typical chassis has the following component parts;

1. Frame
2. Front suspension
3. Steering mechanism
4. Engine, clutch and gear box
5. Radiator
6. Propeller shaft
7. Wheels
8. Rear and front springs and shock absorber
9. Differential unit
10. Universal joint
11. Brakes and braking systems
12. Storage battery
13. Fuel tank
14. Electrical systems
15. Silencer
16. Shock absorbers, fuel tank, petrol and hydraulics pipe cables and some means of
mounting these components.

A. Classification of Chassis
The chassis can be classified into different types on the following basis.

1. According to the fitting of engine:

a) Full-forward
b) Semi-forward
c) Bus chassis
d) Engine at back
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 e) Engine at centre.

In full-forward chassis, the engine is fitted outside the driver cabin or seat. In semi-forward
chassis, a half portion of the engine is exactly in the driver's cabin whereas the remaining half
is at the front side but it is outside the driver's cabin. In bus chassis, the total engine is fitted in
the driver cabin. It provides the increased floor area in the vehicle. The driver seat is just
above the front wheel. Example: Busses and trucks. In most of the vehicles, the engine is
fitted at the front portion of chassis. The drive is only given to front wheels. In some vehicles,
the engine is fitted at the back portion of the chassis. In some vehicles, the engine may be
fitted at the centre of the chassis.
2. According to the number of wheels fitted in the vehicles and the number of driving
wheels:
a) 4 x 2 drive chassis - It has four wheels out of which 2 are driving wheels
b) 4 x 4 drive chassis - It has four wheels and all of them are driving wheels
c) 6 x 2 drive chassis - It has six wheels out of which 2 are driving wheels
d) 6 x 4 drive chassis - It has six wheels out of which 4 are driving wheels.

B. Chassis components and drive system

Figure 10: Typical Chassis layout

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 1. Frame
Frame is the foundation for carrying the engine and body of the vehicle. It also carries
steering, power train etc. by means of springs, axles, rubber pads etc. The frames are made of
box, tubular, channel or U-shaped section, welded or riveted together. In order to make them
rigid to withstand shocks, blow twists and vibration mats, cross-bracing or cross members are
used. When the engine, wheels, power trains, brackets and steering systems are fitted on the
frame, the assembly is known as chassis. It is tapered at the front to provide space for turning
front wheels when steered.

2. Suspension systems
Suspension systems are used in vehicles;

 to insulate the wheel and axles from the frame

 in order to avoid the transmission of road effects to passengers while travelling on
uneven road.
 to provide a comfortable ride to passengers and
 to avoid additional stresses in the motor car frame.

3. Steering system
The function of the steering system is to enable the driver to accurately control the direction
taken by the vehicle under all operating conditions. The system must be light and easy to
operate, free from shock and vibration as direct as possible. The steering system also helps to
convert the rotary motion of the driver's steering wheel into the angular turning of the front
wheels as well as to multiply the driver's effort with the leverage or mechanical advantage of
turning wheels.

4. Braking system
The most vital factor in running and controlling the modem vehicle is the braking system. In
order to bring the moving motor vehicle to rest or slow down in a shortest possible time, the
energy of motion possessed by the vehicle must be converted into some other form of energy.
Brake is a friction device for converting the power of momentum or kinetic energy of the
moving vehicle into heat.

5. Internal combustion engines

In internal combustion engines, the combustion takes place within the engine unlike steam
engines which work using steam which has externally been raised in a boiler. In all Internal
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Combustion (IC) engines, the air is supplied along with a measured quantity of fuel. This fuel
burns within the engine and it produces a high pressure and high temperature gas.

6. Clutch
It is a friction type uncoupling device. It consists of a single steel disc faced with suitable
friction material. It is clamped between two surfaces directly driven by the engine. For
disengaging the clutch, the two surfaces are positively separated by pressing the clutch pedal.
The main function of the clutch is to take up the drive smoothly from the engine and to
release or disengage whenever desired. The disengagement of clutch is reouired while
changing the gear or bringing the vehicle to rest.

7. Gearbox
It consists of various types of gears which are constantly in mesh. The gear change-takes
place by sliding the dogs. The main function of the gear-box is to provide the necessary
variation to the torque applied by the engine to the road wheel according to the operating
conditions. The necessary variations are provided due to the presence of different gear ratio
among various meshing gears.

8. Propeller shaft
The function is to transmit the power from the rear end of the gear-box to the final reduction
gear in the axle. The vertical movement of the rear axle relative to the frame is also
accommodated. It is an ordinary Hooke's joint. The small and limited angular displacement in
the rubber joints is advantageous in damping out torsional vibrations.

9. Universal joint
Due to the flexibility of road springs, the rear axle is constantly moving up and down. The
propeller shaft fitted to the rear axle must also be free to move up and down. To permit the
turning of the propeller shaft, this movement takes place and universal joints are fitted at each
of its ends. Therefore, the relative movement between engine and driving wheel is maintained
by the universal joint,

10. Differential
The differential gear carries the power from propeller shaft to rear wheel axles. It helps two
rear wheels to turn at different speeds when rounding a curve. The outer wheel must overrun
than the inner wheels when taking a turn. The differential gear also ensures that the final

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output torque is equally distributed between two wheels without any consideration of their
relative speeds.

11. Springs
Springs are fitted between frame and wheel to prevent the upward movement of the frame
along with up and down movement of the wheel. A spring is a reservoir of energy which is
stored in steel springs by bending them or by twining them. When the spring resumes to its
normal state, this energy is released.

12. Front axle

It is used for steering front wheels carried on stub axles swivelling upon kingpin's axle
extremities. Steering arms and track rod link, two stub axles are together used for swivelling
them by a steering wheel about kingpins. The steering wheel linked to one of the stub axle by
a shaft, a gear box and suitable linkage are operated by the driver's hand wheel. An axle in
which one-piece beam is used to support the vehicle through springs (axle and spring
arrangement) was previously used. Now, an arrangement known as independent front
suspension replaces the axle and spring arrangement. Under the control of springs, wheels are
free to rise and fall independently in the vertical direction to each other.

13. Rear axle

Rear axle or driving axle is a tube such as shaft enclosing driving shafts with suitable bearings
for rotating the wheels. It is used for fixing the rear wheels. It is enlarged at the centre for
enclosing the final drive gears used for providing main speed reduction between engine and
driving wheels. The change of direction from the line of propeller shaft to the transverse line
of the axle shafts is also provided by the rear axle.

When going round a curve, the inner wheel has to travel for a smaller distance in comparison
to the outer wheel. But both the rear wheel would rotate at the same speed if they are
connected by a shaft. This rotation of both wheels would result the slipping of one or both of
them on the road surface causing excessive tyre wear as well as severe twisting loads on the
shaft. Moreover, two wheels of exact diameter can only tum at the same speed without slip on
the straight road. Each wheel is provided with its own separate half-shaft connected by a
differential gear and meeting at the centre of the axle. Therefore, when going round a curve,
the wheels are free to rotate at different speeds although they are provided with equal drive by
the differential gear.

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For preventing the transmission of shock from uneven road surfaces to the vehicle, springs are
used to support the vehicle on the axle. In order to allow the vertical movements of wheels
relative to the frame as well as to allow the parts of the shaft to operate at different angle final
drive gears and the differential gear are used. These are mounted in a casting attached to the
frame with independent sprung wheels attached by means of shafts through devices called
universal joints.

14. Battery
In reality, the battery is the heart of the electrical system of a motor vehicle. It supplies current
to the cranking motor and ignition system. The function of the battery is to store electrical
energy which can be used whenever required. Battery may be called nerve centre of the whole
installation because it supplies electrical energy for operating all electrical devices and other
units except the charging device. It also supplies the electricity for operating the various
electrical devices when the vehicle is not operating or running slowly and generator speed is
insufficient to meet the full load requirements.

15. Wheels
The wheels are fitted below the chassis to support the load of the vehicle and passengers.
They are fitted with hollow rubber tyres filled with air in rubber tubes under sufficient,
pressure necessary for carrying the load. The shocks caused by road irregularities are
absorbed by them. By fitting springs between wheels and vehicle to allow the vertical
movement of the wheels in relation to vehicle, a greater part of unevenness of road surfaces is
taken care of.

C. Frame Construction
In order to provide good resistance to bending and torsional effect, the frame sections are
made of proper forms. There are three common types of frame sections such as channel,
tubular and box sections. They are made from cold rolled open earth steel or heat-treated alloy
steel.

Channel section provides good resistance to bending but it is poor in resistance to torsion
while tubular section provides good resistance to torsion and poor in resistance to bending.
The box sections provide comparatively better resistant to bending and torsion. These sections
can be seen below.

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 Figure 11: Frame sections

The frame is narrow at the front end because of short turning radius of front wheels. It is
widening out at the rear end to provide a bigger space for body. The rear and front ends of the
frame are curved upward to accommodate the movement of the axle due to springing and they
are also kept the chassis height as low. It also avoids the impact effect due to rear axle
bouncing.

Figure 12: Conventional frame

Several modern chassis frames have cross members which has the cross section in the form of
'X' between side members shown below;

Figure 13: X-type frame

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 D. Load on Chassis Frame (Various Resistances and Moments involved)
A chassis frame is subjected to the following loads.

1. Loads of short duration

When the vehicle is crossing a broken patch of road, it is acted upon by heavy and suddenly
applied loads of short duration. This load results the longitudinal torsion.

2. Combined loads of momentary duration

These loads occur while negotiating curve, applying brakes and striking a pot hole.

3. Inertia loads
These loads are applied on the vehicle due to brake applied for a short period. This load tends
to bend side members in the vertical plane.

4. Impact loads
These loads are applied during collision of vehicles with another object. It results the general
collapse.

5. Load due to road camber

It is the load due to road camber, side wind and cornering force while taking a tum. It results
the lateral bending of side members.

6. Load due to wheel impact

Load due to wheel impact with road obstacles may cause a particular wheel to remain
obstructed while the other wheel tends to move forward. It will tend to distort the frame to
parallelogram shape.

7. Static loads
Loads due to chassis parts such as; engine, steering, gearbox, fuel tank, body etc. are
constantly acting on the frame. They are called static loads.

8. Over loads
The load of the vehicle exceeds beyond the specified design load known as overloads.

E. Materials for Frame

The various steels used for conventional pressed frame are as follows.

1. Aluminium alloy (ALPAX)

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 2. Mild steel sheet
3. Carbon steel sheet
4. Nickel alloy steel sheet. .

The composition of sheet nickel alloy steel is given as follows;

Carbon - 0.25 to 0.35%

Manganese - 0.35 to 0.75

Silicon - 0.30% (Maximum)

Nickel - 3%

Phosphorus - 0.05% (Maximum)

Sulphur - 0.5% (Maximum)

I.4 Vehicle Body

Body is the super-structure for all vehicles. It may either be constructed separately and bolted
to the chassis or manufactured integral with the chassis (i.e. Frameless construction). The
chassis and the body make the complete vehicle. A body consists of windows and doors,
engine cover, roof, luggage cover etc. The electrical system in the body is connected to the
chassis electrical units so that the battery and the generator/alternator can furnish the required
electrical energy to the system.

A. Importance of Vehicle Body Design

1. Weight of the body is 40% of total weight of the car and 60 to 70% of total weight of
buses. Therefore, the reduction in body weight is important.
2. If the weight of the body is reduced, it will also improve the fuel economy (i.e.
mileage).
3. The body of the vehicle determines its aerodynamic characteristics. Better
aerodynamic structure leads to fuel economy at high speed and stability in cross
winds. The positive pressure at the front of the vehicle should be minimized and it
should be deflected smoothly to prevent the creation of eddies.
4. The body is also important for aesthetic and ergonomics consideration. It should give
pleasant appeal and style for the customer.

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 B. Requirements of Vehicle Body
The vehicle body should fulfil the following requirements.

1. It must be strong enough to withstand all types of forces acting on the vehicle. The
forces include; the weight of the car, inertia, luggage, braking and cornering forces.
2. Stresses induced in the body should be distributed evenly to all portions.
3. Weight of the body should be as small as possible.
4. It should be able to cope with impact loads of reasonable magnitude.
5. It should have reasonable fatigue life.
6. It must provide adequate space for both passengers and the luggage.
7. It should have a reduced number of components.
8. It must have sufficient torsional stiffness i.e., ability to resist the twisting stresses
produced by irregular road surface.
9. It should make possible easy access to the engine and suspension elements.
10. It must ensure a quite ride, easy entry and exit of luggage and passengers.
11. It should create close to no vibration during running.
12. The shape of the body should be subjected to minimum drag.
13. It should be easy to manufacture as well as cheap in cost.
14. It should be designed to protect passengers and luggage from bad weather.
15. It should give finishing appeal to the customer both in shape and colour.

C. Body Construction
The main purpose of designing the car body is to contain and protect the engine and its
accessories as well as the passenger. To fulfil the above requirements, the vehicle body has
various components which are grouped under the following three major groups.

 Structure: All load carrying elements are defined as structure.

 Finishing: This group includes all unstressed units such as bonnet, boot, lid, bumper
etc.
 Equipment: This group includes parts such as rim, seats, doors, window etc.

The components of car body involve: body, sheets, pillar-less frame, front and rear doors,
front panel, roof panel, floor panel with engine beams, wheel arches, bonnet, wind screen
pillar, wind screen, front and rear window, front and rear bumper, cowl assembly, front and
rear seats, luggage space as a continuation of passenger compartment, folding roof with

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windup windows, sliding roof and folded flat windscreen, hood etc. All steel sections of
bodies are stamped out by dies separately the welded to other sections to give the steel bodies.
The body of the car is made up of many sheet metal panels. Each panel is designed to give
enough strength and rigidity to the assembled unit. At critical locations of the body, additional
reinforcing members are incorporated at proper interspaces.

Figure 14: Sketch of typical vehicle body

D. Materials for Body Construction

The materials used for construction of various parts of the body are steel, wood, plastics,
toughened glass and aluminium. In earlier days, wooden bodies were used for construction.
But now-a-days, steel is mainly used for body construction because of low cost and easy to
manufacture.

Steel sheets have high stiffness which results to negligible non-flexing and hence longer life
span when compared to wood. Aluminium has also been used by some manufactures because
of its good formability, light in weight and high resistance to corrosion. But, its main
disadvantage is its reduced stiffness and rigidity. Present day, plastic bodies are fast becoming
popular. Thermoplastics that notwithstanding; are quite often used for many components of
the car body such as boot covers, grills etc., whereas thermosetting plastics are mainly used
for body shells. The most widely used thermosetting plastic is glass fibre reinforced resin.
This material can be easily moulded and it leads to a light weight. The most recent type of

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polymer used for body construction is carbon fibre reinforced polymer matrices. They are
stronger than steel and also weight much less though they cost is very high.

Wind screen/and window panels are made out of toughened glass. It has a special property
when broken, that is it does not shatter into sharpened pieces. All broken pieces are in the
form of rounded granules which do not cause injury. There are two different types of safety
glasses, namely, laminated safety glass and tempered safety glass. Laminated safety glass
consists of two layers of glass bonded together with the help of an inner layer of vinyl
transparent plastic under heat and pressure. When this glass is shattered by impact, the centre
layer of plastic holds the broken pieces of glass together thus prevents them from flying loss.
These glasses are generally used for the windscreen of vehicles. The tempered safety glass is
made from a single piece of case-hardened or heat treated glass. Initially, it is cut to the
required shape and then heat treated until it becomes soft. Then it is blasted with cold air to
the outer surface to create tension between inner soft and outer hard surface. Thus, it becomes
five times harder than ordinary glass. These glasses are used for side or rear windows.

E. Body Resistances to Motion

The fundamentals of vehicle body design involve the basic principles of Newton's second law
of motion. According to Newton's second law the acceleration of an object is proportional to
the net force exerted on it. Hence, an object accelerates when the net force acting on it is not
zero. In a vehicle, several forces act on it and the net or resultant force governs the motion
according to the Newton's second law. The propulsion unit of the vehicle delivers the force
necessary to move the vehicle forward. This force of the propulsion unit helps the vehicle to
overcome the resisting forces due to gravity, air and tire resistance. The acceleration of the
vehicle depends on.

 the power delivered by the propulsion unit

 the road conditions
 the aerodynamics of the vehicle
 the composite mass of the vehicle.

Broadly the resistances can be categorized into the following categories.

 Air resistance or Aerodynamic drag

 Gradient resistance
 Rolling resistance
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  Inertia force.

All the above produce a restraining force working against the tractive force. The tractive force
must be greater than or equal to the resistive forces in order to maintain a sustainable motion.

1. Air resistance / Aerodynamic drag:

A vehicle traveling at a particular speed in air encounters a force resisting its motion. This
force is known as aerodynamic drag. Simply speaking, it is the resistance offered by air to the
vehicle motion. It depends on the following factors.

 Size of the vehicle

 Shape of the vehicle
 Speed of the vehicle
 Wind velocity.

2. Gradient resistance
It is the component of the vehicle's weight which is parallel to the plane of the road. When a
vehicle goes up or down a slope, its weight has a force component that is directed downwards
parallel to the slope. If the vehicle travels uphill, a component of its weight works in a
direction opposite to its motion. If some energy is not supplied to overcome this backward
force, the vehicle would slow down, stall and roll backwards. If the vehicle is being driven
uphill at slope of , the weight of the vehicle has two components one perpendicular to the
road surface (with a value × cos ) and the other along the road surface (with a value ×
sin ). The component along the road surface restricts the motion of the vehicle.

The gradient resistance is given by. = × sin

3. Rolling resistance
The rolling resistance of tyres on hard surfaces is due to hysteresis of the tyre material. When
a vehicle rolls, it rolls with its tyres in contact with the road surface. The relative motion of
the two hard surfaces produces friction. It should be noted that; neither the road, nor the tyre
is perfectly rigid. Hence, both flex under the load slightly. As there is a gradual deformation at
the contact between the road and the tyre, usually greatest at the bottom most point and least
at the entry and exit points, the slip of the tyre with respect to the road produces another type
of loss of energy which is a resistance. Rolling resistance is the sum of the following
components.

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NGANG TANGIE FRU, Ind. Eng. Mgr. and Mec. Eng.,[email protected]
  Tyre Rolling resistance: Resistance from tyre deformation
 Road rolling resistance: Resistance from tyre penetration and surface compression.
 Resistance due to tyre slip angle: Resistance from tyre slippage and air circulation
around wheel.
 Resistance due to bearing friction and residual braking.

4. Inertia force
In addition to the driving resistance occurring in steady state motion, inertia forces also occur
during acceleration and braking. The total mass of the vehicle and the inertia mass of those
rotating parts of the drive; when accelerated or braked are the factors influencing the
resistance to acceleration. The rotational component is a function of the gear ratio. The
moment of inertia of the rotating drive elements of engine, clutch, gearbox, drive shaft, etc.,
including all the road wheels are reduced to the driving axle.

A. Calculations of the Aerodynamics of Automobile Body

Aero means air, dynamics means motion. Aerodynamics is the behaviour of air in motion
relative to the vehicle body. The body design pertaining to shape and size of the vehicle must
have acceptable aerodynamic characteristics. The following are various aerodynamic forces
acting on the vehicle.

1. Drag force ( )
Force of air drag is acting along the direction of vehicle motion with the wind acting parallel
the longitudinal direction axis. This force is also called air resistance. It offers the resistance
to motion of the vehicle. The various factors such as profile drag (57% of total vehicle),
induced drag (8%), skin friction (10%), interference drag (15%) and cooling and ventilation
system drag (10%) affect the total drag. The total aerodynamic drag can be calculated by
using the following equation.

=
2

where

=drag coefficient

= density of air

= Velocity of air
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 = Projected area of the vehicle viewed from front.

The main causes of aerodynamic drag are:

 shape drag
 skin friction drag

The shape drag is due to the shape of the vehicle. The forward motion of the vehicle pushes
the air in front of it. However, the air cannot instantaneously move out of the way and its
pressure is thus increased. This results in high air pressure in the front of the vehicle. The air
behind the vehicle cannot instantaneously fill the space left by the forward motion of the
vehicle. This creates a zone of low air pressure. Hence, the motion of the vehicle creates two
zones of pressure. The high pressure zone in the front of the vehicle opposes its movement by
pushing while the low pressure zone developed at the rear of the vehicle opposes its motion
by pulling it backwards. The profile of the body should be carefully selected to avoid the drag
force.

The air close to the skin of the vehicle moves almost at the speed of the vehicle while the air
away from the vehicle remains still. The difference in speed between two air molecules
creates a frictional force. Skin friction drag can be reduced by using very smooth and well-
polished body. Avoiding excessive projections such as door handles, mirrors, aerials helps in
reducing drag.

Figure 15: Forces and moments acting on the vehicle body

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Lift force ( )
Aerodynamic lift force is the vertical component of the resultant force caused by the pressure
distribution on the body.

Lift force can be calculated by using the equation

=
2

where

= lift coefficient

= density of air.

The aerodynamic lift will tend to reduce the pressure between tyres and ground which causes
the loss of steering on the front axle and loss of traction on the rear axle.

Cross wind force ( )

Cross wind force is acting in the lateral direction on the side of the vehicle. It is formed by the
asymmetric flow of air around the vehicle body. These forces are acting at the centre of
pressure instead of centre of gravity and hence, they cause various moments as follows.

 Pitching moment ( ) is caused by the drag force, or lift force, about the Y axis. This
moment makes the rear wheels lift off from the ground and further it reduces the
available traction.
 Yawing moment ( ) is caused by the cross wind force about the Z axis.
 Rolling moment ( ) is caused by the cross wind force about x.

I.5 Engine
An engine is a prime mover. It is a heart of the automobile. It could be qualified as the most
important units in an automobile. If it fails to work, the vehicle is dead. An internal
Combustion engine is a heat engine which converts the chemical energy of fuel into
mechanical energy through an explosive reaction. The chemical energy of a fuel is first
converted into thermal energy by means of combustion or oxidation then this thermal energy
converted into useful work using an inbuilt mechanism in the engine. Most modern internal
combustion engines are reciprocating engines with pistons that reciprocate back and forth in
an inbuilt cylinder in the engine.
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 A. Engine Construction
The figure that follows shows the construction details of an IC engine (Four stroke petrol
engine).

Figure 16: Typical four Stroke cycle IC engine

The piston reciprocates inside the cylinder. Piston rings are inserted in the circumferential
grooves of the piston. The cylinder and cylinder head are bolted together enclosing the
combustion chamber. The reciprocating motion of the piston is converted into rotary motion
of the crankshaft by means of a connecting rod and crank. The small end of the connecting
rod is connected to the piston by a gudgeon pin or piston pin. The big end of the connecting
rod is connected to the crank pin. Crank pin is a bearing surface and it is rigidly fixed to the
crankshaft. The crankshaft is mounted on the main bearing. The main bearings are housed in
the crankcase.

Camshaft is driven by the crankshaft through timing gears. The camshaft actuates the inlet
and outlet valves. The valve springs are provided to bring back the valves to the closed
position. The oil sump containing lubricating oil is located at the bottom of the crankcase.
Lubricating oil is circulated to various parts of the engine from the oil sump. There are spark
plugs in petrol engines to ignite the air-fuel mixture in the engine cylinder. The injectors in
diesel engines inject the fuel into hot compressed air during power stroke.
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 B. Components of IC Engines

1. Cylinder block
It is the main body of an engine with inbuilt cylinders. The piston reciprocates inside the
cylinder to develop power. The cylinders are accurately finished to accommodate with very
little tolerance, the pistons. The cylinder block also houses the crank, crankshaft, piston and
other engine parts. During combustion, high pressure and temperature developed inside the
cylinders thus they are made of material which resist to high temperature and pressure. The
cylinder block is made of grey cast iron or aluminium with steel sleeves. In water-cooled
engines, the cylinder block has water jackets for the circulation of water for cooling as shown
in the figure below. There are also oil channels for lubrication.

Figure 17: Engine cylinder

2. Cylinder Head
The cylinder head is bolted at the top of the cylinder block. It houses the inlet and exhaust
valves through which the charge is taken into and burnt gases sent out of the cylinder
respectively. It also contains a spark plug hole or injector hole and also cooling water jackets.
The materials used for cylinder heads are cast iron, aluminium alloy, just to name a few.

3. Crankcase
It may be cast integrally with the cylinder block. Sometimes, it is separately cast and bolted to
the cylinder block. It supports crankshaft and camshaft with the help of bearings. Sometimes,
the bottom of crankcase may be used as oil sump. It is made of cast iron, aluminium alloys or
alloy steels.

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 4. Oil Sump or Oil Pan
Oil sump is fitted at the bottom of crankcase by using a gasket. It contains lubricating oil. A
drain plug is provided to the oil-sump to drain out the oil. It is made of pressed steel sheet.

5. Cylinder Liners
The piston constantly moves up and down in the cylinder which will subsequently cause the
cylinder to wear. When the cylinder diameter is increased beyond a certain limit, the entire
cylinder block has to be discarded; which is costly. To avoid cylinder wear, a separate liner in
the form of a sleeve is inserted into the cylinder bore, thus limiting the wear only on the liner.
There are two types of liners.

 Wet liner; these liners are surrounded by cooling water. It provides wear resisting
surface for the piston to reciprocate. It also acts as a seal for the water jacket.
 Dry liner; dry liners have metal-to-metal contact with the cylinder block. They are not
directly in touch with the cooling water.

Liner material should withstand abrasive wear and corrosive wear. Chromium plated mild
steel tubes are usually used as liner.

Figure 18: Cylinder liners

6. Piston
It is a cylindrical shaped mass which reciprocates inside the cylinder. The piston serves the
following purposes.

 It acts as a movable gas tight seal to keep gases inside the cylinder.
 It transmits the explosion force in the cylinder to the crankshaft through connecting
rod.

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 Figure 19: Piston

The top of the piston is called crown and sides are called skirt. It has grooves to hold piston
rings and oil ring. It is opened at the bottom end and closed at the top. Sometimes, T-slots are
provided in the skirt to allow expansion. Pistons are made of cast iron, Aluminium alloy,
chrome-Nickel alloy, nickel-iron alloy and cast steel. They are manufactured by casting or
forging method. Various types of automotive pistons include:

a. Trunk piston
Trunk pistons are long relative to their diameter. They act both as pistons and as cylindrical
crossheads. As the connecting rod is angled for the most part of its rotation, there is also aside
force that reacts along the side of this piston against the cylinder wall. Trunk pistons have
been a common design of pistons since the early days of the reciprocating internal combustion
engines. They were used for both petrol and diesel engines. High speed engines have now
adopted the lighter weight slipper pistons. A peculiarity of most trunk pistons especially those
for diesel engines is that they have a groove for an oil ring below the gudgeon pin and not just
the rings between gudgeon pin and crown.

b. Crosshead piston
Large slow-speed diesel engines may require additional support for the side forces on the
piston. These engines typically use crosshead pistons. The main piston has a large piston rod
extending downwards from the piston to a second smaller-diameter piston. The main piston is
responsible for gas sealing and it carries the piston rings. The smaller piston is purely a
mechanical guide. It runs within a small cylinder as a trunk guide and also carries the gudgeon
pin. Because of the additional weight of these pistons, they are not used for high-speed
engines.

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 Figure 20: Crosshead piston

c. Slipper piston
A slipper piston, also called partial skirt piston, is a piston for petrol engine which has been
reduced in size and weight as much as possible. In extreme cases, they are reduced to the
piston crown, support for the piston rings and just enough of the piston skirt remaining to
leave two lands so as to stop the piston rocking in the bore. The sides of the piston skirt
around the gudgeon pin are reduced away from the cylinder wall. The purpose is mostly to
reduce the reciprocating mass, thus making it easier to balance the engine and so, it permits
high speeds. A secondary benefit may be some reduction in friction with the cylinder wall.

Figure 21: Slipper piston

d. Deflector piston
Deflector pistons are used in two-stroke engines with crankcase compression where the gas
flow within the cylinder must be carefully directed in order to provide efficient scavenging.
With cross scavenging, the transfer (inlet to the cylinder) and exhaust ports are directly on
facing sides of the cylinder wall. To prevent the incoming mixture passing straight across
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from one port to the other, the piston has raised a rib on its crown. It is intended to deflect the
incoming mixture upwards and around the combustion chamber.

Much effort and many different designs of piston crowns are considered when developing
improved scavenging. The crowns vary from a simple rib to a large asymmetric bulge usually
with a steep face on the inlet side and a gentle curve on the exhaust as shown below.

Figure 22: Deflector piston

7. Connecting rod

Figure 23: Connecting rod

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It is used to connect the piston and crankshaft with the help of bearings. It is usually steel
forge with circular, rectangular, I, T or H cross-sections. Its small end is connected with the
piston by the piston pin and its big end is connected to the crank by the crank pin. It has a
passage for the transfer for lubricating oil from the big end bearing to the small end bearing.
The connecting rod must have the capacity to withstand heavy thrust. Hence, it must have
great strength and rigidity. They are generally made of plain carbon steel, Aluminium alloy
and nickel alloy steels.

8. Piston Rings
They are used to maintain air tight sealing between piston and cylinder to prevent gas
leakages. Piston rings are fitted in grooves which are provided for them at the top portion of
the piston skirt. Two types of piston rings are used in pistons.

a. Compression rings
These rings provide an effective seal for high pressure gases inside the cylinder. Each piston
has at least two compression rings.

Figure 24: Compression ring

b. Oil rings
These rings wipe off the excess oil from cylinder walls. It also returns excess oil to the oil
sump through slots provided in the ring. The materials used for piston rings are cast iron,
alloy cast iron containing silicon and manganese, alloy steels etc. Piston rings are generally
coated with chromium or cadmium.

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 Figure 25: Oil ring

9. Crank Shaft
It is used to convert the reciprocating motion of the piston into rotary motion. The big end of
the connecting rod is connected to the crank shaft. It can be a single crank type for single
cylinder engines and a multiple crank type for multi cylinder engine. The crankshaft is held in
position by main bearings. There are a minimum of two bearings provided to support the
crankshaft. Below is the cranks shaft of a four-cylinder in-line engine. The counter weights
are meant to keep the system in perfect balance. The crankshaft gear, vibration damper and
fan belt pulley are connected to the front end of the crankshaft. The flywheel is mounted at
the rear end of the crankshaft. The material of the crankshaft should be strong enough to resist
heavy impact force of the piston. They are made from hot billet steel, carbon steel, nickel
chromium and other heat treated alloy steels.

Figure 26: Crankshaft

10. Flywheel
The flywheel is heavy and perfectly balanced wheel usually connected to the rear end of the
crankshaft. Flywheel serves as an energy reservoir. It stores energy during power stroke and

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releases the energy during the other strokes. Thus, it gives a constant output torque. It is
usually made of cast iron or cast steel.

11. Camshaft
It is used to convert rotary motion of the crankshaft into linear motion of the follower or lifter.
Thus, it operates the inlet and exhaust valves through rocker arms. It has as many cams as the
number of valves in an engine. There is usually an additional cam meant to drive the fuel
pump. The camshaft rotates inside the plain bearings. It is driven by crankshaft through chain
or gear train. It is rotated at half of the speed of crankshaft. Camshaft is usually made of
chilled cast iron and billet steel; however forged steel, gray cast iron or nickel steel may be
used depending on the application.

Figure 27: Camshaft

Figure 28: Camshaft assembly

12. Spark Plug

The function of the spark plug is to ignite the air-fuel mixture after completing the
compression stroke in the petrol engine. It is usually mounted in the cylinder head. It is only
used in petrol engines (Spark ignition engines).

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NGANG TANGIE FRU, Ind. Eng. Mgr. and Mec. Eng.,[email protected]
 13. Valves
Valves are used for closing and opening the passages into and out of a cylinder. There are at
least two valves in an engine cylinder, the inlet and exhaust valves. Fresh air-fuel mixture or
air alone enters into the cylinder through the inlet valve. Exhaust gases are forced out through
the exhaust valves. Valves are operated by cam and rocker arm mechanisms. There are three
types of valves; sleeve valves, rotary valves and poppet valves.
A poppet valve (also called mushroom valve) has a head or poppet (angular face ground 30°
to 45°), a face, a stem and a spring retainer lock groove. The head of the inlet valve is bigger
than the head of the exhaust valve. The inlet valve is made of plain nickel, nickel-chrome or
chrome-molybdenum. The exhaust valve is subjected to more heat hence it is made of high
heat resistance materials such as silicon-chrome steel, high speed steel, cobalt-chrome steel
and tungsten steel.

Figure 29: Valve

The valves are actuated by cams mounted on a cam shaft. The different types of valve
operating mechanisms are as follows.
 side valve mechanism
 overhead valve mechanism
 overhead inlet and side exhaust valve mechanisms.
a. Side valve mechanism
The cam mounted on the camshaft operates the valve tappet during its rotation. The valve
tappet is pushed up. The valve tappet pushes the valve from its sheet against the spring force.
Thus, the valve is opened. When the cam is not in action, the valve returns to its seat by the
valve spring and spring retainer.
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 Figure 30: Side valve mechanism
b. Overhead valve mechanism
Here, the valves are located in the cylinder head. When the cam rotates, the valve lifter pushes
the push rod upwards. The pushed rod moves the rocker arm. Since the rocker arm is pivoted
at its centre, it pushes the valve off its seat against the spring force. Thus, the valve is opened.
When the cam is not in action, the valve is returned to its seat by the valve spring and spring
retainer.

Figure 31: Overhead valve mechanism

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 c. Overhead inlet and side-exhaust valve mechanism
In this system, inlet valve is located in the cylinder head whereas the exhaust valve is located
in the cylinder block. The inlet valve is actuated by overhead valve mechanism. The exhaust
valve is actuated by a side valve mechanism.

C. Classification of IC engines
IC engines are classified on the basis of following parameters.

Type of ignition
a. Spark Ignition (SI) engines
b. Compression Ignition (CI) engines.

Cycle of operation (Thermodynamics, cycle)

a. Otto cycle engine
b. Diesel cycle engine
c. Dual cycle engine

Engine strokes per cycle

a. Four stroke cycle
b. Two stroke cycle

Types of fuel used

a. Petrol engine
b. Diesel engine
c. Gas engine

Method of cooling
a. Air-cooled engines
b. Water-cooled engines.

Number of cylinders
a. Single cylinder engine
b. Two cylinder engine
c. Three cylinder engine
d. Four cylinder engine
e. Six cylinder engine
f. Eight cylinder engine
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 g. Twelve cylinder engine
h. Sixteen cylinder engine.
Valve location
a. Square engine
b. L-head engine
c. I-head engine
d. F-head engine
e. T-head engine.
Arrangement of cylinders
a. Vertical engine
b. Horizontal engine
c. Radial engine
d. V-engine
e. Opposed cylinder engine.
Speed of the engine
a. Low speed engine
b. Medium speed engine
c. High speed engine
Types of lubrication system
a. Wet sump lubrication system
b. Dry sump lubrication system
Method of governing
a. Quantity governing
b. Quality governing
c. Hit and Miss governing
Field of application
a. Automobile, truck, bus
b. Locomotive engine
c. Stationary engine
d. Marine engine
e. Aircraft engine.

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 CHAPTER II. IGNITION, FUEL SUPPLY AND
EMISSION CONTROL SYSTEM

II.1 Ignition System

To ignite the combustible charge of air and fuel in the cylinder, and thereby initiate the power
stroke, some form of ignition system is necessary in the petrol engine motor vehicle. In fact, it
is probably no exaggeration to say that the modern high-speed petrol engine would never have
been possible were it not for the remarkable efficiency of its ignition equipment.

The earliest source of ignition was, interestingly enough, high-tension electricity, this being
used by the Frenchman Etienne Lenoir in 1860 on his famous gas engine, which thus qualifies
as the first spark-ignition internal combustion engine. However, the then primitive state of
development of high-tension electrical equipment did not make for reliability of this type of
ignition system. Various other methods of ignition therefore came into use, notably the self-
descriptive hot-tube system, which utilized a red-hot platinum tube to initiate combustion in
the cylinder. Quite naturally, the early automobile engineers attempted to adapt for motor
vehicle use the existing stationary engine ignition systems, but they soon ran into difficulties.
For example, it proved difficult to keep the lamp alight for heating the hot-tube ignition
system once the vehicle was in motion! Furthermore, the timing of the ignition control could
not be varied, nor could the same time of firing be obtained in each cylinder. Fortunately, by
the time the shortcomings of the early ignition systems became evident, the advances that had
been made in the design and construction of high-tension electrical equipment were such that
more reliable spark-ignition systems became available.

For many years there were two systems of electrical ignition used for motor vehicle engines.
These were the self - contained high-tension magneto and the battery-and-coil systems. The
former was pioneered in 1901 by Robert Bosch, who founded the famous firm bearing his
name. However, the advent of World War I resulted in much further valuable development
work being done on the magneto in Britain, notably by E.A. Watson and also by L. Griffiths,
H.W.F. Ireland and J.D. Morgan. The battery-and-coil system was developed in 1912 by
Charles F. Kettering, the American engineer who also introduced the electric self-starter and
was later president of the world-renowned General Motors’ Research Laboratories.

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NGANG TANGIE FRU, Ind. Eng. Mgr. and Mec. Eng.,[email protected]
Although it is now a matter of history that the battery-and coil ignition system was eventually
adopted for all petrol engine motor cars and commercial vehicles, it may nevertheless be
useful to recall the reasons for this:

1. The intensity of the spark is reasonably consistent regardless of engine speed, and this
makes for easy starting.
2. It has few moving parts, thereby reducing possible sources of unreliability.
3. There are no heavy components, if it is accepted that a battery must in any event be
carried for other electric services on the vehicle.

A. Basic requirements of ignition systems

An electric spark forms a very convenient means of producing a rapid temperature rise in the
engine cylinder, but in practice it requires a very high voltage from the ignition system. For
example, with a typical air gap of 0.50 mm at the sparking plug electrodes, the voltage
required across them to produce a spark in the engine cylinder is about 10 kV. The qualifying
statement ‘in the engine cylinder’ is made deliberately, because the voltage requirement
would be only a few hundred at normal atmospheric pressure. It thus follows that the voltage
requirement of the ignition system is raised as the compression ratio of an engine is increased.

Other factors that raise the voltage requirement include surface deterioration of the sparking
plug electrodes, the burning of weak mixtures and cold starting of the engine. The latter is
partly explained by the lower temperature of the cylinder gases surrounding the plug
electrodes because, unlike a metallic conductor, the electrical resistance of a gas decreases
when it is heated.

Apart from actually producing the spark, the next requirement is the number of sparks
necessary in a given interval of time. Take, for example, a four-cylinder (four-stroke) engine
where there are two power strokes for every complete revolution of the crankshaft. This
means that the ignition system must likewise fire two sparking plugs for every crankshaft
revolution. At, say, 4500 engine revolutions per minute (75 per second), the ignition system
must therefore produce 150 high-voltage sparks every second. This figure would, of course,
be doubled in the case of an eight-cylinder engine running at the same speed.

Furthermore, it is an important requirement of the ignition system that the high-voltage spark
must be timed to occur in each cylinder at an optimum point in the engine operating cycle.

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NGANG TANGIE FRU, Ind. Eng. Mgr. and Mec. Eng.,[email protected]
 B. Magneto ignition system
In this system, the battery is replaced with a magnet. It consists of a switch, magneto, contact
breaker, condenser, distributor and spark plugs. This system is used in two wheel-vehicles
such as motor, cycles, scooters etc.

The magneto ignition system consists of a rotating magnet assembly driven by an engine and
a fixed armature. The armature consists of primary and secondary windings. The primary
circuit consists of a primary winding, condenser and contact breaker. The secondary circuit
consists of a secondary windings, distributor and spark plugs.

Figure 32: Magneto ignition system

When the contact breaker points are closed:

 The current flows in the primary circuit.

 It produces a magnetic field in the primary winding.
 When the primary current is at the highest peak, the contact breaker points will be
opened by the cam.

When the contact breaker points are opened:

 There is a break in the primary circuit.

 The magnetic field in the primary winding is suddenly collapsed.
 A high voltage (15000 volts) is generated in the secondary winging.
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NGANG TANGIE FRU, Ind. Eng. Mgr. and Mec. Eng.,[email protected]
  This high voltage is distributed to the respective spark plugs through the rotor of the
distributor.
 The high voltage tries to cross the spark plug gap and a spark is produced in the gap.
This spark ignites the fuel-air mixture in the engine cylinder.

C. Mechanically switched coil ignition system

A e mechanically switched system comprises the following components:

 Battery and charging system: This is the source of supply of electrical energy for the
low-tension primary circuit of the ignition system.
 Ignition switch: The purpose of this is to connect and disconnect the ignition system
from the battery and charging system so that the engine can be started and stopped by
the driver.
 Ignition coil: The purpose of this is to transform voltage from a low-tension source
that is the battery and charging system, into a high-tension voltage sufficient to
promote an electrical discharge across a fixed air gap at the sparking plug.
 Ballast resistor: This may be added to the ignition coil for the purpose of improving
the life of the contact breaker points, since except under starting conditions the resistor
reduces the current flowing through the ignition coil primary circuit.
 Contact breaker: This is a cam-actuated interrupter switch contained in the ignition
distributor, its function being to open and close the ignition coil primary circuit.
 Capacitor: This is connected across the contact-breaker points and provides
temporary storage for electric energy as they open, thereby minimizing arcing that
would otherwise shorten their life.
 Rotor arm and distributor cap: In combination these provide a rotary switch that
receives the high-tension current from the ignition coil each time the primary circuit is
interrupted, and then distributes it to the appropriate cylinder sparking plug.
 Ignition distributor: Apart from including the contact breaker, rotor arm and
distributor cap, it must also incorporate a mechanism for automatically varying the
ignition timing in accordance with engine operating requirements.
 Ignition leads: These are heavily insulated cables conveying the high-tension current
from the coil to the distributor and thence to the sparking plugs.
 Sparking plugs: Their purpose is to conduct the high-tension current from the ignition
system into the combustion chambers of the engine cylinders, wherein they promote
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NGANG TANGIE FRU, Ind. Eng. Mgr. and Mec. Eng.,[email protected]
 an electric discharge across a fixed gap between their electrodes to ignite the
combustible charge.

Figure 33: Mechanically switched coil ignition system

Comparison of the magneto and coil ignition system

1. Simplicity: A coil ignition system requires a greater attention against possible defects
because the wiring is quite complicated. On the other hand, the wiring of a magneto
ignition system is comparatively simple and it forms a compact unit.
2. Cost: Due to less precision work, the manufacturing cost of coil ignition systems is
less than that of magneto ignition.
3. Starting and low speed operation: At the time of starting and low speeds, the
strength of the spark in magneto ignition is low while a good spark is given by the coil
ignition.
4. Strength of spark at high speeds: With the increase in speed, the strength of spark
given by the magneto ignition system increases but it decreases in the case of coil
system therefore, it is unsuitable for high speed racing cars and airplanes.
5. Dependence on battery and charging dynamo: The operation of the coil ignition
system is greatly influenced by the condition of the battery and charging dynamo. If a
car stands for a few weeks and its battery gets discharged, it becomes difficult to start
the engine even by hand cranking. But, there is no such difficulty experienced in
magneto ignition system which is more reliable

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NGANG TANGIE FRU, Ind. Eng. Mgr. and Mec. Eng.,[email protected]
 D. Electronic Ignition
Generalities
Modern electronic ignition systems can be expected to confer the following advantages on
engine operation:
 Increased energy and duration of spark: As compared with a non-electronic
ignition system with mechanical contact breaker, the amplifier module of an
electronically switched system can utilize a higher value of primary current. In
practice the operating voltage can be in the region of 30 000 V (30 kV) or more, and
for this reason it represents a safety
 More consistent sparking: This is especially beneficial in relation to better starting in
cold weather. It derives from the use of electronic switching so that the rate at which
the ignition coil primary current is interrupted does not vary with engine speed.
 Less restricted rate of sparking: In the mechanical contact breaker, the spring-
loaded lever arm of the moving contact is designed to have minimum inertia, so that
its motion accurately follows that of the cam contour. Even so, a bounce condition is
ultimately reached that reduces the contact dwell time and leads to engine misfiring.
The onset of this erratic behaviour imposes a practical upper speed limit for such
systems in the order of 400 sparks per second. This restriction on rate of sparking
therefore places a limitation on the development of ignition systems with mechanical
contact breakers for really high-speed engine applications. However, this limitation
does not exist with the electronic ignition system, where considerably higher sparking
rates are possible as long as it is matched with an ignition coil that can store more
energy in a shorter time.
 More stable ignition timing: This is an important factor in maintaining optimum
engine performance, minimizing fuel consumption and keeping exhaust emissions
within specified limits. It is difficult to achieve with a mechanical contact-breaker
system, because changes in the points gap occur in service that affect the accuracy of
the ignition timing. In the relatively short term these changes are caused by
deterioration of the points contact faces, which upon separation are always subject to a
certain amount of arcing. Further changes are liable to occur in the long term, since the
points gap setting is also affected by wearing of the rubbing block or heel piece of the
moving contact and of the distributor drive spindle bearings, the latter condition
allowing radial float of the contact-breaker cam. In contrast, there is no contact-

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NGANG TANGIE FRU, Ind. Eng. Mgr. and Mec. Eng.,[email protected]
 breaker gap to alter with an electronically switched system, which thus confers stable
ignition timing.
 Reduced maintenance requirement: A minimum service requirement for ignition
systems incorporating a mechanical contact breaker is that the points have to be either
cleaned, or renewed, and then reset at regular intervals. In the modern electronic
ignition system, the absence of a contact breaker renders the installation to all intents
and purposes maintenance free, except of course for attention to the sparking plugs.
 Ready incorporation in engine management systems: An important modern
advantage of the electronic ignition system is that it can be integrated with electronic
microcomputer control systems, which provide overall management of air–fuel ratio,
spark timing and other engine functions to reduce harmful exhaust emissions and
improve fuel economy.

Figure 34: Electronic ignition system

Figure 35: Magnetic pickup control unit

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NGANG TANGIE FRU, Ind. Eng. Mgr. and Mec. Eng.,[email protected]
When the ignition switch is closed (i.e. switch is 'ON' .), the reluctor rotates which makes the
teeth of the reluctor cone closer to the permanent magnet. It reduces the air gap between
reluctor tooth and sensor coil. Thus, the reluctor provides a path for the magnetic lines from
the magnet. The magnetic field is passed on to the pick up every time when the reluctor teeth
pass the pickup coil in which an electric pulse is generated. This small current then triggers
the electronic control unit which stops the flow of battery current to the ignition coil. The
magnetic field in the primary winding collapses and the high voltage is generated: in the
secondary winding. This led to spark in a spark plug via the distributor. Meanwhile, the
reluctor, teeth past the pickup coil. Therefore, the pulse unit is ended, thus causing the electronic
control unit to close the primary circuit.
A star shaped rotor called reluctor or armature is mounted on the distributor shaft which
controls the flux density in the coil and induced voltage in the coil due to the consequent
changes in the flux.
Types of electronic ignition system
1. Transistorised Ignition System
Generally, a transistor interrupts a relatively high current carrying circuit, i.e. it controls high
current in the collector circuit with less current in the base circuit. Therefore here, a transistor
is used to assist the work of a contact breaker. Hence, this system is known as Transistor
assisted ignition system or transistorized ignition system.
It consists of battery, ignition switch, transistor, collector, emitter, ballast resistor, contact
breaker, ignition coil, distributor and spark plug. The emitter of the transistor is connected to
the ignition coil through a ballast resistor. The collector is connected to the battery.

Figure 36: Transistorized ignition system

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NGANG TANGIE FRU, Ind. Eng. Mgr. and Mec. Eng.,[email protected]
The cam in the distributor is rotated by the engine. It opens and closes the contact breaker
points. When the contact breaker points are closed; a small current flows in the base circuit of
the transistor, this triggers a large current flow in the emitter or collector circuit of the
transistor and then the primary winding of the Ignition coil. A magnetic field is setup in the
primary winding of the coil. When the contact breaker is opened; the current flow in the base
circuit is interrupted. This collapses suddenly the primary current and the magnetic field in the
coil due to the immediate revert of the transistor to the non-conductive state. As a result, a
high voltage is produced in the secondary circuit which is directed to the respective spark
plugs through the rotor of the distributor.

2. Capacitive Discharge Ignition System

Capacitive discharge ignition (CDI) is most widely used today on automotive and marine
engines. A CDI module has capacitor storage of its own, which sends a short high voltage
(about 250+ volts) pulse through the coil. This causes the coil to act similar like a transformer
as it multiplies this voltage even higher. Modern CDI coils step up the voltage about 100:1.
So, a typical 250V CDI module output is stepped up to over 25,000V output from the coil.

Figure 37: Capacitive discharge ignition system

3. Distributorless Ignition System

An ignition system does not use a distributor to route high voltage to spark plugs is called
Distributorless Ignition System (DIS). This system is also called Direct Ignition System
(DIS). Here, the high voltage plug wire runs directly from the ignition coil to the spark plug.
The spark timing is controlled by an Ignition Control Unit (ICU) and Engine Control Unit
(ECU). Some DIS systems have one coil for every two spark plugs (a shared system) while
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NGANG TANGIE FRU, Ind. Eng. Mgr. and Mec. Eng.,[email protected]
others has a separate coil for each spark plug. Eliminating the distributor makes the system
more reliable and it eliminates its maintenance. This system uses either a magnetic crankshaft
sensor, camshaft position sensor or both to determine crankshaft position and engine speed.
This signal is sent to the ignition control module or engine control module which then
energizes the appropriate coil.

Figure 38: Distributorless ignition system

II.2 Fuel Systems

A. Carburettors
A carburettor is a device used for atomizing and vaporizing fuel and mixing it with air in
varying proportions to suit changes in the operating conditions of engines. The process of
breaking up and mixing the fuel with the air is called carburetion.

The term vaporization and atomization should be understood clearly. Vaporization is a change
of state of the fuel from liquid to vapour whereas atomization is a mechanical breaking-up of
the liquid into small particles so that every minute particle of the fuel is surrounded by the air.

The carburettor is supposed to supply the fuel air mixture in correct proportion under different
conditions of temperature, speed and load on engine. Relatively rich mixture of air fuel ratio
of 12:1 is required by the engine while accelerating or running at high speeds. A leaner
mixture of air-fuel ratio of 16:1 is sufficient while running on levelled roads. For idling, a
richer mixture of about 14:I is needed. Similarly, an extremely rich mixture having a ratio of
9: 1 is required during cold starting.

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NGANG TANGIE FRU, Ind. Eng. Mgr. and Mec. Eng.,[email protected]
Functions of a Carburettor
 It prepares a mixture of petrol and air in correct proportions.
 It maintains a small reserve of petrol in the float chamber at constant level.
 It atomizes and vaporizes the fuel.
 It supplies a fine spray of petrol.
 It produces a homogeneous mixture.
 It measures and supplies the proper quantity and proportions of air and fuel under all
conditions of engine operations such as temperature, speed and load.

Generalities of carburettors
The main components of a simple carburettor are; float chamber, float, nozzle, venturi,
throttle valve, inlet valve and metering jet. In the float chamber, a constant level of petrol kept
by the float and a needle valve. The float chamber is ventilated to the atmosphere to maintain
it at the atmospheric pressure. The float which is normally a metallic hollow cylinder rises
and closes the inlet valve as the fuel level in the float chamber increases.to a certain level.

The mixing chamber contains; venturi, nozzle and throttle valve. The venturi tube is fitted
with the inlet manifold. This tube has a narrow opening called venturi. A nozzle is found just
below the centre of this venturi. The nozzle keeps the same level of petrol as the level in the
float chamber. The mixing chamber has two butterfly valves. One is to allow air into the
mixing chamber known as choke valve. The other one is to allow air-fuel mixture to the
engine known as throttle valve.

Figure 39: Simple carburettor

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NGANG TANGIE FRU, Ind. Eng. Mgr. and Mec. Eng.,[email protected]
During suction stroke, vacuum is created inside the cylinder. It causes the pressure difference
between cylinder and outside the carburettor. Due to this, the atmospheric air enters the
carburettor. The air flows through venturi where its velocity increases and pressure reduces.
This produces a partial vacuum at the tip of the nozzle. Because of this vacuum, the fuel
comes out from the nozzle in the form of fine spray. These fine fuel particles mix with the
incoming air to form air-fuel mixture. Thus, it gives a homogeneous air-fuel mixture to the en
Limitations of Carburettors
 In multi cylinder 'engines, it becomes very difficult for a single carburettor to supply
uniform quality and quantity. Since, the induction passages are of unequal lengths.
 Venturi throat of the carburettor causes a restriction in the passage of air flow to the
engine. If the throat is made larger for this reason, the problem of suitable mixture
supply becomes acute at low speed and air velocity decreases which causes less
efficient atomization.
 The carburettor has many wearing parts. After wear, it operates less efficiently.
 There is a loss of volumetric efficiency due to restricted flow of mixture in various
parts such as choke tubes, jets, throttle valves, inlet pipe bends etc.
B. Types of petrol injection systems
In a petrol injection system, the fuel is injected into the intake manifold through fuel injection
valves. There are two basic gasoline injection arrangements:
 Multi-point injection system
 Monopoint injection system.
1. Multi-point fuel injection (MPFl) system
It is also called port injection system. In this system, there is an injection valve for each
engine cylinder which is placed in the intake port near the intake valve. The main advantage
of this system is that it allows more time for mixing of air and petrol.

Figure 40: Multi-point petrol injection system

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NGANG TANGIE FRU, Ind. Eng. Mgr. and Mec. Eng.,[email protected]
 2. Monopoint or single-point fuel injection system
This system is also called throttle body injection. In this system, an injection valve is
positioned slightly above each throat of the throttle body. The injection valve sprays fuel into
the air just after it passes through the throttle valve and enters the intake manifold. This
method simplifies the construction of the engine block. Also, it does not obstruct hot spots
near the valves affecting cooling water jacket size at the place. Moreover, it requires only one
circuit in the computer to control injection which simplifies the construction of electronic
control unit. Thus, it reduces the cost of the system.

Figure 41: Monopoint petrol injection system

C. Electronically controlled gasoline injection system

In electronically controlled gasoline injection system for SI engines, fuel supply and timings
are controlled by electronic means. Electronic fuel injection has developed with the
development of solid-state electronic devices such as diodes and transistors. Recent days,
these systems are commonly used as they function quickly and respond automatically to the
change in manifold air pressure, engine speed, crankshaft: angle and many other secondary
factors. This system was first developed by Robert Bosch Corporation with the Bosch L-type
being one of their early creations. A typical electronically controlled gasoline injection system
consists of the following four units:

 Fuel delivery system

 Air induction system
 Sensors and air flow control system
 Electronic control unit.

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NGANG TANGIE FRU, Ind. Eng. Mgr. and Mec. Eng.,[email protected]
 Figure 42: Electronically controlled petrol injection system

1. Fuel delivery system

The reason for using gasoline fuel injection is to control the air-fuel ratio of the engine more
precisely. This system consists of an electrically driven fuel pump which draws fuel from the
fuel tank through filter and forces it into the pressure line. At the end of the pressure line, a
fuel pressure regulator is placed. The fuel pressure regulator is connected to the intake
manifold. The pressure difference between fuel pressure and manifold pressure is kept
constant by this regulator so that the quantity of fuel injected is dependent only on the
injection open time. In the Bosch L-type system, fuel metering is controlled by engine speed
and measuring the intake air flow.

2. Air induction system

The incoming air from atmosphere flows initially through air filter and then through air flow
sensor. This air flow sensor measures the amount of air flow in the manifold and generates a
voltage signal which is dependent on the amount of air flow. The air flow meter consists of a
rectangular plate which turns in a rectangular shaped channel to a defined angular position
dependent on the pressure from flowing air. It returns to original position during normal
condition by using a spiral coil spring.

3. Sensors and air-flow control system

Typical sensors used in electronic gasoline injection system are as follows :

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NGANG TANGIE FRU, Ind. Eng. Mgr. and Mec. Eng.,[email protected]
 (i) Air flow sensor ; it senses how much air is being drawn into the intake manifold for
adjusting the quantity of fuel.
(ii) Intake air temperature sensor ; this sensor measures the temperature of the intake
air for fine tuning the mixture strength.
(iii)Exhaust gas oxygen (EGO) sensor; is located in the exhaust system and provides the
ECU with information about the amount of oxygen in exhaust gases. From this
information, the ECU can do the necessary adjustements in the air/fuel ratio.
(iv) Manifold absolute pressure (MAP) sensor ; it senses the vacuum pressure in the
engine’s inlet manifold and indicates the load to the engine.
(v) Speed/crankshaft sensor ; it provides the ECU with information on the engine
rotating speed and the position of the crankshaft.
(vi) Engine temperature sensor ; This sensor senses the temperature of the coolant in the
engine. Coolant temperature is used to determine the amount of fuel needed especially
when the engine is cold or warming up.
(vii) Crankshaft position sensor ; the ECU needs to know how fast the engine
spins and where the crankshaft is as it rotates. These permits the ECU to fire the
sparks and injections just at the right time.
(viii) Knock sensor ; the knock sensor is a microphone type sensor that detects the
sounds of knocking (detonation) so that ignition timing can be controlled properly.

A cold start valve is fitted just behind the injection valve to inject additional fuel for cold
start. This valve has exceptionally good atomization characteristics. The operation of cold the
start valve is controlled by a thermo time switch sensor to ensure cold start of up to - 33°C.
The extra fuel needed for ordinary starting and warm up period is also supplied by this valve.
After the cold start, the additional air required with richer air-fuel mixture is supplied by an
auxiliary air valve during idling condition which by-passes the throttle valve. The opening of
the air valve varies with respect to engine temperature.

A throttle valve switch is attached to the throttle valve. It is equipped with a set of contacts
which generates a sequence of voltage signals during opening of the throttle valve. These
signals result to the injection of additional fuel required for acceleration based on an
electronic control unit calculation.

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NGANG TANGIE FRU, Ind. Eng. Mgr. and Mec. Eng.,[email protected]
 4. Electronic Control Unit (ECU)
It is the heart of a fuel injection system. It contains a computer which takes information from
sensors and controls the amount of fuel injected by operating the injectors for just the right
amount of time. The unit contains a number of printed circuit boards on which a series of
transistors, diodes and other electronic components are mounted. It makes vital data analysis
circuits respond to various input signals. The data is received in the form of signals emitted by
various sensors such as manifold air pressure, engine speed, crank angle, oxygen in exhaust
etc. This unit computes the air-fuel ratio required for the best performance of the engine
during each engine cycle and it sends signal to the injection-valve and other parts of the
system. The amount of fuel injected is varied by varying the injector opening time only. The
ECU of a vehicle should not be adjusted or serviced.

II.3 Diesel Injection System

In conventional diesel injection systems, a precise control of various parameters related to the
injection process such as timing, rate of fuel injection, end of injection, quantity of fuel
injected etc. is difficult especially when the engine is operated at high speed. This may result
to reduced efficiency and higher emission levels. Conventional systems only sense few
parameters to meter the fuel quantity or adjust the injection timing. Therefore, electronically
controlled diesel injection systems have been developed. These systems facilitate the precise
control of the following parameters.

 Quantity of fuel injected

 Injection timing
 Rate of injection during various stages of the cycle
 Injection pressure
 Speed of nozzle opening
 Pilot injection timing and its quantity.

Electronically controlled diesel injection systems may use the following parameters which
significantly affect the performance of the engine.

 Intake air mass flow rate

 Intake air temperature and pressure
 Engine temperature
 Lubricating oil temperature
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NGANG TANGIE FRU, Ind. Eng. Mgr. and Mec. Eng.,[email protected]
  Engine speed
 Crankshaft position
 Turbocharger boost pressure
 Accelerator pedal position
 Exhaust gas oxygen level.

A. Electronic diesel injection system

The components of electronically controlled diesel injection systems are divided into the
following main groups.

 Electronic sensors for registering operating conditions and changes. Here a wide array
of physical inputs is converted into electrical signal outputs.
 Actuators or solenoids which convert the control unit's electrical output signal into
mechanical control movement.
 ECU (Electronic Control Unit) with microprocessors which process information from
various sensors in accordance with programmed software and the outputs are electrical
signals sent to the actuators and solenoids.

The sensors used in electronically controlled diesel injection systems include:

(i) Injection pump speed sensor: It monitors pump rotational speed.

(ii) Fuel rack position sensor: It monitors pump fuel rack position.
(iii)Charge air pressure sensor: It measures the pressure inside the turbocharger.
(iv) Fuel pressure sensor: It measures fuel pressure.
(v) Engine position sensor;
(vi) Temperature sensors: These sensors measure various operating temperatures such
as; intake temperature, charge air temperature, coolant temperature, fuel temperature,
exhaust temperature (Pyrometer), ambient temperature.
(vii) Vehicle speed sensor: It monitors vehicle speed.
(viii) Brake pedal sensor: It operates with cruise control, exhaust brake and idle
control.
(ix) Clutch pedal sensor: It operates with cruise control, exhaust brake, idle control.
(x) Accelerator pedal sensor: It monitors the amount of force given to the accelerator
pedal.

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 (xi) Injector needle movement sensor: It monitors the actual injection time and feeds the
information to the ECU.

Electro-magnetic actuators are usually located on the fuel pump and transform electrical
signals into mechanical action. Various actuators used in electronically controlled diesel
injection systems are as follows.

 Injectors
 Boost-pressure actuator
 Fuel rack actuator
 Intake-duct switch off actuator
 Throttle-valve actuator
 Exhaust-gas recirculation actuator
 Electronic shutoff valve
 Rail-pressure control valve.

The injection of fuel or the quantity of injected fuel has a decisive influence on engine
starting, idling, power and emissions. The ECU is programmed with relevant data on where
the fuel rack position has an equivalent signal for the amount of fuel being injected. The
driver requests the torque or engine speed requirements via the accelerator pedal
potentiometer thereby sending a signal to the ECU. Depending on the data collected from
various sensors, the ECU calculates the quantity of fuel required, thus altering the fuel rack to
the required position.

There are different types of electronically controlled diesel injection systems.

(i) Unit injector system

(ii) Rotary distributor system
(iii)Common rail direct injection system.

1. Unit Injector System

This system is also called individual pump injection system. The Unit Injector System (UIS)
combines the injection nozzle and the high-pressure pump in a single assembly. One such unit
injector is fitted in the head of each engine cylinder. The high pressure is built up by the
activation of the pump plunger of the unit injector by the engine camshaft via a tappet or
rocker arm.

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NGANG TANGIE FRU, Ind. Eng. Mgr. and Mec. Eng.,[email protected]
The basic operation of this injection system can be described as a sequence of four separate
phases that is; filling phase, spill phase, injection phase and pressure reduction phase. A low
pressure fuel delivery pump supplies filtered diesel fuel into the cylinder head fuel ducts, and
into each injector fuel port of the constant stroke pump plunger injector.
(i) Fill phase
The constant stroke pump element (plunger of the pump) on the way up draws fuel from the
supply duct into the chamber and the fuel line is open as long as the electric solenoid valve
remains de-energized.

(ii) Spill phase

The plunger of the pump is on the way down, and as long as solenoid valve remains de-
energized the fuel line is open and fuel flows in through into the return duct.
(iii)Injection phase
The plunger of the pump is still on the way down, the solenoid is now energized and fuel line
is now closed. The fuel cannot pass back into the return duct and it is compressed by the
plunger until the pressure exceeds specific "opening" pressure. Then the injector nozzle
needle lifts and it allows fuel to be injected into the combustion chamber.
(iv) Pressure reduction phase
The plunger is still on its way down. The engine ECU de-energizes the solenoid immediately
the required quantity of fuel is delivered. Due to this, the fuel valve opens and fuel can flow
back into return duct causing pressure drop which in turn shuts the injector nozzle needle.
Hence, no more fuel is injected.

Figure 43: Unit injector system

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NGANG TANGIE FRU, Ind. Eng. Mgr. and Mec. Eng.,[email protected]
 2. Rotary distributor system
In distributor systems, the fuel is metered at a central point. The pump which pressurizes the
fuel also meters the fuel and times the injection. The fuel pump supplies the required amount
of fuel after metering it to a rotating distributor at the correct time for supply to each cylinder.
The fuel is distributed to cylinders in a correct firing order operated by poppet valves which
are opened to admit the fuel to nozzles. Distributor pumps use control sleeves for metering the
injected quantity. Thus, they can be easily made to work with an electronically controlled
solenoid actuator.

Figure 44: Distributor system

3. Common rail direct injection system (CRDI)

Generally, diesel engines have the specific advantage of good fuel efficiency and low CO2
emissions. Therefore, various new technologies have been developed in order to reduce
harmful emissions. One of such technologies is called Common Rail Direct Injection (CRDI)
system of direct fuel injection. In this system, commencement of combustion takes place
directly into the main combustion chamber located in a cavity on the top of the piston crown.

This system injects diesel five times more accurately than the normal injection system by high
response injectors with electronic control. It results to a greater reduction of particulate matter
and NOx thereby improving the fuel efficiency and increasing its torque. This reduces engine
noise and vibration. Various components of CRDI System include:

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NGANG TANGIE FRU, Ind. Eng. Mgr. and Mec. Eng.,[email protected]
  High Pressure Fuel Pump
 Common Fuel Rail
 Injectors
 Engine Control Unit

A common rail system consists of a pressure accumulator called common rail (or in simple
words, a fuel distribution pipe) which is mounted along the engine block. The rail is fed by a
high pressure multi-cylinder fuel pump. The injectors here are activated by solenoid valves
and both the solenoid valves and fuel pump are electronically controlled.

In the common rail injection system, the injection pressure does not depend on engine speed
and load. So, the control of injection parameters is easy. Usually, a pilot injection is
introduced in order to reduce engine noise and NOx emissions. The injectors use a needle-and
seat- type valve to control the fuel flow. The fuel pressure is fed to both top and bottom of the
needle valve. The pressure on the bottom will push the needle off its seat by bleeding some of
the pressure off the top, making the fuel to flow through the nozzle holes.

Figure 45: Common rail direct injection system

II.4 Automobile Emissions and Control

The awareness of the public about climate change and greenhouse effect due to environmental
pollution, over the last century has made the government and industrial corporations
throughout the world, highly conscious about the control of emissions from their products.
Presently, automobile engine emissions are considered as principal environmental pollutants.
Day-by-day the number of vehicles increases which equally increases the emissions of these
pollutants.

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I.C. engines convert chemical energy into mechanical energy by burning fuel in its
combustion chamber. With petrol and diesel oil the main fuels for these engines. These fuels
contain hydrogen and carbon in various combinations and during combustion, oxygen
combines with hydrogen and carbon to form water (H20), carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon
dioxide (C02). The fuel equally causes the nitrogen in air to combine with oxygen forming
nitrogen oxide (N02). Some of the fuel goes un-burnt causing smoke and ash.

Exhaust gas constituents include partly burnt petrol, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides and if
there is sulphur in the petrol, sulphur oxides equally. The oxides of nitrogen together with
hydrocarbons react in the presence of sunlight and they form petrochemical smog. This
resulting smog dirties the atmosphere and so makes breathing difficult. Its bad effect includes
crop damage, eye irritation, objectionable odour, decrease of visibility, etc.

Un-burnt petrol, carbon monoxide, leaded compounds from leaded petrol and other gases
which pollute the air but may not be seen. All these pollutants are deadly and harmful for
humans, animals and food crops.

Humans inhale nearly 15 kg of air per day. If these pollutants are added to the air, it has
harmful effects like asthma, eczema, emphysema, cardiovascular troubles, just to name a few.

A. Automobile Pollutants
Most pollutants are produced by the incomplete combustion of the air-fuel mixture in the
combustion chamber. The following pollutants are emitted from the exhaust of the
automobiles.

1. Carbon monoxide (CO)

CO is mostly produced from the combustion of rich air fuel mixtures, where there is
insufficient oxygen for the complete combustion of the fuel. CO has more affinity than
oxygen for haemoglobin in our blood. It reduces the ability of haemoglobin to carry O2 to
body tissues. Hence, it affects the nervous system and vision if its concentration increases
then, it affects the heart.

2. Carbon dioxide (CO2)

During complete combustion, the hydrocarbons in the fuel are converted into carbon dioxide
which is 13.7% of exhaust gas. The amount of carbon dioxide in the exhaust gas is directly
proportional to the fuel consumpted.

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 3. Oxides of nitrogen (NOx)
NOx is produced from secondary reactions that occur in all combustion processes where air
containing nitrogen is also burned. In high temperatures, nitrogen reacts with oxygen to
produce nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (N02). They affect living organisms by
affecting their blood/body fluid purification systems. When mixed with moisture, it may also
produce dilute nitric acid which is dangerous to the heart.

4. Hydrocarbon gases
Hydrocarbon (HC) emissions are also the result of inadequate amount of oxygen for complete
combustion of the air fuel mixture. Hydrocarbon produces smog which affects the vision of
humans. Smog as should be noted is a mixture of fog and smoke.

5. Lead
Lead is a heavy metal which is poisonous thus a toxic air pollutant. It is produced from the
combustion of gasoline where it usually used as an additive. It affects the liver and kidneys
and also causes mental defects to children.

6. Particulate
Particulates are minute separate particles found in the air. The dust soot and fly ash produced
during combustion are particulates. They cause respiratory diseases such as bronchitis and
lung cancer and also allergies.

7. Sulphur oxide
Sulphur oxide is produced if the fuel has sulphur. Sulphur oxides damage plants and causes
irritations to eyes and throats giving respiratory worries to children. It equally corrodes
materials/metals.

B. Pollution Control
The pollution may be controlled by the following two ways.

 The prevention of the formation of pollutants

 The destruction of created pollutants.

1. Control of hydrocarbon gases

Formation of hydrocarbon gases may be reduced using the following methods.

 Reducing the compression ratio.

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NGANG TANGIE FRU, Ind. Eng. Mgr. and Mec. Eng.,[email protected]
  Changing the design of combustion chamber.
 Changing the piston design.
 By supplying lean mixture.
 By regularly cleaning piston and piston ring.

Destroying hydrocarbons may be done as follows.

 By using after burner.

 By using catalytic converter.

2. Control of CO
Methods of reducing CO are as follows.

 By using closed loop control.

 By supplying lean mixture.
 By providing suitable overlap of valves.

Methods of destroying CO are given below.

 By using reactor in the exhaust manifold.

 By using after burner.
 By using catalyst converter.

3. Control of nitrogen oxides

Methods of reducing oxides of nitrogen are listed below.

 By supplying the exhaust again to the inlet manifold.

 By spraying water in the inlet manifold to add moisture to the mixture.
 By using catalyst converter in the exhaust, the oxides of nitrogen can be destroyed.

4. Control of smoke and smog

Methods of reducing smoke and smog are given below.

 Running the engine with a limited load.

 Properly maintaining the engine.
 By adding barium salt in the fuel.
 By using a catalyst muffler.

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 C. Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) System
Excessive nitrogen oxides (N02) form when the peak combustion temperature exceeds
1950°C. To lower the combustion temperature, many engines have EGR system. The heat
capacity of the exhaust gas is higher than that of air as it contains significant amount of tri-
atomic gases like CO2 and water vapours. Therefore, addition of exhaust gas to fresh intake
charge has a higher effect in lowering the combustion temperatures compared to a simple
charge. The ERG system recirculates 5 to 10% of the exhaust gas back into the intake
manifold. EGR systems are made to operate mostly in the part-load range and are deactivated
at engine idle, because large amount of residual gas is already present in the cylinder.

The cooler exhaust gas absorbs heat from combustion process. It reduces the peak combustion
temperature and lowers the formation of Nitrogen oxides. The EGR system provides a
passage between the exhaust manifold and inlet manifold. An EGR control valve is used to
regulate flow at the EGR depending upon engine operating conditions. The intake manifold
pressure or exhaust back pressure may be used to control EGR rate as these parameters vary
with engine load.

Figure 46: EGR System

The ERG valve controls the passage of exhaust gas. The chamber is connected by a tube to a
vacuum port in the throttle body. When there is no vacuum at this port, the spring pushes the
diaphragm down and keeps the passage closed. Therefore, no exhaust gas recirculates. This
happens during idle when N02 formation is at a minimum.
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NGANG TANGIE FRU, Ind. Eng. Mgr. and Mec. Eng.,[email protected]
When the throttle is opened from the idle position, vacuum applied will gradually open the
tapered valve. It causes the exhaust gas to flow into the intake manifold. At wide-open
throttle, the intake manifold vacuum is low and EGR valve is closed by the spring. Thus, EGR
valve systems do not affect full power operation. The exhaust gas recirculates only in this
system when the engine operating conditions are supposed to form N02

Many engines have a thermal vacuum switch which prevents EGR until engine temperature
reaches 38°C. This switch is mounted in the engine water jacket where it connected with
coolant temperature. The switch closes when the engine is cold. It prevents EGR just after a
cold engine starts, but when the engine warms up, the switch is opened.

In the modern engines, EGR rate is controlled by the engine electronic control unit. A
pressure sensor in the exhaust or intake provides signal to the electronic control module of the
engine, which in turn regulates the operation of the EGR valve.

D. Crankcase emission control system

Small amounts of charge from the cylinder leak past the piston rings into the crankcase of
reciprocating engines. These gases are known as 'crankcase blow-by' and their flow rate
increases as the engine gets worn out and the piston-cylinder clearances and ring gaps
increase. High in hydrocarbons, this source contributes to about 20% of the total
hydrocarbons emitted by uncontrolled cars.

In order to control crankcase emissions, the blow-by gases are recycled back to the engine
assisted by a positive pressure drop between the crankcase and intake manifold. When the
engine is running and the intake charge is throttled the intake manifold is at a lower pressure
than the crankcase. Thus the blow-by gases are mixed with the intake charge and burnt. This
is done using a tube that connects the crankcase or cylinder head cover to the intake manifold
just below the throttle valve. Due to suction effect of the intake manifold as the pressure in the
crankcase falls, ventilation air from the air cleaner is drawn into the crankcase that
continuously purges it of the blow-by gases. A one-way valve is used to control thus flow.
This valve restricts flow of blow-by gases during idling and very light loads which otherwise
would cause excessive leaning of the charge by ventilation air.

E. Engine emission control by catalytic converter

The term catalytic converter is used to describe the stainless steel box mounted in the exhaust
system. The catalyst is inside the cover which is a ceramic or metallic base with an active
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NGANG TANGIE FRU, Ind. Eng. Mgr. and Mec. Eng.,[email protected]
coating incorporating alumina, ceria and other oxides and combinations of precious metals
such as platinum, palladium and rhodium. The base can be protected from vibration and shock
by a resilient ceramic or metallic 'mat'. The catalytic converter converts the pollutants such as
HC, CO and N02 into harmless gases. It is placed between the exhaust manifold and the
silencer. These catalysts cause a chemical change without being a part of the chemical
reaction.

The inside of the catalytic converter is a honeycomb set of passageways or small ceramic
beads coated with catalysts. A chemical reaction takes place to make the pollutants less
harmful. There are many passages for the exhaust gases to flow and allow for the maximum
amount of surface area for the hot gases to pass. There are two main types of structures used
in catalytic converters such as honeycomb and ceramic beads. Most cars today use a
honeycomb structure. Catalytic converters can either be a two-way or three-way type.

a) Two-way or oxidation catalytic converter

Early converters, called "two-way" (or oxidation) catalytic converter converts harmful carbon
monoxide (CO) and hydrocarbons (HC) produced by relatively inefficient, low compression
engines to harmless carbon dioxide (C02) and water vapour with the assistance of a precious-
metallic catalyst. But these converters have little effect on nitrogen oxides (NOx) and
particulate matter. Two-way converters are most effective when used with engines that have a
lean air/fuel mix because this condition provides ample oxygen to burn pollutants.

b) 3-way catalytic converter

Most cars today are equipped with a 3-way catalytic converter. The term 3-way refers to the
three emissions they help to reduce: carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (HC) or volatile
organic compounds (VOCs) and NOx molecules. 3-way converters use two different types of
catalysts such as a reduction catalyst and an oxidization catalyst. Both types consist of a base
structure coated with a catalyst such as platinum, rhodium and palladium. The scheme is to
create a structure which exposes the maximum surface area of the catalyst to the exhaust flow
while minimizing the amount of catalyst required. 3-way converters use two catalyst
processes. They are reduction and oxidation processes.

(i) Reduction catalyst

The reduction catalyst is the first stage of the catalytic converter. It uses platinum and
rhodium to help in reducing NOx emissions. When an NO or N02 molecule contacts the

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NGANG TANGIE FRU, Ind. Eng. Mgr. and Mec. Eng.,[email protected]
catalyst, the catalyst rips the nitrogen atom out of the molecule and holds on to it, freeing the
oxygen atom.

2 → +

2 → +2

(ii) Oxidation catalyst

The oxidation catalyst is the second stage of the catalytic converter. It reduces the unburned
hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide by burning (oxidizing) them over a platinum and
palladium catalyst.

Vehicles with catalyst converter must use unleaded petrol. Lead in petrol makes the catalyst
ineffective. For the catalytic converter to be most effective, the air fuel mixture must have
stoichiometric ratio of 14.7: 1. To achieve the described air fuel ratio at all operating
conditions.

The diesel engine catalytic converter is a pure oxidation catalytic converter. It oxidizes HC
and CO into water and CO2. It cannot reduce nitrogen oxides.

Figure 47: Catalytic Converter

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NGANG TANGIE FRU, Ind. Eng. Mgr. and Mec. Eng.,[email protected]
 F. Emission norms
Emission norms for automobiles are the standards set by the authority of different countries
focusing on controlling the amount of pollutants released into the environment from
automobiles. Each stage of emission standards specifically describes the amount of pollutants
from vehicles such as carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulphur dioxide, carbon
dioxide (C02), hydrocarbons (HC) and particulates which can be emitted from an automobile
into the environment. These regulatory standards differ from nation to nation. But the aim is
common to control the environmental pollution.

(i) Parameters determining emission from vehicles

While each one of the following four factors have direct environmental implications, the
vehicle and fuel systems have to be addressed as a whole and jointly optimized in order to
achieve significant reduction in emission.

 Vehicular technology
 Fuel quality
 Inspection& maintenance of in-use vehicles
 Road and traffic management.

(ii) Euro Norms

Allowable emissions limits of Euro standards for gasoline and diesel passenger cars are given
in the following tables.

Table 1: For Gasoline Vehicles (values in g/Km)

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Table 2: For diesel vehicles (values in g/Km)

(iii)Indian Norms
The Indian (Bharat Stage (BS)) emission standards for gasoline and diesel passenger cars are
given in the following tables.

Table 3: BS emission standards for gasoline vehicles (values in g/Km)

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 Table 4: BS emission standards for diesel vehicles (values in g/Km)

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NGANG TANGIE FRU, Ind. Eng. Mgr. and Mec. Eng.,[email protected]