History Of Computers: (Historical overview of Computer)

Although the modern electronic computers are only a recent phenomenon,

the ideas and devices leading to the advent of computers data for back in
the history.
Ever since the early days of life in caves, man has his problems of counting
his possessions. In early days of life this was an easy task because he
could keep count of things with the help of his fingers. But as his
possessions, and dealings with other grew, the record keeping had to be
done first through stones and then by scribbling on the walls of his caves.
These problems of keeping count of dealings and possessions forced the
man out of his cave by stones and space on the back of caves. As
civilization grew, in the mid seventeenth century were born some sort of
adding machines which may be described as the calculating machines is
called as “ABACUS”.
ABACUS
Is Earlier Calculating Machines at China 450 B.C. it is the First Known
Calculating device which was invented by the Chinese and is still widely
used for commercial calculations. It is primitive form; it consists of a frame with a number of
wires with beads string through them. The beads are used
for counting and calculations.
1642 A.D. Adding Machines
Adding Machine was invented by Blaise Pascal who known as French
scientist and mathematician. This machine could add and carry digits
automatically. His machine was so revolutionary that the principle
behind it is still used in most of the mechanical counters being used
today.
1692 A.D. Multiplying Machine (by Gottfried Leibnitiz, Germany)
He invented upon Pascal’s machine and introduced a mechanism to
carry out automatic multiplication of numbers.
1833. Analytical Engine (by Charles Babbage)
Charles Babbage, an English mathematician, developed a mechanical
calculating device, called “Difference Engine” for automatic
computation of mathematical table.
Charles Babbage was also involved in the design of another calculating
machine which could perform many general functions in an automatic way.
Such as memory devices, an arithmetic device, a punched card reader for
input system, and also used for external memory store. This machine called
“ANALYTICAL ENGINE”.
1942 A.D. MARK – I (University of Pennsylvania U.S.A.)
A group of scientists devised the MARK- I which was the first electromechanical
calculator in the world. It utilized the punched card concepts
of Hollerith and powers and it functioned by a series of electro magnetic
relays and mechanical arithmetic counters.
1944 A.D. ENIAC (Harvard University U.S.A.)
Scientists of Harvard University brought out Electronic Numerical
Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC), which was the first electronic calculator. It used vacuam
tubes and was able to do 300 Multiplications
per second.
1947 A.D. EDSAC (Cambridge University England)
Electronic Delayed storage and calculation was the name given to the
first electronic computer in the world. It was the first one to implement
the “stored program” concept. It proposed the use of binary numbers
and the internal storage of instructions in digital form.
1951 A.D. UNIVAC-I (U.S.A.)
After working on the development of computing systems. Sperry Rand
Corporation of U.S.A. introduced the first commercial computer to the
world and named it UNIVAC-I (Universal Accounting Company set up by
Eckert and Mauchly).

Generations of Computer
Intensive research and countless experiments on computers led to the
Sophistication, versatility and reduced costs of what had once been
expensive and huge machines capable of limited functions. These
developments were significant enough to arouse man’s interest world over
and there was a more intensive strive to evolve the best.
The evolution of the modern computer can be viewed in specific
‘generations’ which staring from the early forties, cover 4 generations to
date and we are in the middle of the 5th generation today. Each generation
was an improvement over the formal in terms of:
 Technology; used for manufacturing the machines
 Speed; which was almost 10 time faster.
 Storage; which increased tremendously
 Size; which reduced significantly
 Reliability & diligence; which increased considerably.
 System – cost; which decreased almost 21/2 times.

Let us examine each generation a little more closely and see what their
distinctive features were:
3.4.1 First Generation Computers [1942 – 1955]
A lot of people in the computer world today regard the ENIAC, EDVAC an
their contemporaries as being the forerunners of all digital computers that
were produced subsequently, and hence classify them under a ‘0’
generation category. Others incorporate their names into the ‘1st generation’
category.
Features:
1. Thermionic Values and Vacuum tubes are used to store the instruction.
2. The speed was limited to the mili seconds range (10-3)
3. The internal storage used primitive devices and had a maximum
capacity of 20,000 positions.
4. They utilized slow and primitive input/output devices such as card
readers and tabulators.
5. They were extremely large and occupied a large amount of space.
6. Due to the large size and nature of equipments used their system–cost
and working–cost was very high.
7. Binary Coding (Machine Language) is used to communicate with the
machine.
8. They were relatively unreliable due to frequent failure of Vacuum tubes
and these generated the more heat.
9. They were restricted to scientific and commercial applications.
Examples of First Generation computers are:
ENIAC : [ Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator. Developed
By. John Presper Eckert and
John W. Mauchly ]
EDVAC : [ Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer. Developed By.
John von Neumann in 1945 ]

EDSAC : [ Electronic Delayed Storage Automatic Computer.]

UNVAC : [UNIVersal Automatic Computer. By. Remington Rand in 1951]
& IBM – 650
3.4.2 Second Generation Computer : [1955-1964]
Between end of 50’s and 60’s there was the development of “solid-state”
Technology and the invention of Transistors by the Bell Laboratories,. This
marked the beginning of the 2nd Generation of computer.
Characteristics Of 2nd Generation Computer
1. Transistors are used to store the instructions in place of valves and
Vacuam tubes.
2. An increase in Operation Speeds up to the micro seconds range. (10-6)
3. An increase in storage capacity to accommodate as much as 1,00,000
characters.
4. The size reduced considerably due to miniaturisation of functions.
5. They were a lot more reliable and the mean time between failure [MTBT]
also increased.
6. Vastly improved input/output devices such as high speed Card Readers,
line printers and magnetic reel tapes units are used.
7. There was an overall reduction in system and operating costs.
8. Assembly languages, translator-programs were used. The later stage of
this generation introduced First [HLL] High Level Language
“FORTRAN”, in 1957.
9. Although they were much more versatile in operation, the trend of
manufacturing computers, to suit specific purpose of either scientific or
commercial application continued to persist.
Examples of 2nd Generation computers are:
IBM 1400, IBM – 7000, series, LEO mark III, ATLAS etc.

Third Generation Computers : [1965-1974]

The world had moved into the 3rd generation of computer development. The
two outstanding characteristics in this phase were the introduction of “
Integrated Circuit Technology ” [IC], and the development of “System
Software”, introducing the “Operating Systems” for automotive
processing and multiprogramming.
Characteristics Of 3rd Generation Computers
1. The electronic circuitry was based on miniature integrated circuits on
silicon chips, which is smaller in size, contained the equivalent of a
large number of transistors. These utilized mini processors in their
internal design.
2. The operating speed improved up to Nano seconds range (10-9)
3. The internal storage increased to a capacity that could accommodate up
to one half million characters.
4. A broad range of improved Input/Output devices were introduced like the
MICR [Magnetic Ink Character Reader] OCR [Optical Character
Recognizers], Complex graph printers and plotters etc.
5. This generation of computers was capable of handling equivalent if not
more complex and numerous operations.
6. The reliability and accuracy also improved and the MTBF[Mean Time
Between Failure] could be measured in terms of hundreds of hours.
7. If greater development of HLL[High Level Languages] tools place such
as COBOL [Common Business Oriented Language], BASIC [Beginners
All Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code] etc.
8. Systems and Operating costs decreased substantially as also did the
cost of storage devices and media. These were general purpose
machines capable of processing business and scientific functions
equally well, and their “Operating Systems” facilitated the performance
of several jobs simultaneously.

Examples of 3rd Generation computers are:

IBM system/360, PDP – II, Honeywell 200, etc.
3.4.4 Fourth Generation Computers : [1975-Up till now]
Around the beginning of the last decade, a number of new computers were
introduced, which were based on LSIC technology [Large Scale Integrated
Circuits] and MOS technology [Metal – Oxide – semi conductor].
Characteristics of 4TH Generation Computers
1. The technology used for their circuitry was so specialized and
miniaturized that hundreds of ICs could be etched on a chip the size of
pinhead. The use of microprocessors came into being.
2. The operating speed improved to between the nano and Pico seconds
ranges.
3. The internal storage capacity increased to the range of one million
positions.
4. A further refinement of Input/Output devices took place.
5. A further reduction in size also occurred.
6. The reliability and MTBR also increased into hundreds of hours.
7. A further refinement of HLL [High Level Languages] and the introduction
of special software for managing large databases occurred.
8. A further reduction in cost allowed for greater computational capabilities
for a given unit of currency.
9. The machines could perform a broad spectrum of functions, had
improved operating systems capable of recording error occurrences in a
system-log for the maintenance-personnel to inspect.
Examples of 4the Generation computers are:
IBM 370 series, Honeywell 6080 series, APPLE the COMMODORE PET,
etc.
[PC-386, 486, 586, PENTIUM Series]

Fifth Generation Computers

The Fifth Generation Computers are in the development stage. These
computers will use ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integrated) chips. They will
contain millions of components on a single chip. Japan and USA have
undertaken projects to design and develop such computers.
These computers will use intelligent programming and knowledge-based
problem solving techniques. They will use improved human-machine
interface. The input and output for these machines will be in the form of
graphic images or speeches. Such machines will be able to interpret natural
languages (NLP – Natural Language Processing). The computers will be
made to understand natural languages like English or Japanese. It will not
to be necessary to use programming languages. Even one will be able to
speak commands in his/her mother tongue.
The software, which the fifth generation computers will use, will have
artificial intelligence (Al). The intelligent program will tell the computer what
to do and not how to do. Experts are convinced that the concept of
‘thinking’ computers is possible. However, there are many technical
hardware and software problems still to be overcome before introduction of
what is known as “Fifth Generation Computers”. The conventional data
processing is based on processing information whereas artificial intelligence
(Al) deals with processing ideas and knowledge. The key to Al lies with new
style programming and software- the software which emulates the
performance of human brain. What it does is, it makes a series of estimates
which are gradually refined by skipping across logical patterns until the
acceptable judgment or decision is reached.
The development and application of Al has also enabled a field of expertsystems.
Such a system gives a reasoned advice in a particular field and at
a level similar to what a human expert would provide. It consists of a
knowledge base and a set of rules for manipulating the knowledge. Some
systems learn through their previous experience and build on the knowledge

base. Other system operates using knowledge, which is fixed at the time the
base is constructed. In both cases the knowledge is derived from the
understanding and wisdom of human experts.
With the advent of fifth generation computers, expert systems will become
much more sophisticated and popular. At present they are used in the filed
of medicine - in diagnosis, treatment planning, monitoring, etc.
ACRONYMS FULL FORMS
IC Integrated Circuit
LSIC Large Scale Integrated Circuits
VLSIC Very Large Scale Integrated Circuits
SLSIC Super Large Scale Integrated Circuits.
ENIAC Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator.
EDSAC Electronic Delayed Storage Automatic Computer.
EDVAC Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer.
UNIVAC Universal Automatic Computer.
3.5 Classification of Computers Computer
 Main frames
 Mini computer
 Micro computer
 Super computer
 Specific purpose computers
 Business/Scientific
 Digital computer Hybrid computers
 General purpose computer
 Analog computers