CIVIL ENGINEERING – Vol. II - Mining and Exploration for Mineral Resources - T. Nishiyama, K.

Kaneko

MINING AND EXPLORATION FOR MINERAL RESOURCES

T. Nishiyama
Kyoto University, Japan.

K. Kaneko
Hokkaido University, Japan.

Keywords: Mineral exploration, geologic prospecting, ore deposits, magmatic deposits,

hydrothermal deposits, sedimentary deposits, geophysical prospecting, magnetic survey,
electric survey, radiometric survey, geochemical prospecting, geochemical anomaly

Contents

TE SS
1. Introduction

S
2. Geologic Prospecting

R
2.1. Ore Deposits Formed During Magmatic Process

AP L
2.1.1. Separation and Concentration due to Crystallization in Basic Magma at Specific
H O
Places and at Specific Stages
2.1.2. Separation and Concentration due to Immiscibility in the Melt
C E
2.2. Hydrothermal Deposits
2.2.1. Porphyry-type Deposits
E O–

2.2.2. Kuroko-type Massive Sulfide Deposits

2.2.3. Skarn-type Deposits
2.2.4. Vein-type Deposits
2.3. Sedimentary Deposits
PL C

3. Geophysical Prospecting
3.1. Gravity Survey
M ES

3.2. Magnetic Survey

3.3. Electric Survey
3.3.1. Self-potential Method
SA N

3.3.2. Resistivity Method

3.3.3. Induced Polarization Method
U

3.3.4. Electromagnetic Method

3.4. Seismic Survey
3.4.1. Reflection Method
3.4.2. Refraction Method
3.5. Radiometric Survey
4. Geochemical Prospecting
4.1. Basic Principles
4.2. A Few Practical Geochemical Explorations
4.3. Fluid Inclusion and Isotope Studies
Glossary
Bibliography
Biographical Sketches

Summary

©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

CIVIL ENGINEERING – Vol. II - Mining and Exploration for Mineral Resources - T. Nishiyama, K. Kaneko

Depletion of mineral resources often induces social crises and sometimes causes wars.
However, during the long history of human beings, total depletion of a single mineral
has never occurred. New discoveries and technology are adding to the reserves of
various mineral commodities at a rate that has exceeded depletion. Mineral exploration
leading to the discovery of new ore deposits and products is one of the most important
forces helping to fend off depletion. In section 1, the fundamentals and aims of mineral
exploration are briefly introduced. In section 2, the characteristics and formative
processes of mineral deposits are described for geologic prospecting. In sections 3 and 4,
the geophysical and geochemical prospecting methods widely used for mineral
explorations are described.

1. Introduction

The magnitude of the world's mineral production has increased sharply, and there is no

TE SS
sign that this growth is likely to stop in the near future. The growth rates of production

S
and life expectancies of aluminum, crude steel, copper, zinc and energy over the past

R
half century are illustrated in Figure 1.

AP L
H O
C E
E O–
PL C
M ES
SA N
U

Figure 1: Growth Rates of Energy, Iron, Copper and Zinc (1970=100)

(by Nishiyama, T. (1998). Trends and Prospects for Supply of Energy and Minerals
Energy and Resources, Vol.19, No1, p.23.)

Growth rates increased radically after 1950, especially between 1950 and 1973. On the
other hand, life expectancies have remained nearly constant because new discoveries
and technology add to the reserves of mineral commodities at a rate that has exceeded
depletion, in order to satisfy growing demands. However, since the quantity of a
particular resource in the Earth's crust is physically limited, it is questionable whether
this condition is sustainable in the future. Therefore, most of our attention for the future
has been focused on potentially recoverable resources and exploration (see Mining
Engineering and Mineral Transportation).

©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

CIVIL ENGINEERING – Vol. II - Mining and Exploration for Mineral Resources - T. Nishiyama, K. Kaneko

Reserves, production and life expectancies are fundamental factors in forecasting the
supply and demand of mineral commodities. Current statistical data for 35 minerals are
summarized in Table 1.

Production Reserve Lifetime Price

Element Unit Resources principal (P)
(P) (R) (R/P) (US$/kg)
Jamaica
Al 1000t 130,619 25,000,000 191 1.45Guinea (13%) (9%)
Russia
Sb t 73,762 2,100,000 28 1.39China (60%) (17%)
Frence
As t 46,800 1,000,000 21 China (38%) (13%)
Russia

TE SS
Be t 6,220 N.A. N.A. 720.9U.S.A. (82%) (16%)
Peru

S
Bi t 3,620 110,000 30 8.49Mexico (35%) (28%)

R
U.S.A

AP L
B 1000t 4,817 170,000 35 0.37Turkey (32%) (28%)

Cd
H O t 18,764 600,000 32 0.31Japan (14%)
Canada
(11%)
Kazakh
C E
South Africa stan
Cr 1000t 14,000 3,700,000 264 0.063 (49%) (17%)
E O–

Canada
Co t 29,900 4,500,000 151 37.52Congo (23%) (18%)
U.S.A.
Cu 1000t 12,288 340,000 28 1.67Chile (30%) (15%)
South Africa U.S.A.
PL C

Au kg 2,540,000 45,000,000 18 9000 (18%) (13%)

In t N.A. 2,600 N.A. 303
M ES

Brazil
Fe 1000t 1,041,571 74,000,000 71 0.025China (25%) (18%)
China
Pb 1000t 2,977 66,000 22 0.96Australia (23%) (18%)
SA N

Li 1000t N.A. 3,400 N.A. 4.47

U

South Africa Gabon

Mn 1000t 20,400 680,000 33 2.26 (15%) (10%)
Russia
Hg t 3,663 120,000 33 4.06Spain (37%) (30%)
China
Mo 1000t 142 5,500 39 5.9U.S.A. (38%) (23%)
Canada
Ni 1000t 1,045 40,000 38 6.01Russia (24%) (18%)
Canada
Nb t 23,600 3,500,000 148 6.61Brazil (89%) (10%)
South Africa Russia
Pt kg 378,000 71,000,000 188 12,180 (60%) (31%)
U.S.A.
REE t 82,000 100,000,000 1220 China (85%) (6%)
U.S.A.
Re kg 46,000 2,500,000 54 750Chile (32%) (20%)
Canada
Se t 1,480 70,000 47 5.622Japan (37%) (30%)

©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

CIVIL ENGINEERING – Vol. II - Mining and Exploration for Mineral Resources - T. Nishiyama, K. Kaneko

Russia
Si 1000t 3,400 N.A. N.A. 1.28China (27%) (13%)
Peru
Ag t 17,199 280,000 16 170Mexico (14%) (13%)
Spain
Sr t 304,000 6,800,000 22 0.07Mexico (40%) (31%)
Brazil
Ta t 495 19,000 38 74.96Australia (71%) (18%)
Brazil
Th t 7,800 1,200,000 154 82.5India (64%) (18%)
Indones
ia
Sn 1000t 216 7,700 36 8.06China (37%) (22%)
Norway
Ti 1000t 3,780 327,000 87 9.37Australia (53%) (16%)
Russia

TE SS
W t 31,000 2,000,000 65 47China (77%) (11%)

S
South
Africa

R
V t 42,800 10,000,000 234 4.39China (37%) (37%)

AP L
H O Australi
Zn 1000t 7,977 190,000 24 1.17China (19%) a (15%)
South
C E
Africa
Zr t 941,000 36,000,000 38 20〜26 Australia (43%) (43%)
E O–

*Production figures are based on most recent data(1999).(Asbest, 1994)

N.A.: not available South Africa: Republic of South Africa
(Source: WBMS, Mineral Commodity Summaries, United Nations Energy Statistics etc)
PL C

Table 1: Production and reserves of 35 minerals

(Source: WBMS, Mineral Commodity Summaries, United Nations, Energy Statistics,
M ES

etc.)

The reserves of Ag, Au, As, Sr, Pb, Zn are not sufficient for even 25 years at the current
SA N

rate of production. Reserve life expectancies of 12 minerals including Cu, Mn, Mo, Cd,
Sn, etc., vary from 25 to 50 years. The total world reserves of other resources seem
U

adequate for the next 50 years. As mentioned previously, new discoveries and advances
in mining technology have added to the reserves of various mineral commodities.
Reserves are not fixed. Additional reserves and cumulative consumption of 16 essential
metals over the period 1970-95 are shown in Figure 2. For gold, using 1970 as the index
(1970=100) of additional reserve, the 1970-95 increase in reserves is approximately
sevenfold, and cumulative consumption has more than tripled. In other words, six times
the gold reserves in 1970 were discovered and more than three times the 1970 reserves
were consumed during 1970-95. Currently, discoveries and technologies to increase the
reserves of many metals are divided in the following three categories.

©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

CIVIL ENGINEERING – Vol. II - Mining and Exploration for Mineral Resources - T. Nishiyama, K. Kaneko

TE SS
S
R
AP L
Figure 2: Additional Reserves and Cumulative Production of 16 Essential Metals
H O
between 1970-1995. (Revised from Nishiyama, T. (1995). Resource Depletion
Calculated by the Rate of the Reserve Plus Cumulative Consumption to the Crustal
C E
Abundance for Gold.
Nonrenewable Resources, Vol.4, No.3, p.258.)
Exploration strategies vary widely, dependent upon the mineral commodity species, the
E O–

geologic and climatic environment, political and social restrictions, and available
resources. Exploration programs focus progressively on decreasing size, from large to
narrow research areas using methods increasing in cost per unit area, with a declining
risk of failure. The principal programs from reconnaissance surveys into detailed ones
PL C

include three stages: (1) conventional prospecting consisting of the search for directly
M ES

observable natural features commonly associated with ore mineralization, or literature

and geologic research with the selection of geologically favorable localities;(2)
multistage coverage of the area selected involving detailed geologic mapping,
geochemical and/or geophysical coverage, and/or the use of special techniques;(3) and
SA N

finally a drilling program and/or underground exploration by shafts, drifts, and

U

crosscuts.

2. Geologic Prospecting

Geology provides the framework in which mineral exploration and the integrated
procedures of remote sensing, geophysics, and geochemistry are planned and interpreted.
Mineral resources have been formed by a variety of processes and in various places
throughout the 4600 million year history of crustal development. The mineral deposits
can, for convenience, be classified into three types based on their formative processes
from magmatic to surface genesis, magmatic process, the process of solution-dominated
ore genesis, and the transport of particulate matter at the earth's surface.

2.1. Ore Deposits Formed During Magmatic Process

Certain formations of igneous rocks may become concentrated into bodies of sufficient

©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

CIVIL ENGINEERING – Vol. II - Mining and Exploration for Mineral Resources - T. Nishiyama, K. Kaneko

size and richness to constitute valuable mineral deposits such as chromium, platinum
and REE. Representatives of magmatic concentration are many and widespread, but the
products yielded are not numerous. Chemical and mineralogical evolution is attended by
the formation and segregation of two groups associated with ultra-basic and acidic
magma.

2.1.1. Separation and Concentration due to Crystallization in Basic Magma at

Specific Places and at Specific Stages

The resulting concentrations of these minerals occupy predictable parts of layers of

igneous rocks (e.g. platinum, chromite, ilmenite and magnetite deposits). The mineral
deposits formed by early magmatic segregation are generally lenticular and of relatively
small size. Commonly, they are disconnected pod shaped lenses, stringers, and bunches.
Less commonly and more importantly, they form layers in the host rock. The most

TE SS
famous example of this type of deposit is the Bushveld Igneous Complex in South

S
Africa, where stratiform bands of chromite of remarkably uniform thickness lie parallel

R
to the pseudo-stratification of the enclosing mafic igneous rocks and can be traced for

AP L
several kilometers (Figure 3). Even more remarkable is another thin layer of pyroxenite,
H O
the "Merensky Reef" horizon, bounded above and below by thin layers of chromite that
contain economic quantities of platinum. Currently this layer has supplied most of the
C E
world's demand for platinum
E O–
PL C
M ES
SA N
U

Figure 3: Chromite Deposits and Platinum Deposits (Merensky Reef)

(by Jensen, M.L. and Bateman, A.M. (1979). Economic Mineral Deposits, p.85, John
Wiley & Sons, New York.)

2.1.2. Separation and Concentration due to Immiscibility in the Melt

Nickel-copper deposits associated with basic and ultrabasic rocks and REE,
niobium-tantalum deposits associated with alkali rocks are well known as typical of this
group. Although metallic oxides do not or rarely form immiscible phases in silicate
magma, it has been proved that an immiscible sulfide melt, which concentrates copper
and nickel, occurs during crystallization. The Sudbury irruptive, which has for a long

©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

CIVIL ENGINEERING – Vol. II - Mining and Exploration for Mineral Resources - T. Nishiyama, K. Kaneko

time been the most important source of nickel, is formed in this manner. Deposits
consisting of nickel-copper ores, with accompanying platinum, gold, silver, and other
elements are in a stratiform complex composed of the lower norite and the upper
micropegmatite (Figure 4).

TE SS
S
R
AP L
Figure 4: Geological Map of Sudbury Region (After South et al., 1969.)
H O
Carbonatite consisting of alkaline rocks such as nepheline syenite is also an example of
C E
immiscible liquid segregation. The carbonatites of economic importance are mostly
associated with a source of rare-earth elements, Nb, Ta, U, Th, Zr and Hf etc.
E O–

-
PL C

-
-
M ES

TO ACCESS ALL THE 21 PAGES OF THIS CHAPTER,

SA N

Visit: http://www.eolss.net/Eolss-sampleAllChapter.aspx
U

Bibliography

Rose A. W., Hawkes H. E. and Webb J. S.(1979). Geochemistry in Mineral Exploration, Academic
Press, New York
Sasaki, A., Ishihara, S. and Seki, Y. (1985). Mineral Resources and Engineering Geology, Chichester:
John Wiley & Sons. [This book provides some genetic topics of ore deposits. ]

Biographical Sketches

Takashi Nishiyama (born 1939) is a professor emeritus at Kyoto University and at the time the research
for this article was started, a professor of Department of Energy and Technology, Graduate School of
Energy Science, Kyoto University. He studied in Mining Engineering Department at Kyoto University
and obtained a degree of Dr. Eng.

©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

CIVIL ENGINEERING – Vol. II - Mining and Exploration for Mineral Resources - T. Nishiyama, K. Kaneko

Katsuhiko Kaneko (born 1950) is working as a professor of Division of Environment and Resources
Engineering, Hokkaido University. He studied in Mining Engineering Department at Kyoto University
and obtained a degree of Dr. Eng. He also worked for the Department of Resources Engineering,
Kumamoto University, for eighteen years.

TE SS
S
R
AP L
H O
C E
E O–
PL C
M ES
SA N
U

©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)