Modern Physics Dr:Yahia Elbashar ENG:Doaa Mohamed NAME:Abdallah Ibrahim Abdrabo ID:18194141
Uploaded by
AboElnasr35Modern Physics Dr:Yahia Elbashar ENG:Doaa Mohamed NAME:Abdallah Ibrahim Abdrabo ID:18194141
Uploaded by
AboElnasr35Modern Physics
Dr:Yahia Elbashar
ENG:Doaa Mohamed
NAME:Abdallah Ibrahim Abdrabo
ID:18194141
1-What is the Schrodinger Equation
The Schrödinger equation (also known as Schrödinger’s wave equation) is a partial differential
equation that describes the dynamics of quantum mechanical systems via the wave function. The
trajectory, the positioning, and the energy of these systems can be retrieved by solving the Schrödinger
equation.
Get to derive the Wave Equation
The disturbance obeys the wave equation. Remember, the
electron displays wave-like behaviour and has an electromagnetic
charge. Therefore, for now, let us just look at electromagnetic fields.
In this scenario, Maxwell’s equations apply and here they are in all
of their glory
Now we can leverage a very familiary (and easily proven) vector
identity: where is some placeholder
vector. Applying to our little equation now
Get to Derive the Schrödinger Equation
Plane Wave Solutions to the Wave Equation
Where we know from normal wave mechanics that and
. Now, let us make use of the work from Einstein and
Compton and substitute in the fact that the energy of a photon is
given by and from de-Broglie that . We can
further massage our plane wave solution to:
we’ve only been dealing with the photon so far which has no
mass ! So let’s expand our understanding and apply the
total relativistic energy for a particle with mass (like the electron
for example) and change the name of our equation to because
we’re ballers
Now this equation came straight from substituting the plane wave
equation for a photon into the wave equation. However, since we
now want the energy to solve the total relativistic energy for a
particle with mass, we need to change the wave equation slightly.
This is because the wave equation shouldn’t fully apply to our new
which describes particles and waves. We can now backsolve for an
operator to get the equation above, and it’s given by
Solving for Particles with Mass in the Wave Equation
We now want to make a few approximations on the full energy we
just described by for a particle with momentum and mass. Let’s
just rearrange the formula slightly so we can use some
approximations.
When is small, the only part that remains in the Taylor expansion is
the term. In our energy formula, . We can take
advantage of the fact that for anything that isn’t
travelling at the speed of light (please find me if you do find anything
that doesn’t satisfy this)! So this term actually reduces to:
Now we can easily generalise this to 3-dimensions by turning this
equation into a vector equation (all the steps we took to derive this
formula will apply for all and .)
Let’s put in our new wave function given by
where we know what the first and second derivatives with respect to
time look like:
2-Quantum theory of free electrons in metal
Quantum theory of free electrons :
The faiure of classical free electron theory paved this way for quantum
free electron theory . it as introduced by sommer field in 1928 , this
theory is based on making small concept , this theory was proposed by
making small changes in the classical free electron theory and by
retaining most of the post ulates of the classical free electron theory
Assumptions ( postulates ) of quantum free electron theory
1- In a metal the a available free electron are fully responsible for
electrical condtions
2- The electron mone in a contant potential inside the metal they
cannot come oyt from the metal surface have very high potential
barrier
3- Electrons have wave nature , the velocity and energy distribution
for the electons given by felmi Dirac distribution function
4- The loss of energy due to interaction of the free electrons with the
other free electron
5- Electrons distributed various energy levels according to pauli
exclusion principle .
Advantages of quantum free electron theory
1- This theory fails to distinguish between metal semiconductor and
insulator
2- It also fails to explain the positive value of hall-co – efficient
3- According to this theory , only two electrons are present in the
fermi level and they are responsible for conduction which is not
true
The salient features of quantum free electron theory :
According to quantum mechamics , the energy of an electron in a
metal is quamtized , the electons are filled in agiven energy level
according to poul is exclusion principle (No two electrons will have
the same set of four quantum numbers )
Each energy level can provide only wo states namely one with spin up
other with spin down and henceonly two electrons can be occupied in
agiven end level . so it is assumed that the permissible energy level of
a free electron are determined
3-Bloch function and Penny model.
4-Statistical distribution low :
The distribution function for agas obeying Maxwell-
Boltzmann statistics (fm-B) can be written in term of the
total energy of the system of particle described by the gas
the Boltzmann constant (K=1.38×10-16 erg/k) and
animalizing constant ( c ) chosen so that the sum or
integral of all probabilities is unity Fm-B = Ce-E/KT in which
e is the Bose of the natural logarithms The distribution
function implies that probity of that any individual
molecule has an energy between E and E+ dE is given by
dp = Fm-B de The total energy ( E ) usually is composed of
sevetol individual Parts each correspouncling to different
degree of freedom of the system , the total energy is
divided equally between these modes see energy .
Distribution functions are nothing but the probability density functions used to describe the probability with
which a particular particle can occupy a particular energy level. When we speak of Fermi-Dirac distribution
function, we are particularly interested in knowing the chance by which we can find a fermion in a particular
energy state of an atom (more information on this can be found in the article “Atomic Energy States”). Here, by
fermions, we mean the electrons of an atom which are the particles with ½ spin, bound to Pauli exclusion
principle
Necessity of Fermi Dirac Distribution Function
In fields like electronics, one particular factor which is of prime importance is the conductivity of
materials. This characteristic of the material is brought about the number of electrons which are free
within the material to conduct electricity
As per energy band theory (refer to the article “Energy Bands in Crystals” for more information), these are the
number of electrons which constitute the conduction band of the material considered. Thus inorder to have an
idea over the conduction mechanism, it is necessary to know the concentration of the carriers in the
conduction band.
Fermi Dirac Distribution Expression
Mathematically the probability of finding an electron in the energy state E at the temperature T is
expressed as
is the Boltzmann constant
T is the absolute temperature
Ef is the Fermi level or the Fermi energy
Now, let us try to understand the meaning of Fermi level. In order to accomplish this, pu
Fermi Level in Semiconductors
Intrinsic semiconductors are the pure semiconductors which have no impurities in them. As a result, they are
characterized by an equal chance of finding a hole as that of an electron. This inturn implies that they have the
Fermi-level exactly in between the conduction and the valence bands as shown by Figure 1a
Next, consider the case of an n-type semiconductor. Here, one can expect more number of electrons to be
present in comparison to the holes. This means that there is a greater chance of finding an electron near to the
conduction band than that of finding a hole in the valence band. Thus, these materials have their Fermi-level
located nearer to conduction band as shown by Figure 1b.
Following on the same grounds, one can expect the Fermi-level in the case of p-type semiconductors to be
present near the valence band (Figure 1c). This is because, these materials lack electrons i.e. they have more
number of holes which makes the probability of finding a hole in the valence band more in comparison to that
of finding an electron in the conduction band.
Effect of temperature on Fermi-Dirac Distribution Function
At T = 0 K, the electrons will have low energy and thus occupy lower energy states. The highest energy state
among these occupied states is referred to as Fermi-level. This inturn means that no energy states which lie
above the Fermi-level are occupied by electrons. Thus we have a step function defining the Fermi-Dirac
distribution function as shown by the black curve in Figure 2.
However as the temperature increases, the electrons gain more and more energy due to which they can even
rise to the conduction band. Thus at higher temperatures, one cannot clearly distinguish between the occupied
and the unoccupied states as indicated by the blue and the red curves shown in Figure 2
