An-Najah National University

Faculty of Engineering
Electrical Engineering Department

Bipolar Junction Transistors

 Introduction

The transistor is a three-terminal device whose output current, voltage and/or power are controlled by its
input current
Used primarily in communication as an amplifier to increase the strength of an ac signal

In digital systems it is primarily used as a switch

 An-Najah National University
Faculty of Engineering
Electrical Engineering Department

Bipolar Junction Transistors

Transistor Structure

The BJT (bipolar junction transistor) is constructed with three doped semiconductor regions separated by
two pn junctions

The three regions are called emitter, base, and collector.

There are two types of BJTs, either pnp (two p regions separated by one n region) and npn (two n regions
separated by one p region)
 An-Najah National University
Faculty of Engineering
Electrical Engineering Department

Bipolar Junction Transistors

Transistor Structure

The C, B, and E symbols represent the common, emitter, and base regions, respectively.

The base region is lightly doped and very thin compared to the heavily doped emitter and moderately
doped collector regions.
 An-Najah National University
Faculty of Engineering
Electrical Engineering Department

Bipolar Junction Transistors

Basic Transistor Operation
For correct operation, the two pn junctions must be correctly biased with external dc voltages.

Operation of the pnp is similar as that of npn, but the roles of electrons and holes, bias polarities, and
current directions are all reversed

The figure below shows the correct biasing of a BJT.

The forward bias from base to emitter narrows the BE depletion region

The reverse bias from base to collector widens the BC depletion region.
 An-Najah National University
Faculty of Engineering
Electrical Engineering Department

Bipolar Junction Transistors

Basic Transistor Operation
The heavily doped n-type emitter region is packed with conduction-band (free) electrons
The free electrons from the emitter diffuse easily through the forward biased BE junction into the p-type
base region
In the base, the electrons become minority carriers (like in a forward biased diode).
The base region is lightly doped and very thin, so it has a limited number of holes
Because of that light doping, only a small percentage of all the electrons flowing through the BE junction
can combine with the available holes in the base
These relatively few recombined electrons flow out of the base lead as
valence electrons, forming the small base electron current.
Most of the electrons flowing from the emitter into the lightly doped base
region do not recombine, but diffuse into the BC depletion region.
Once here, they are pulled through the reverse-biased BC junction by the
electric field set up by the force of attraction between the positive and
negative ions.
 An-Najah National University
Faculty of Engineering
Electrical Engineering Department

Bipolar Junction Transistors

Transistor Characteristics and Parameters

 The ratio of the dc collector current (IC) to the dc base current (IB) is the dc beta (βDC).

βDC is called the gain of a transistor: βDC = IC/IB

Typical values of βDC range from less than 20 to 200 or higher.

The ratio of the collector current (IC) to the dc emitter current (IE) is the dc alpha (αDC). This is a less-used
parameter than beta. αDC = IC/IE

Typical values range from 0.95 to 0.99 or greater

αDC is always less than 1

This is because IC is always slightly less than IE by the amount of IB.

 An-Najah National University
Faculty of Engineering
Electrical Engineering Department

Bipolar Junction Transistors

Transistor Characteristics and Parameters

 From graph above we can see that there are 6 important parameters to be considered:
 IB: dc base current.
IE: dc emitter current.
IC: dc collector current.
VBE:dc voltage at base with respect to emitter.
 VCB: dc voltage at collector with respect to base.
VCE: dc voltage at collector with respect to emitter.
VBB forward-biases the BE junction.
VCC reverse-biases the BC junction.
When the BE junction is forward biased, it is like a forward biased diode:
VBE ≈ 0.7 V
Emitter is at ground. Thus the voltage across RB is
VR(B) = VBB- VBE
 An-Najah National University
Faculty of Engineering
Electrical Engineering Department

Bipolar Junction Transistors

Transistor Characteristics and Parameters
Also:
VR(B) = IRRB
Or:
IRRB = VBB- VBE

Solving:
IB = (VBB- VBE)/RB

Voltage at collector with respect to grounded emitter is:

VCE = VCC – VR(C)

Since drop across RC is VR(C) = ICRC the voltage at the collector is also:
VCE = VCC - ICRC

Where IC = βDC IB. Voltage across the reverse-biased collector-bias junction is

VCB = VCE - VBE
 An-Najah National University
Faculty of Engineering
Electrical Engineering Department

Bipolar Junction Transistors

Transistor Characteristics and Parameters

Example:

Determine IB, IC, IE, VBE, VCE, and VCB in the following circuit. The transistor has βDC 150
Solution:
We know VBE=0.7 V. Using the already known equations:
IB = (VBB- VBE)/RB
IB = (5 – 0.7)/10kΩ = 430 mA
IC = βDC IB = (150)( 430 mA) = 64.5 mA
IE = IC + IB = 64.5 mA + 430 mA = 64.9 mA
Solving for VCE and VCB:
VCE = VCC – ICRC = 10V-(64.5mA)(100 Ω) = 3.55 V
VCB = VCE – VBE = 3.55 V – 0.7 V = 2.85 V
Since the collector is at higher potential than the base, the collector-base junction is reverse-biased
.
 An-Najah National University
Faculty of Engineering
Electrical Engineering Department

Bipolar Junction Transistors

Transistor Characteristics and Parameters

 Changing the voltage supplies with variable voltage supplies in the circuit below, we can get the
characteristic curves of the BJT.
If we start at some positive VBB and VCC = 0 V, the BE junction and the BC junction are forward biased.
In this case the base current is through the BE junction because of the low impedance path to ground, thus
IC is zero.
When both junctions are forward-biased, the transistor is in the saturation region of operation.
 An-Najah National University
Faculty of Engineering
Electrical Engineering Department

Bipolar Junction Transistors

Transistor Characteristics and Parameters
 As VCC is increase, VCE gradually increases, as the
IC increases (This is the steep slope linear region before
the small-slope region).
IC increases as VCC increase because VCE remains less than
0.7 V due to the forward-biased base-collector junction.
Ideally, when VCE exceeds 0.7 V, the BC junction becomes
reverse biased.
Then, the transistor goes into the linear region of operation.
When the BC junction is reverse-biased, IC levels off and
remains essentially constant for a given value of IB as VCE
continues to increase.
Actually, there is a slight increase in IC, due to the widening of
 For the linear portion, the value of IC is calculated by:
IC = βDC IB
 An-Najah National University
Faculty of Engineering
Electrical Engineering Department

Bipolar Junction Transistors

Transistor Characteristics and Parameters

 When VCE reaches a sufficiently large voltage, the reverse

biased BC junction goes into breakdown.
Thus, the collector current increases rapidly.
A transistor should never be operated in this region.
 An-Najah National University
Faculty of Engineering
Electrical Engineering Department

Bipolar Junction Transistors

Transistor Characteristics and Parameters

 Cutoff

As said before, when IB = 0, transistor is in cutoff region.

There is a small collector leakage current, ICEO.
Normally it is neglected so that VCE = VCC.
In cutoff, both the base-emitter and the base-collector junctions are reverse-biased.
 An-Najah National University
Faculty of Engineering
Electrical Engineering Department

Bipolar Junction Transistors

Transistor Characteristics and Parameters

 Saturation

When BE junction becomes forward biased and the base current is increased, IC also increase (IC – βDCIB)
and VCE decreases as a result of more drop across the collector resistor (VCE = VCC – ICRC).

When VCE reaches its saturation value, VCE(sat), the BC junction becomes forward-biased and IC can increase
no further even with a continued increase in IB.

At the point of saturation, IC = βDCIB is no longer valid.

VCE(sat) for a transistor occurs somewhere below the knee of the collector curves.
It is usually only a few tenths of a volt for silicon transistors.
 An-Najah National University
Faculty of Engineering
Electrical Engineering Department

Bipolar Junction Transistors

Transistor Characteristics and Parameters

 DC load line
Cutoff and saturation can be illustrated by the use of a load line.
Bottom of load line is at ideal cutoff (IC = 0 and VCE = VCC).
Top of load line is at saturation (IC = IC(sat) and VCE = VCE(sat))
In between cutoff and saturation along the load line is the
active region.
 An-Najah National University
Faculty of Engineering
Electrical Engineering Department

Bipolar Junction Transistors

Transistor Characteristics and Parameters
 An-Najah National University
Faculty of Engineering
Electrical Engineering Department

Bipolar Junction Transistors

Transistor Characteristics and Parameters

More on βDC
The βDC is not truly constant.
It varies with collector current and with temperature.
Keeping the junction temperature constant and increasing IC causes βDC to increase to a maximum.
Further increase in IC beyond this point causes βDC to decrease.
If IC is held constant and temperature varies, βDC changes directly with temperature.
Transistor data specify βDC at specific values. Normally the βDC specified is the maximum value.
 An-Najah National University
Faculty of Engineering
Electrical Engineering Department

Bipolar Junction Transistors

Transistor Characteristics and Parameters

Maximum transistor ratings

Maximum ratings are given for collector-to-base voltage, collector-to-emitter voltage, emitter-to-base
voltage, collector current, and power dissipation.
The product VCEIC must not exceed PD(max).
 An-Najah National University
Faculty of Engineering
Electrical Engineering Department

Bipolar Junction Transistors

Transistor Characteristics and Parameters
Example:
 An-Najah National University
Faculty of Engineering
Electrical Engineering Department

Bipolar Junction Transistors

Transistor Characteristics and Parameters
Example:

First, find IB, so that you can determine IC.

IB = (VBB – VBE)/RB = (5 V – 0.7 V)/22 k = 195 uA
IC = βDC IB = (100)(195 mA) = 19.5 mA
IC is much less than IC(max) and will not change with VCC. It is determined only by IB and βDC.
The voltage drop across RC is
VR(C) =ICRC = (19.5 mA)(1 k) = 19.5 V
Now we can determine the value of VCC when VCE = VCE(max) = 15 V.
VR(C) = VCC – VCE
VCC(max) = VCE(max) + VR(C) = 15 V + 19.5V = 34.5 V
VCC can be increased to 34.5 V, under the existing conditions, before VCE(max) is exceeded. However, at this
point it is not known whether or not PD(max) has been exceeded:
PD = VCE(max)IC = (15 V)(19.5 mA) = 293 mW
Since PD(max) is 800 mW, it is not exceeded when VCC = 34.5 V. So, VCE(max) = 15 V is the limiting rating in this
case. If the base current is removed, causing the transistor to turn off, VCE(max) will be exceeded first because
the entire supply voltage, VCC, will be dropped across the transistor.
 An-Najah National University
Faculty of Engineering
Electrical Engineering Department

Bipolar Junction Transistors

The Transistor as an Amplifier – An introduction

Amplification is the process of linearly increasing the amplitude of an electrical signal.

A transistor can act as an amplifier directly using the current gain factor , βDC
Keep in mind that when a transistor is biased in the active (linear) region, the BE junction has a low
resistance due to forward bias and the BC junction has a high resistance due to reverse bias.
 An-Najah National University
Faculty of Engineering
Electrical Engineering Department

Bipolar Junction Transistors

The Transistor as an Amplifier – An introduction

DC and AC quantities

Amplifier circuits have both ac and dc quantities.

Capital letters are used for dc currents.
Subscript will be capital for dc quantities.
Subscript will be lowercase for ac quantities.
 An-Najah National University
Faculty of Engineering
Electrical Engineering Department

Bipolar Junction Transistors

The Transistor as an Amplifier – An introduction
Transistor amplification
A transistor amplifies current because the collector current is equal to the base current multiplied by the
current gain, βDC .
Base current (IB) is small compared to IC and IE.
Thus, IC is almost equal to IE.
Consider the following circuit.
 An-Najah National University
Faculty of Engineering
Electrical Engineering Department

Bipolar Junction Transistors

The Transistor as an Amplifier – An introduction
Transistor amplification
The forward biased base-emitter junction present low resistance to the ac wave.
This internal ac emitter resistance is designated r’e.
Ie ≈ Ic = Vb/ r’e

The ac collector voltage, Vc = IcRC.

Since Ie ≈ Ic, the ac collector voltage is Vc ≈ IeRC.
Vb can be considered the transistor ac input voltage where Vb = Vin – IbRB.
Vc can be considered the transistor ac output voltage.
The ratio of Vc to Vb is the ac voltage gain, Av, of the transistor circuit.
Av = Vc/Vb
Substituting IeRC for Vc and Ie r’e for Vb yields
Av = Vc/Vb ≈ (IeRC)/(Ie r’e) = RC/ r’e
Thus, amplification depends on the ratio of RC and r’e.
RC is always considerably larger in value than r’e, thus the output voltage is larger than the input voltage.
 An-Najah National University
Faculty of Engineering
Electrical Engineering Department

Bipolar Junction Transistors

The Transistor as an Amplifier – An introduction
Transistor amplification
 An-Najah National University
Faculty of Engineering
Electrical Engineering Department

Bipolar Junction Transistors

The Transistor as an Amplifier – An introduction

The Transistor as a Switch

One major application of a transistor is as an amplifier.

The other major application is switching applications.
In this case, it is operated alternately in cutoff and saturation.
Analyze the following Fig .
 An-Najah National University
Faculty of Engineering
Electrical Engineering Department

Bipolar Junction Transistors

The Transistor as an Amplifier – An introduction

The Transistor as a Switch

In (a), the device is in the cutoff region because the base-emitter junction is not forward biased.
In this condition there is, ideally, an open between collector and emitter.
In (b), the transistor is in the saturation region because the base-emitter junction and the base-
collector junction are forward-biased and the base current is made large enough to reach its
saturation point.
In this condition there is, ideally, a short between collector and emitter.
Actually, a drop of up to a few tenths of a volt normally occurs.
 An-Najah National University
Faculty of Engineering
Electrical Engineering Department

Bipolar Junction Transistors

The Transistor as an Amplifier – An introduction

The Transistor as a Switch

Conditions in cutoff
A transistor is in cutoff region when the BE junction is NOT forward biased.
Neglecting leakage current, all currents are zero and VCE = VCC.
Conditions in saturation
When the BE junction is forward biased and there is enough base current to produce a
maximum collector current, transistor is saturated.
IC(sat) = (VCC – VCE(max))/RC
Minimum value of base current needed to produce saturation is
IB(min) = IC(sat)/ βDC
 An-Najah National University
Faculty of Engineering
Electrical Engineering Department

Bipolar Junction Transistors

The Transistor as an Amplifier – An introduction

The Transistor as a Switch

 An-Najah National University
Faculty of Engineering
Electrical Engineering Department

Bipolar Junction Transistors

The Transistor as an Amplifier – An introduction

The Transistor as a Switch

 An-Najah National University
Faculty of Engineering
Electrical Engineering Department

Bipolar Junction Transistors

The Transistor as an Amplifier – An introduction

The Transistor configurations

1. Common Base Configuration - has Voltage Gain but no Current Gain.

2. Common Emitter Configuration - has both Current and Voltage Gain.

3. Common Collector Configuration - has Current Gain but no Voltage Gain.

 An-Najah National University
Faculty of Engineering
Electrical Engineering Department

Bipolar Junction Transistors

The Transistor as an Amplifier – An introduction

The Transistor configurations

1. Common Base Configuration - has Voltage Gain but no Current Gain.
very good high frequency response.
Vin and Vout are in-phase
 An-Najah National University
Faculty of Engineering
Electrical Engineering Department

Bipolar Junction Transistors

The Transistor as an Amplifier – An introduction

The Transistor configurations

2. Common Emitter Configuration - has both Current and Voltage Gain.

Vin and Vout are out of phase

 An-Najah National University
Faculty of Engineering
Electrical Engineering Department

Bipolar Junction Transistors

The Transistor as an Amplifier – An introduction

The Transistor configurations

2. Common Collector Configuration - has Current Gain but no Voltage Gain.
Used in impedance matching application , high impedance input and low impedance output
 An-Najah National University
Faculty of Engineering
Electrical Engineering Department

Bipolar Junction Transistors

The Transistor as an Amplifier – An introduction
The Transistor as a Switch
 An-Najah National University
Faculty of Engineering
Electrical Engineering Department

Bipolar Junction Transistors

The Transistor as an Amplifier – An introduction
The Transistor as a Switch
 An-Najah National University
Faculty of Engineering
Electrical Engineering Department

Bipolar Junction Transistors

The Transistor as an Amplifier – An introduction
 An-Najah National University
Faculty of Engineering
Electrical Engineering Department

Bipolar Junction Transistors

The Transistor as an Amplifier – An introduction
 An-Najah National University
Faculty of Engineering
Electrical Engineering Department

Bipolar Junction Transistors

The Transistor as an Amplifier – An introduction
The Transistor as a Switch