Article

Journal of Macromarketing
2015, Vol. 35(1) 53-69
Sustainable Markets: Motivating ª The Author(s) 2014
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Factors, Barriers, and Remedies DOI: 10.1177/0276146714535932
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for Mobilization of Slow Fashion

Zeynep Ozdamar Ertekin1 and Deniz Atik1

Abstract
Examining the critiques of the current fashion system and alternative approaches to fast fashion reveal a growing awareness of the
negative implications of mindless fashion production and consumption. The purpose of this study is to understand how the fashion
system driven by speed, change, product obsolescence, and aesthetic fads, can be challenged and repositioned to encourage
greater sustainability. Slow fashion has been selected as a context to examine the emergence of an alternative system, as it devel-
ops a holistic understanding of what constitutes sustainable fashion. However, it is still unclear whether the slow fashion move-
ment can eventually challenge the global dominance of fast fashion, as many trade-offs and conflicts are involved. We aim to
contribute to previous scholarly work by shedding light on the motivating factors that encourage different actors to participate
in the slow fashion movement and on the barriers that keep the network from mobilizing. We also offer possible remedies that we
hope will be beneficial for scholars and practitioners working to build a more sustainable fashion system.

Keywords
sustainability, slow fashion, fast fashion, barriers, motivating factors, macromarketing

Introduction environment. Consequently, interest in ecological and sustain-

able living has increased (Elgin 1993). Similarly, a number of
Sustainable consumption and development aim to produce a
researchers argue that we need to promote less consumption
better Quality of Life (QOL) by considering costs and benefits
oriented lifestyles to improve quality of life (Prothero and
within and across generations and by minimizing environmen-
Fitchett 2000), and consider the benefits and costs of consump-
tal effects (Dolan et al. 2006; Kilbourne, McDonagh, and
tion, thus challenging the highly consumption-orientated domi-
Prothero 1997). This necessitates taking into account cost/ben-
nant social paradigm (Kilbourne, McDonagh, and Prothero
efit trade-offs among social, ecological, and generational con- 1997). However, people may face conflicts that can hinder
sumption consequences (Prothero et al. 2011) and trade-offs
sustainable consumption behavior. A paradigm shift would
among different accounts of well-being (Dolan et al. 2006).
require a transformation of the institutions and sacrifices from
The ‘‘dominant economic paradigm’’ centered on unlimited
both consumers and producers (Kilbourne, McDonagh, and
economic expansion equates human welfare to increasing
Prothero 1997).
material well-being (Kilbourne, McDonagh, and Prothero
The fashion industry, especially clothing production, is one
1997). Consequently, progress, the desire for the new, and
of the industries that have been associated with the exploitation
change have all been highly valued, especially in Western soci-
of both resources and people (Beard 2008; Fletcher 2008;
eties, as a mean of keeping the capitalist system alive (Fiske McRobbie 1997; Morgan and Birtwistle 2009; Wilson 1985).
1989). However, the excessive consumption patterns and
Over the last thirty years, awareness of the impact of fashion
trends of the 20th century resulted in pollution, waste, environ-
consumption and production on both people and the environ-
mental degradation, and deterioration of economic well-being
ment has grown (Beard 2008), along with calls to re-design
(Taylor and Tilford 2000). Thus, the pursuit of sustained eco-
nomic growth comes at the expense of the environment, indi-
vidual well-being, and QOL (Hobson 2004; Kilbourne,
1
McDonagh, and Prothero 1997). Izmir University of Economics, Izmir, Turkey
Environmental sensitivities have developed since the mid-
Corresponding Author:
1980s (Prothero, McDonagh, and Dobscha 2010). People Zeynep Ozdamar Ertekin, Izmir University of Economics, Department of
started to realize that we may have been using resources to the Business Administration, Sakarya Cad. No: 156, 35330 Balçova-Izmir, Turkey.
detriment of our families, communities, and the natural Email: [email protected]

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54 Journal of Macromarketing 35(1)

currently unsustainable fashion practices (Cataldi, Dickson, The change in the production and consumption of clothes
and Grover 2010; Clark 2008; Fletcher 2007). The purpose accelerated, especially in the second half of the 20th century,
of this study is to understand how the current fashion system, and a fall in the cost of clothing items made them more afford-
driven by speed, change, artificial newness, obsolescence, dis- able (Wilson [1985] 2003). Consequently, consumption of the
posable trends, and aesthetic fads, can be repositioned to textiles increased as a result of wider variety of goods at low
encourage greater sustainability. Slow fashion is selected for prices, higher disposable incomes, and fewer social restrictions
analysis as an emerging alternative fashion market since it (Scott 2005). Consumers in most of the world today, especially
encompasses the whole range of ‘‘sustainable,’’ ‘‘eco,’’ the younger ones, have little knowledge of home sewing, which
‘‘green,’’ and ‘‘ethical’’ fashion movements. We understand was still widespread in the 1960s. Thus, attitudes to clothing
slow fashion to mean not only slowing down the consumption have changed significantly. What was once regarded as a
and production processes, but also protecting the well-being of high-cost product, designed to last and be mended and altered
the workers, communities, and the environment (Cataldi, Dick- as necessary, has since become a disposable item, with
son, and Grover 2010; Clark 2008; Fletcher 2007). Moreover, little attention being paid to its quality and craftsmanship
slow fashion develops a holistic understanding of what consti- (Cline 2012).
tutes sustainable fashion by addressing social, economic, and The philosophical and historical conditions leading to the
environmental issues (Pears 2006). slow fashion movement are critical in understanding how an
Within this perspective, we examine the philosophical and alternative fashion system has emerged and how it can actually
historical conditions leading to the emergence of the slow fash- sustain itself. In this respect, the fashion system, fast fashion,
ion market. We then describe the slow fashion movement and the consequences of fast fashion are discussed in the next
through examples of practices and academic studies. From a section before exploring the slow fashion movement.
macromarketing perspective, we aim to contribute to previous
scholarly work on sustainable fashion by shedding light to The fashion system. As conceptualized by McCracken (1988),
the motivating factors that encourage different actors to partic- the fashion system can be defined as consisting of all people
ipate in the slow fashion movement and the barriers that keep and organizations involved in creating symbolic meanings and
the network from mobilizing. We also emphasize some reme- transferring these meanings to cultural goods. The organiza-
dies that can facilitate the mobilization of a more sustainable tional field of fashion includes various key actors: clothing
fashion system. Furthermore, most prior studies on sustainable marketers (designers, manufacturers, and retailers), media,
approaches to fashion have examined the consumer side and fashion associations, design and fashion schools, celebrities
have been more micro-oriented (e.g. Joy et al. 2012; Niinimäki as endorsers and lead users, fashion bloggers, and consumers
2010; Pears 2006). We utilize institutional theory to understand (Scaraboto and Fischer 2013).
how different actors of the fashion system contribute to this In its first capacity, along with advertising and consumption
market change. rituals, the fashion system is one of the modes responsible for the
creation and movement of cultural meaning (McCracken 1986).
Philosophical and Historical Conditions Leading to the ‘‘In order to get meaning into things, creative directors and
fashion/product designers discover structural equivalents and
Slow Fashion Movement draw them together in the compass of an advertisement to
Clothing, which was historically very expensive, symbolized demonstrate that the meaning that inheres in the advertise-
wealth in medieval society (Wilson [1985] 2003). Before ment also inheres in the product in question’’ (McCracken
industrialization, more than two-thirds of all clothing was made 1988, p. 120).
at home by women. As its manufacture was so labor-intensive, However, during the appropriation of cultural meanings,
clothing was scarce and simple. Items of clothing were worn consumers are continuously engaged in an interpretive dialo-
for many years and most people made no effort to keep up with gue, which constantly changes their localized knowledge and
fluctuations in style. Even ordinary items of clothing were value systems. This active reworking is further shaped by con-
passed between generations. Decorative items and accessories sumers’ desire to construct self-identities through fashion dis-
were not available to the majority of the people (Scott 2005). courses (Thompson and Haytko 1997).
At the end of 18th century, two critical events changed the In another capacity, the fashion system is responsible for
production and consumption of clothing items. Democracy inventing new cultural meanings in both modest and radical
removed social hierarchy and class distinctions governing con- ways. In a modest way, some opinion leaders may be individ-
sumption, so people were free to dress as they pleased (Scott uals of high standing, such as the social elite or celebrities who
2005). The opening of the first factories in the 1810s and mass are looked up to for their status, beauty or talent, who shape or
production put clothing items and accessories, formerly avail- refine existing cultural meaning, encouraging the reform of
able only to the aristocracy, within general reach (Scott 2005). cultural categories (McCracken 1988). In a more radical way,
By the 1940s, the production of attractive cheap clothing was the fashion system can promote the reform of cultural mean-
increasing due to the development of modern factory methods. ings, as in the case of hippies, punks, gays, or paradoxically
As a result, mass-produced, ready-to-wear clothing started to anti-fashion movements that eventually become fashionable
become widely available (Wilson [1985] 2003). themselves (McCracken 1988). Fashion can be described as

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Ozdamar Ertekin and Atik 55

‘‘a cultural production that both limits and enriches symbolic rapid and continual changing of styles. Fashion, in a sense is
communication, constitute a site of freedom or restriction, sub- change’’ ([1985] 2003, p. 3). This demand for speed in fashion
mission or rebellion, eroticism or domination’’ (Faurschou is the most important characteristic of today’s textile and cloth-
1987, p. 69). ing industry. The phrase ‘‘fast fashion’’ refers to low-cost
Scholars have long recognized fashion as a phenomenon clothing collections that imitate current luxury fashion trends
affecting many aspects of our lives. At the beginning of the (Joy et al. 2012, p. 273). It is commonly used to describe how
20th century, Simmel (1957) suggested that any given form designs are adapted very quickly from catwalk to stores and
of clothing, art, conduct, or opinion may become fashionable. into the mass-retailing market (Cline 2012). ‘‘Fast fashion,’’
However, historically and theoretically, fashion has referred pioneered by the Inditex Group and H&M, was made possible
particularly to clothing and personal adornment, which have by advanced technology, quick manufacturing, and supply
been recognized as effective tools for constructing one’s chain control (Barnes and Lea-Greenwood 2006). It has
desired appearance (Davis 1992). Thus, in this study the scope become popular among retailers who adopt the vertically inte-
of discussions is limited to fashion in clothing, defined as ‘‘the grated business model, following the ‘‘just-in-time’’ manufac-
process of social diffusion by which a new style (of fashion turing philosophy and ‘‘quick response’’ strategies
clothing) is adopted by some group(s) of consumers (Solomon (Birtwistle, Siddiqui, and Fiorito 2003).
2002, p. 503).’’ Previously, apparel industry and designers worked accord-
According to earlier theories, fashion was mainly a practice ing to a seasonal pace, with a standard turnaround time from
of the leisure class, who set the standards for conspicuous con- catwalk to consumer of around six months. The rate of the cur-
sumption (Veblen [1899] 1994). New consumer trends in fash- rent fashion production cycle has fallen to three to eight weeks,
ion, which were set by the big couture houses, first appeared at and in-store collections change every two or three weeks,
the top, then trickled down the hierarchy from the upper to the which can mean offering around 20 different collections per
lower social classes to the lower ones (Simmel 1957). The year (LeBlanc 2012; Tokatli 2008). Retailers like H&M and
trickle-down theory of fashion began to be criticized when Forever 21, for example, receive daily shipments of new styles
other means of fashion diffusion were observed, such as trickle and Zara has new lines twice a week (Cline 2012). To encour-
across, and trickle-up. age customers to return frequently, retailers purchase on a
King (1963), with his horizontal flow concept, delivered a weekly basis, in order to be able to replenish stock with new
different perspective to the trickle-down diffusion of fashion, trends and items (Tokatli and Kizilgun 2009). The increasing
arguing that in mass production and mass communication supply and demand for fast fashion has created a vicious cycle
environments, fashions tend to spread simultaneously within necessitating designers, retailers, and manufacturers to react
each social class over time. Mass production makes new fash- faster – from the introduction of a new fashion to its substitu-
ions available at all price levels, while mass communication tion by a successive fashion.
rapidly disseminates information and influences new fashion Speed of availability of updated looks, greater variety, and
offerings. On the other hand, trickle-up diffusion, rather than limited editions make the industry attractive to many consu-
being caused by the upper social classes imitating the young mers. Offering the latest fashion trends at reasonable prices
or different subcultures directly, occurs through a complex makes fashion accessible for almost all social classes. The high
institutional process involving other actors in the fashion insti- speed in fashion may not in itself be unethical and/or environ-
tution (Atik and Fırat 2013). Fashion therefore no longer serves mentally damaging. However, fast fashion is not motivated
only to articulate class distinctions; it has become a prominent only by speed of production, but also by the greed of both buy-
part of the modern marketing institution for expanding markets ers and sellers (Fletcher 2010). While being affordable and
(Atik and Fırat 2013). Consequently, it has become a tool to trend-sensitive for consumers, and profitable especially for
increase sales and deliver economic growth (Fletcher 2010). large retailers, the current fashion system raises fundamental
Currently, the fashion industry is characterized by relation- ethical issues (Joy et al. 2012).
ships among several subfields with varying power dependencies
(Bourdieu 1993). Subfields concerned with the ‘‘small-scale pro-
Consequences of fast fashion. Permanent and ubiquitous fashion
duction’’ of artistic products, such as haute couture, are domi-
consumption has negative economic, societal, and environmen-
nated by the ‘‘logic of art,’’ which is mostly concerned with
tal consequences (Biehl-Missal 2013). The fashion industry,
creating innovative and influential trends. Whereas, in subfields
especially clothing production and consumption, has been crit-
focusing on mass production of ‘‘commercial’’ cultural goods,
icized for the exploiting both consumers and workers, dama-
‘‘logic of commerce’’ and economic considerations are more
ging the ecosystem and the environment, contributing to
important. These subfields and their related dominant logics
depletion of natural resources, and increasing textile waste
intersect, for instance when haute couture designers develop
(McRobbie 1997; Morgan and Birtwistle 2009; Wilson 1985).
ready-to-wear lines (Scaraboto and Fischer 2013).
Consequences for consumer welfare. Dardis (1974) and Fiske
Fast fashion. The current fashion system requires products to be (1989) were among the first scholars to discuss the impact of
renewed frequently, so that the market constantly grows. As fashion, especially of the apparel industry, on consumer wel-
Wilson states, ‘‘fashion is dress in which the key feature is fare for creating artificial newness and obsolescence. ‘‘The

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56 Journal of Macromarketing 35(1)

Figure 1. Clothing factory collapse in Bangladesh on April 24, 2013.

Source: http://www.cbc.ca/strombo/news/fast-fashion-cheap-clothes-the-bangladesh-buildingcollapse.html

ideology of progress’’ is responsible for initiating the desire for beauty images reinforced by fashion institutions. ‘‘Since the
the new, especially in Western societies that value change and media often constructs simulated identities, based around
progress (Fiske 1989, p. 327). Even if it is against consumers’ product and brand ensembles, which are portrayed as success-
own interest, they continue to desire the new. According to ful, healthy, secure, happy, youthful, and sexy, consumption
Fiske (1989), women with nonprogressive, nonachieving, or sometimes becomes a source of false promises’’ (Murray
routine jobs may engage with fashion in order to participate 2002, p. 436). This highlights an ethical concern about fashion
in the ideology of progress. Similarly, many youth subcultures as an institution working not necessarily for the well-being and
have a strong desire for up-to-date tastes, in areas such as dress self-esteem of consumers, but instead perpetuating the constant
and music, both to intensify pleasure, and to feel in control. The recreation of these insatiable desires for the system’s own eco-
basis of limitless exploitation is formed by the desire for nomic well-being (e.g. Bordo 1993; Wolf 1991).
attention-seeking through dress, and the social pressure to be
seen as up-to-date (Böhme 2003; Cline 2012). Consequences for worker welfare. On the production side, the
The notion of goods as bridges to displaced meaning has economic unsustainability of mass production has been noted
been thoroughly domesticated and exploited by advertising (Cline 2012). The fashion industry has also been criticized for
professionals to become one of the engines of consumption the exploitation of garment workers due to appalling working
in modern society (McCracken 1988). Idealized images used conditions in clothing production, particularly low wages and
in the media produce a depiction of life that is colorful and child labor (McRobbie 1997; Wilson 1985). While large com-
exciting, thus perpetuating the desire for change. The unsus- panies generate higher profits, workers only earn minimum
tainable conditions of production and their social and ecologi- wages (Cline 2012). Moreover, due to short lead times, suppli-
cal consequences are often over shadowed by advertising and ers struggle to plan orders and predict the number of workers
‘‘must have’’ styles in fashion (Cline 2012) that create the needed in longer term. This creates the need for either tempo-
desire to buy new clothes (Niinimäki 2010). Fast fashion retai- rary or subcontracted workers or excessive overtime to meet
lers in particular exploit these consumer segments and fulfill unpredictable orders with unreasonable deadlines (Cataldi,
their desires by constantly providing new offerings, by rapid Dickson, and Grover 2010; Fletcher 2007).
change, and by enabling immediate gratification of continually Sweatshop conditions are a result of globalization and
evolving temporary identities (Joy et al. 2012). import competition. Anonymous chains of producers now serve
Through the types of models it hires and its thin-oriented the industry and ensure that the orders from well-known
clothing design, the fashion industry has caused some social designers will be met on time and at the required cost. Workers
problems, such as reduced self-esteem, eating disorders, body lack unions and basic human rights are sometimes violated in
image distortions, and increased tendency for cosmetic surgery garment production (McRobbie 1997). The numerous sweat-
(Bordo 1993; Wolf 1991). Thus, fashion and advertising ima- shop scandals since 1990s, such as the clothing factory collapse
gery have been strongly criticized for inducing and perpetuat- in Bangladesh on April 24, 2013, are a sign of appalling and
ing problematic beauty myths. Most women do not fit the ideal unsafe working conditions (see Figure 1). Therefore, it is

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Ozdamar Ertekin and Atik 57

2012). As the clothes we make, buy, wear, and discard are

resource intensive, each stage of the garment’s life has consid-
erable environmental impacts (Goodwin 2012). Therefore,
fast-fashion clothing production leads to the deterioration
of natural resources and the environment (McRobbie 1997;
Wilson 1985).
The carbon footprint of a garment consists of the total carbon
dioxide and other greenhouse gases emitted in its lifecycle (The
Carbon Trust 2008). Carbon and energy footprint analysis and life
cycle assessment are important in order to assess the environmen-
tal effects of the entire value chain in the fashion industry, from
raw material supply to production, distribution, consumer use and
disposal (Fletcher and Grose 2012). For instance, the carbon foot-
print of the lifecycle of a large unisex cotton t-shirt is 6.5 kilos
(The Carbon Trust 2008). This value can be reduced by switching
to organic farming methods and by using green renewable energy.
Figure 2. Textile waste in landfills. However, due to the volatile and unpredictable nature of the busi-
Source: http://www.ecouterre.com/europe-only-recycles-25-percent-of-textile- ness, accurate carbon calculation for fast fashion items is a chal-
waste-saysnew-report/ lenge (Fletcher and Grose 2012).

important to consider the negative consequences of the rag Slow Fashion Movement
trade and the global sweatshop in the apparel and fashion
industries (Schor 1999). The drawbacks of fast fashion system and growing awareness
of the impact of fashion consumption on people and the envi-
Consequences for the environment and waste. Fashion has been ronment, has prepared the way for the emergence of the slow
implicated for creating waste in both production and consump- fashion movement. The ‘‘Slow Design Manifesto’’ presented
tion (Dardis 1974; Fletcher 2008; Morgan and Birtwistle 2009; at the ‘‘Slow Design’’ symposium in Milan in 2006, describes
Pears 2006). Mass-market fashion retailers today create and the slow approach as offering the time to produce, appreciate,
change trends ever more quickly (Cline 2012). The develop- and cultivate quality. ‘‘Slow fashion,’’ a term first coined by
ment of flexible production technologies enable production Kate Fletcher from Centre for Sustainable Fashion (UK) in
of customized products, providing customers with more 2007, borrows from the Slow Food Movement, initiated in
choices, which makes it more difficult to escape the commodi- 1986 by Carlo Petrini in Italy (Fletcher 2007). This movement
fication in the contemporary marketplace (Schor and Holt has been promoting regional produce and organically grown
2000). Increasingly rapid turnarounds and releases encourage food, defending agricultural biodiversity (Hadden 2012). Simi-
constant shopping and trend chasing (Cline 2012). Producers larly, the sustainable vision of fashion links pleasure and fash-
offering latest fashion trends at reasonable prices encourage ion with awareness and responsibility (Fletcher 2007).
disposability, which leads to rapid product turnover and high Initially, Slow Clothing was intended to be an alternative to
waste outputs (Fletcher 2008). As a result of the rapid and con- mass produced clothing, but its meaning has been broadened.
tinual changing of styles, clothes quickly lose their appeal, ‘‘Slow’’ in slow fashion does not only refer to time, as in the
become out-of-fashion, and are then disposed (see Figure 2). case of ‘‘fast’’ in fast fashion, but represents a different
Fast fashion emphasizes fashionable appearance at the approach in which designers, buyers, retailers, and consumers
expense of quality (Cline 2012). Traditionally, items of cloth- are more aware of the impacts of products on workers, commu-
ing were higher-priced and made to last longer and be mended nities, and ecosystems (Fletcher 2007). Similarly, Clark (2008)
and altered. They were therefore chosen carefully. Competition also presents slow approach as something more than a literal
based on low prices has led to production of lower quality opposite of fast fashion. Apart from being concerned with gar-
clothes. The current cheap fashion clothing does not survive ment industry’s impact on the environment and resources, slow
many washes and is seen as disposable. Consumers no longer fashion aims to reduce the number of trends and seasons and
have a personal and long-lasting interaction with their clothes encourages quality production in order to increase the value
(Cline 2012), and have little regard for the craftsmanship of the of garments, all in contrast to disposable fashion (Cataldi,
product. These consumers in a way have become ‘‘workers for Dickson, and Grover 2010). For the purpose of this study, we
the global capitalist system’’ (Biehl-Missal 2013, p. 10). If also look beyond the time definition of slow to include not only
fashion apparel is discarded before being worn out, it repre- more conscious consumption and production processes, but
sents economic loss and an unnecessary waste of resources also the protection and well-being of workers, communities,
unless a secondhand market exists (Dardis 1974). and the environment.
Producing massive amounts of low-quality clothing with Slow fashion emphasizes balance. As there is no time pres-
artificial fibers also puts strain on natural resources (Cline sure, it allows suppliers to plan orders and predict the number

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58 Journal of Macromarketing 35(1)

of workers needed in the long term, giving companies time to fashion model, ‘‘Slow Fashion Principles’’ need to guide the
build mutually beneficial relationships. There should be no entire supply chain, including designers, manufactures, and
need for temporary or subcontracted workers or excessive retailers.
overtime to meet unpredictable orders with impossible dead-
lines. Consumers will buy fewer but higher-value products. Slow fashion practices. Even though slow approaches in fashion,
Moreover, slow design enables a richer interaction and stronger sustainable textile developments, and sustainable design theory
bonds between designers, producers, garments, and users. are still relatively rare, the number of slow fashion companies
It includes the consumer in the supply chain as co-producer and designers are increasing (Pears 2006). Numerous sweat-
(Cataldi, Dickson, and Grover 2010; Fletcher 2007). shop scandals in the late 1990s pressured fashion brands and
retailers to implement factory compliance monitoring pro-
How does slow fashion work?. Three pillars of slow approach grams (LeBlanc 2012). Sustainable fashion and the concepts
were introduced in the ‘‘Slow Design’’ symposium in Milan of recycling and environmentally friendly fabrics also began
(2006). In 2008, Clark used the same three groupings to to grow in the early nineties, attracting the attention of media
develop a conceptual framework: taking a local approach, hav- to this topic.
ing transparent production systems, and making sustainable Vogue (2009) provides an overview of the turning points of
and sensorial products. eco fashion. In March 1990, the New York Times and Vogue
The first approach emphasizes local design and production, published articles about the environmental trend in the fashion
which requires the utilization and valuing of local materials, world. In the summer of 1990, British fashion designer Kathar-
resources, and skills, potentially providing an alternative to ine Hamnett, who has been often recognized as one of the first
standardization and centralization, and encouraging diversity, designers to combine environmental activism with fashion,
as opposed to using homogeneous materials and resources all gave a speech about the environmental impacts of fashion at the
around the world (Slow þ Design 2006, p. 4). Thus, slow fash- United Nations. In 1995, Giorgio Armani began to use hemp in
ion aims to maintain ecological, social, and cultural diversity his Emporio Armani collection. In 2001, Natalie Chanin
and encourages diverse and innovative business models, such launched Project Alabama, a collection of 200 locally produced
as independent designers, second-hand, vintage, recycling, hand-sewn T-shirts that was well received at New York Fash-
fashion leasing, local knitting clubs, clothing swaps, and tra- ion Week. The same year, Stella McCartney launched her own
ditional methods of garment and textile making (Cataldi, line, applying animal-friendly (no leather, no fur) policies.
Dickson, and Grover 2010). The first Ethical Fashion Show was held in Paris in 2004.
The second main approach is to create transparent produc- That year a slow fashion show was also staged in London
tion systems with less intermediation between producers and (Clark 2008). In April 2006, Vanity Fair had its first environ-
consumers (Clark 2008). Transparency refers to the blending mentally focused issue, where eco-fashion was featured as the
of the line between consumption and production, as seen in latest celebrity chic. Consequently, fashion designers, such as
smaller scale enterprises and local practices, such as using of Giorgio Armani, Stella McCartney, and Betsey Johnson started
hand skills, revival of knitting, and other craft processes. More creating stylish garments made with sustainable materials for
transparent production systems and less intermediation also the runways, boutiques, mass markets, and especially for celeb-
enhance collaboration between designer, producer, and user, rities (Winge 2008). In London, in 2007, all 20,000 cream-and-
and redefine their roles. A transparent approach helps to build brown shopping bags with the slogan ‘‘I’m Not a Plastic Bag,’’
relationships and acknowledges human needs through co- designed by Anya Hindmarch sold out within an hour. Sustain-
creation (Cataldi, Dickson, and Grover 2010). able fabrics were widely seen in New York Fashion Week held
The third approach to slow fashion is the production of sus- in 2010. The same year, the first official sustainable-fashion
tainable and sensorial products, where the aim is to create gar- show was staged at London Fashion Week (Vogue 2009). The
ments that generate significant experiences, have a longer Slow Fashion Award 2012 that took place in January in Berlin
usable life, and are more highly valued than typical consum- drew attention to the latest and sustainable textile develop-
ables (Clark 2008). The product is seen as an investment ments (see Figure 3).
and remains ‘‘in fashion’’ beyond the fashion season. Thus, In practice, sustainable design in fashion initially focused
maintaining quality and beauty become important (Cataldi, on selection of materials. Lately, companies have been taking
Dickson, and Grover 2010). Rather than being purely based into account not only how fashion is produced, but also how it
on visuality or image ‘‘slow products’’ also include sensorial is consumed (LeBlanc 2012). For instance, Clark (2008) gives
aspects and emotional factors that underlie the choices of what examples of companies that try to slow down obsolescence
people wear (Clark 2008). in fashion. The design company, Slow and Steady Wins
Cataldi, Dickson, and Grover (2010) also address the impor- the Race, and designers such as Chanin (Project Alabama)
tance of principles, such as encouraging a systems thinking create garments that are intended to last, to be cherished, and
approach, slowing consumption to allow earth’s natural regen- to have cultural memories. Another company, Junky Styling
eration, ensuring the fair treatment of workers, and being con- in London, deconstructs, reworks, and transforms worn cloth-
scious of the needs of others and the environment. They argue ing, allowing the customer to play an active part in the process
that, in order for slow fashion to emerge as a sustainable as a co-producer. Ethical retailers such as TRAID (Textile

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Ozdamar Ertekin and Atik 59

Figure 3. Slow fashion catwalk 2012.

Source: http://blog.lenzing.com/2012/01/slow-fashion-award-berlin-january/

Big retailers have also been taking steps towards a sustain-

able approach to fashion (WRAP 2012). Leading British retai-
ler M&S launched a ‘‘shwopping’’ initiative, enabling
customers to donate still wearable, but unwanted items of
clothing in store. The company runs a successful partnership
with the charity Oxfam, encouraging people to donate
unwanted M&S clothes to their nearest Oxfam shop, in return
for a £5 M&S voucher (WRAP 2012) (see Figure 4). M&S also
launched the ‘‘world’s most sustainable suit’’ in September
2012, which was designed to be both stylish and sustainable.
The suit, which is recognized as ‘‘one of the greenest garments
ever made,’’ is comprised of organic wool, a lining made of
recycled plastic bottles and canvas, with labels made of
recycled polyester, and reclaimed buttons, and reclaimed fabric
for the pockets and waistband (LeBlanc 2012).
As well as the individual companies and designers, institu-
tions and coalitions also support the movement. The London
College of Fashion (LCF) launched its Centre for Sustainable
Fashion in 2007. The Centre conducted an online survey in
2007 to assess fashion companies’ understanding of sustain-
ability issues and how these factors differ across the various
Figure 4. In-store ‘‘Shwop Drop’’ clothes recycling boxes. fashion sectors including retail, design, wholesale, or manufac-
Source: https://www.2degreesnetwork.com/groups/2degrees-community/ ture. The resulting ‘‘Fashion and Sustainability Analysis’’
resources/engageyour-staff-by-shwopping-workplace/ report, issued in 2008, highlights opportunities and industry’s
need for a networked and focused approach to a sustainable
Recycling for Aid and International Development) sell activity in the fashion industry.
recycled garments that have been redesigned and recon- Furthermore, WRAP (Waste & Resources Action Pro-
structed. Some of these companies take part in Fashion gramme) was established in UK in 2000 as an independent
Weeks and have celebrity clients such as Gwen Stefani and not-for-profit company to help reduce waste, minimize
Kate Moss who enhance the fashionability of the sustainable resource use and increase recycling. In July 2012, the organiza-
garments (Clark 2008). tion launched a report, entitled ‘‘Valuing our Clothes,’’ which

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60 Journal of Macromarketing 35(1)

provided an overview of the financial and environmental and other alternative approaches have gained importance. For
impacts of clothing, from raw material, through manufacturing, instance, Pears (2006) in her thesis explored wasteful fashion
to purchase, use and disposal, and encouraged a reevaluation of consumption in Australia. In 2008, Winge questioned whether
the way we view and value our clothes. Liz Goodwin, the CEO ‘‘green’’ or ‘‘eco-fashion’’ is only a trend, or whether the fash-
of WRAP, pointed out that at each stage of a garment’s life, ion industry is actually adopting an environmental approach by
there are considerable environmental impacts and, therefore, examining the deeper meanings and implications attached to
potential to identify and implement changes to reduce them the fashionable eco-conscious dress worn by celebrities. To
(Goodwin 2012). She argues that it is possible for consumers understand eco-fashion consumption, Niinimäki (2010)
to realize both financial and environmental savings by increas- addressed the attitude–behavior gap in ethical clothing con-
ing the life of clothes they buy and wear, through alteration, sumption, while Cataldi, Dickson and Grover, in their master’s
repair, multiple re-use, and recycling. At the same time, busi- thesis (2010), assessed the slow fashion movement using dif-
nesses have significant opportunities to develop new offerings ferent approaches: systems thinking, the 5 level Framework for
and to grow. Strategic Sustainable Development (System, Success, Strategic
Futerra Sustainability Communications Agency in the UK Guidelines, Actions, Tools), and the Sustainability Principles.
began ‘‘swishing events’’ in 2000, when Lucy Shea, founder They also examined potential barriers and gaps preventing the
of the green PR firm, and her colleagues were exploring ways success of each Leverage Point.
to accommodate a passion for retail shopping without contri- Furthermore, Beard (2008) examined the factors influencing
buting to increased consumption. In ‘‘swapping’’ or ‘‘swish- the rise of ethical fashion and investigated the lifestyle and
ing’’ parties, consumers come together to exchange items societal indicators that affect consumer behavior in relation
they no longer wear (Prothero, McDonagh, and Dobscha to purchasing eco-fashion. Focusing on the stakeholders of the
2010, p. 152). In Turkey, the Country Office of Regional Envi- fashion industry, Brito, Carbone, and Blanquart (2008) dis-
ronmental Council (REC), an independent international organi- cussed how the sustainability movement is impacting the fash-
zation, started organizing swishing events as well. The first ion retail supply chain and the challenges and the conflicts that
event called ‘‘Alış-Değiş,’’ was organized in Ankara in June the stakeholders face.
2012 and the second was held in October 2012 in Istanbul.
The organizers’ purpose was to develop sustainable con-
sumption habits and increase environmental awareness among
A Macromarketing Perspective on the Future of
consumers. Furthermore, these events also promote collectivity
and sharing rather than individual ownership, which is impor-
Fashion and Sustainability
tant in decreasing the demand for consumer goods and helps to It is evident from the practices and studies discussed above
resolve the problems caused by the dominant social paradigm that, over the last thirty years, there has been a growing aware-
(Prothero et al. 2011). From the consumers’ point of view, par- ness of the impact of fashion consumption on both people and
ticipation in these events may be for environmental or financial the environment (Beard 2008). Movements both on the pro-
reasons, or simply to enjoy acquiring new items without spend- ducer and consumer side highlight the growing interest in a
ing money, and avoiding the stress of busy shopping malls more sustainable fashion system. However, despite the interest
(Prothero, McDonagh, and Dobscha 2010). in slow approaches to fashion, the academic studies, and the
Major brands and nonprofit organizations collaborated to actions taken by the individual companies, designers, retailers,
form the Sustainable Apparel Coalition in 2011. The Coalition, institutions, and coalitions that support the movement, consid-
consisting of retailers (e.g. Target), direct apparel manufactur- erable barriers to its mobilization remain. The following sec-
ers (e.g. Nike and Levi’s), NGOs, and government agencies, tions will analyze both the barriers to mobilization of slow
launched a sustainability tool called the Higg Index in July fashion and the motivating factors and remedies with the poten-
2012 (Westervelt 2012). The index, which covers three main tial to overcome them.
areas (brand, product, and facility), aims to enable the apparel
industry to assess the sustainability of a product throughout the Barriers to mobilization of a sustainable fashion system. Mobiliza-
supply chain; reduce redundancy in measuring sustainability in tion of a sustainable fashion system is both complex and diffi-
the apparel industry; drive business value through reducing risk cult. Fashion consumption and sustainability are often
and uncovering efficiency; and create a common means to considered to be opposing concepts. On one hand, consumers
communicate sustainability to stakeholders (Sustainable Appa- may not be interested in the issue of sustainability when pur-
rel Coalition, 2013). Ultimate aim of the coalition is to develop chasing clothing (Solomon and Rabolt 2004). On the other
the index into a tool that can be integrated into design and man- hand, there are many challenges and conflicts that the produc-
ufacturing processes, to help assess the potential impacts of ers face in the fashion retail supply chain (Brito, Carbone, and
various decisions, and enable companies to design more sus- Blanquart 2008).
tainable products (Westervelt 2012). Many barriers work against sustainability. Some are more
macro-oriented, such as globalization and the desire for eco-
Some examples of increasing empirical research on fashion and nomic growth, whereas others are more micro-oriented and
sustainability. In recent years, academic studies on slow fashion personal, such as the attitude-behavior gap, and concerns about

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Ozdamar Ertekin and Atik 61

aesthetics. These barriers often hinder development of a sus- Devinney 2010). Consequently, the desire for comfort, conve-
tainable fashion system. nience, and practicality become important barriers to sustain-
able behaviors (Dolan et al. 2006; Kollmuss and Agyeman
Globalization and lack of transparency. Rapid globalization of 2002; Oberthur 2009).
the world economy has led to the establishment of the current Economic factors often have a role in consumers’ prefer-
system of cheap commodities based on exploiting labor and ence for low-cost, affordable fashion. Lack of money is an
natural resources (Schor and Holt 2000), which is the case in important constraint likely to prevent or limit pro-sustainable
fashion industry. As a result of the advancements in global and pro-environmental behaviors (Blake 1999; Thøgersen
logistics, manufacturers use resources and labor from different 2005; Young et al. 2010). Sustainable products are often per-
countries. Resources, capital, and manufactured goods are ceived as more expensive, which is a deterrent to their exten-
transported all over the planet. Similarly, the globalized fashion sive use (Bonini and Oppenheim 2008; Niinimäki 2010;
industry supply chain has become highly fragmented, complex, Oberthur 2009; Thøgersen 2005; Vermeir and Verbeke 2006;
and less transparent (Mihm 2010). It is difficult to ensure that Walker and Brammer 2009; Williams and Dair 2007; Young
ethical standards are applied to the whole system, including the et al. 2010). Therefore, cost is often a very critical consider-
supply of components, the labor used in manufacturing the gar- ation, especially when the desire to get most value for money
ment, transportation from the factory to the retail outlet, after- overrides ethical beliefs, and when one is too poor to worry
care, and disposal (Beard 2008). about ethical issues (Eckhardt, Belk, and Devinney 2010).
Furthermore, globalization processes distance the individual Consumers are inclined to choose cheap or affordable fash-
from the social and environmental consequences of the goods ion over local designers or vintage stores, which are often more
consumed (Vermeir and Verbeke 2006). Most consumers are expensive than high street fast fashion retailers. Consequently,
unaware of the negative effects of fast fashion consumption, fast fashion retailers have become successful in offering the
and that the clothes they make, buy, wear, and discard are very latest fashions at affordable prices. Therefore, establishing
resource intensive. They do not see the carbon or water foot- a sustainable fashion system is counter to the consumers’ pre-
prints (Goodwin 2012). This detachment between production ferences for the cheapest products, regardless of their suppliers
and consumption, and disconnection from resource origins and and the production techniques (McRobbie 1997). Lack of
environmental consequences of consumption practices, often time is another issue because of increasingly busy lifestyles
act as barriers to sustainable consumption practices (Oberthur (Chambers et al. 2007; Tanner and Kast 2003; Young et al.
2009; Vermeir and Verbeke 2006). 2010). Therefore, time and effort needed to undertake
The desire for economic growth. From a different perspective, pro-sustainable behavior are considered as important costs
developmental rationalization justifies the unethical behaviors (Kollmuss and Agyeman 2002).
of corporations in terms of the need for macro level economic
development (Eckhardt, Belk, and Devinney 2010). The fash- Lack of knowledge and awareness. Lack of knowledge, skills,
ion industry and the fast fashion system provide job opportuni- awareness, and consideration in sustainability issues and prob-
ties and enhance economic growth and earnings. People fear lems often act as barriers (Bonini and Oppenheim 2008; Kollmuss
that sustainable development can lead to a slowdown in eco- and Agyeman 2002; Thøgersen 2005; Vermeir and Verbeke
nomic growth, which could result in loss of jobs and a rise in 2006; Williams and Dair 2007). Increased concern for the
unemployment (Dolan et al. 2006). Therefore, actors who work environment alone is often not sufficient; increased aware-
in fast fashion industry may prefer the system to continue, to ness of the relationship between technological, political, and
secure their jobs and living. This makes it difficult to imagine economic institutions and environmental deterioration is also
a radical change in lifestyles supporting unsustainable con- required (Kilbourne, McDonagh, and Prothero 1997). How-
sumption practices (Thøgersen 2005). ever, individual consumers rarely connect consumption prac-
tices and outcomes (Connolly and Prothero 2003; Hobson
Inconvenience and lack of resources. Many barriers to sustain- 2004). In this regard, education systems and related activities
able consumption stem from inadequate public policy regard- are critical in increasing awareness and knowledge (Prothero
ing the availability, quality, and affordability of public et al. 2011).
transportation and, particularly, of sustainable products Sustainable fashion designers, brands, and retailers are
(Prothero et al. 2011; Thøgersen 2005). The lack of necessary increasing in number, and labels such as ‘‘ethical,’’ ‘‘eco,’’ ‘‘fair
infrastructure, and availability, accessibility, and affordability trade,’’ ‘‘organic,’’ ‘‘natural,’’ ‘‘sweat-shop free,’’ ‘‘recycled,’’
of sustainable product alternatives often make it difficult and and even ‘‘second-hand’’ or ‘‘vintage,’’ have all been used to
inconvenient to adopt sustainable behaviors and lifestyles persuade customers that the fashion products they purchase are
(Hobson 2004; Tanner and Kast 2003; Vermeir and Verbeke environmentally friendly and ethically sound. However, in gen-
2006). When consumers believe that they have restricted eral, the consumer awareness of the impacts of the fashion indus-
choices, they often take no action (Henry 2010; Scaraboto and try is quite low and sustainable fashion is still a niche market
Fischer 2013). They may ignore the environmental impacts or rather than a mass-market reality (Beard 2008). While steadily
labor conditions, if being ethical or sustainable requires the increasing, the number of ethical fashion supporters is still
investment of more time and effort (Eckhardt, Belk, and relatively low (Niinimäki 2010).

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62 Journal of Macromarketing 35(1)

Figure 5. Eco friendly clothing line by H&M.

Source: http:// greenpeopleorg.blogspot.com.tr/2013/04/eco-friendly-clothing-continues-tobe.html

Furthermore, personal effort also depends on the motivation a consequence, only a small percentage of consumers fully trust
of individuals. Not all are equally motivated to change their labeling and product information (Hobson 2004). Therefore,
lifestyle in a sustainable direction. A lack of empowerment, the presence of sustainability labels may not be sufficient, as
feelings of helplessness, or lack of self-efficacy regarding sol- lack of trust and confusion over meanings often reduce their
ving environmental and ethical problems are likely to decrease effectiveness (Thøgersen 2005).
individual motivation (Thøgersen 2005). The legitimacy of Although fast fashion retailers, such as the Inditex group and
consumers and other actors also affects market dynamics. H&M, have taken initiatives in the name of sustainability and
When consumers lack legitimacy, resources, and power in have implemented an environmental strategy, suspicions per-
mainstream markets, the pace of change in those markets may sist that this is mainly done to avoid public scrutiny in order
be slow, uneven or limited. On the other hand, when they have to prevent potential economic losses. For instance, H&M
a greater degree of legitimacy, dislike and concern of main- launched a line called ‘‘Conscious Collection,’’ offered along
stream practices are more likely to be acknowledged. Lack of with the fast fashion lines (see Figure 5). Such sustainable fash-
legitimacy of institutional entrepreneurs is critical as well, ion practices can also become yet another business opportunity
since they are also potential change agents (Scaraboto and for fashion marketers.
Fischer 2013).
Attitude-behavior gap on the consumer side. Even when atti-
Lack of trust in fashion companies. Another barrier is the per- tudes toward sustainability are positive, a gap has been
ceived unreliability of sustainable products and negative infer- observed between these attitudes and actual consumption beha-
ences about their functional performance (Luchs et al. 2010; vior (Connolly and Prothero 2003; Eckhardt, Belk, and Devin-
Williams and Dair 2007). Ambiguous and contradictory mes- ney 2010; Prothero et al. 2011; Young et al. 2010). More
sages can lead to confusion about the social and environmental conscious consumers who share a concern for environmental
consequences of purchases, resulting in consumer distrust issues and are aware of the negative consequences of their
(Young et al. 2010). This lack of trust in the company or prod- actions may still continue to indulge in consumption patterns
uct and skepticism of firms’ environmental claims often pre- that are against ecological best practices (Joy et al. 2012). They
vent people from acting pro-environmentally or from may avoid acknowledging environmental problems when such
choosing sustainable products and lifestyles (Blake 1999; awareness conflicts with their perceived quality of life, eco-
Bonini and Oppenheim 2008; Joy et al. 2012; Niinimäki 2010). nomic prosperity, and material needs. The continued increase
One problem in this area is confusing and inadequate logos in the production of cheap fashionable clothing and unsustain-
and labeling, such as the use of the terms ‘‘organic’’ and ‘‘better able consumption practices, in spite of the growing awareness
cotton.’’ The lack of transparent information often leads to of ethical issues, partially explains the existing attitude–behavior
uncertainty and lack of trust (Vermeir and Verbeke 2006). As gap in the eco-fashion field (Niinimäki 2010).

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Ozdamar Ertekin and Atik 63

Economic rationalization can override ethical beliefs unexciting, and unattractive (Power and Mont 2010). Neither
(Eckhardt, Belk, and Devinney 2010). In this case, defense manufacturers, nor designers, nor retailers are truly aware of
mechanisms such as denial, rational distancing, apathy, and what consumers expect from eco-fashion (Niinimäki 2010).
delegation may obstruct pro-environmental behavior. People Aesthetics have been found to be a crucial factor that influences
can refuse to acknowledge problems or distance themselves the appeal of eco-fashion (Joy et al. 2012). Unfortunately, style,
from painful emotions. The belief that a situation cannot be quality, color, and compatibility with wardrobe are among the
changed is likely to produce apathy or refusal to accept per- barriers acting counter eco-fashion.
sonal responsibility. Others may be blamed for environmental As a result, the current eco-fashion and ethical clothing
destruction (Kollmuss and Agyeman 2002). appeal only to certain groups of consumers (Niinimäki 2010).
Moreover, the psychological role of materialistic consump- For instance, ‘‘eco-fashion’’ has been often associated with hip-
tion should not be underestimated in explaining the attitude- pie and environmental movements (Welters 2008). On the
behavior gap (Connolly and Prothero 2003), as it is still not other hand, Winge (2008, p. 520) distinguishes between eco-
clear how the underlying psychological desires will be met dress and eco-fashion, arguing the former is associated with the
(Dolan et al. 2006; Peattie and Peattie 2008). As well as having hippie movement, whereas the latter signifies luxury and
a dark side, consumption is still considered to be enjoyable and refined taste, taking into consideration the aesthetic aspect.
liberatory (Schor and Holt 2000; Twitchell 1999) and enables However, if eco-fashion is only associated with luxury, then
the experiences of fun and excitement (Arnold and Reynolds it will remain limited to a small group of wealthy consumers,
2003; Hirschman 1984; Wakefield and Baker 1998). Further- not being affordable for the masses.
more, consumption – including consumption of fashion – is
still used for purposes of identity construction and self-
fulfillment (McCracken 1988; Power and Mont 2010) and pro- Motivating factors for mobilization of slow fashion. Despite these
vides pleasure (McRobbie 1997; Wilson 1985). There is even barriers, there are reasons for being hopeful. A combined
the concept of shopping well-being (SHWB), defined as ‘‘the review of the academic literature, fashion press, and current
belief that shopping contributes to the overall quality of life slow and fast fashion practices reveal some optimism for the
of oneself and one’s family producing an overall sense of future of a sustainable fashion system (Fletcher 2008; McRob-
well-being’’ (Ekici, Sirgy, and Lee 2013, p. 55). bie 1997; Pears 2006). Rather than a fad or a seasonal trend,
People are also likely to resist change (Vermeir and Verbeke slow fashion is considered a sustainable fashion movement that
2006), which can be another psychological barrier (Walker and is gaining importance. It can provide a more sustainable future
Brammer 2009). Consumers are accustomed to making regular for the textile and clothing sector and an opportunity for busi-
purchases and they expect to see new products in stores every ness to be done in a way that respects workers, environment,
week. Giving up everyday consumption practices driven by and consumers (Cataldi, Dickson, and Grover 2010; Fletcher
convenience and habit can be challenging. Consumers can be 2007).
reluctant and afraid to change their lifestyles due to the assump- Consumers have started to support the green commodity dis-
tion that sustainable consumption means giving up and losing course for macro reasons such as fair trade, ethical consump-
out material benefits (Robins and Roberts 1998). These psy- tion, sustainable consumption, global effects of consumption,
chological and hedonic barriers partially explain the attitude- or for more micro-level, personal concerns (Prothero, McDo-
behavior gap on the consumer side. nagh, and Dobscha 2010). Many consumers are now resentful
of and disappointed with mindless consumption and its impact
Concerns about aesthetics. Previously, the main justification on society (Kozinets and Handleman 2004). Shopping activi-
given for clothing was function or utility. However, Wilson ties can decrease overall life satisfaction, especially when a
(1985, p. 302) claims that at no time has dress been primarily person spends excessive time, energy, and money on shopping
functional, and that fashion has always been an art form and (Ekici, Sirgy, and Lee 2013). Moreover, consumers can expe-
a symbolic social system. Her arguments are similar to those rience choice exhaustion or apathy (Prothero, McDonagh,
of Baudrillard in that fashion always has social meanings and and Dobscha 2010). These negative feelings can lead some to
aesthetic considerations. With its urge to create new signs, its support a more nonmaterialistic view, which may promote
continuous production of meaning, and the mystery of its cycle, sustainability.
fashion is one of the more inexplicable phenomena (Baudril- Change is beginning to happen at both institutional and
lard 1969, p. 71). It brings out contradiction and tension. On consumer levels. Individuals and society as a whole have
one hand, fashion is oppressive, demanding attention to dress begun to question the prevailing consumer culture (Prothero,
and our appearance, but on the other hand, clothes are desired, McDonagh, and Dobscha 2010). When consumers refuse
and found pleasurable (Wilson 1985, p. 294). to contribute to the profits of mainstream marketers, which
Marketing instruments make use of these aesthetic and Scaraboto and Fischer (2013) define as large, high-profile cor-
experiential means to comfort people and to increase their con- porations with strong name brands, they want to be served by
sumption (Biehl-Missal 2013). However, aesthetics have not alternative marketers. New markets thus can emerge through
often been successfully employed in promoting sustainable the collaborative efforts of these consumer evangelists and
fashion. Many people view sustainable lifestyles as difficult, entrepreneurial actors (Thompson and Coskuner-Balli 2007).

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64 Journal of Macromarketing 35(1)

Artificial newness and change: role of aesthetics. Elizabeth Cline they did in 1980s, but as Westwood claims they have never
(2012) suggests that because of its excessive turnover, cur- dressed so ugly (Thomas 2012). The message she gives to
rently fashion feels arbitrary and pointless. No big fashion the customers is to ‘‘buy less, choose well, and make it last’’
statements are being made. The same catwalk images and (Frankel 2012). In this respect, aesthetics can be used to make
trends are constantly repeated, so stores, garments, and people a difference and fill this ‘‘mental and spiritual emptiness,’’ one
look alike. The supposed variety offered in the global market is of the main critiques of the mass-market fashion industry
artificial newness rather than diversity or originality and most (Biehl-Missal 2013).
of the brands are replicas of each other. Pears’ (2006) findings
Stress caused by speed and uncertainty. The fashion system has
also reveal that people have started to become dissatisfied with
been speeding up like never before (Cline 2012; LeBlanc 2012;
the range of fashion garments available, homogenization of
Tokatli 2008; Tokatli and Kizilgun 2009). Lead times have
design, and low quality of products.
become shorter and retailers have become more demanding.
Consumers disappointed with the impact of mindless fash-
On one hand, quick lead times have become an asset and a mar-
ion consumption are now motivated to support sustainable
keting tool for fashion suppliers, enabling them to generate
fashion practices (Beard 2008). They can break the fast fashion
more business. On the other hand, this need for everything to
cycle by supporting innovative sustainable designers and retai-
be done urgently increases tension and stress, as suppliers who
lers, returning to custom clothing, and refashioning, mending,
are slow are unlikely to survive. Coping with fast fashion cycle
and even making clothes themselves (Cline 2012). Similarly,
thus becomes stressful and exhausting, especially for actors on
in a recent New York Times article (La Ferla 2012), trend
the production side.
experts and style leaders also indicate that trends are losing
Speed also brings about uncertainty. The textile business has
their influence. On the Internet consumers have access to so
many unpredictable factors including procurement of fabric,
much style information that instead of imitating the passing
materials, and accessories, all of which makes it difficult to
trends, they have started to interpret and have confidence in
keep up with the short lead times. Unpredictable orders and
their own personal tastes. Therefore, it is possible that consu-
unrealistic deadlines make it difficult to make production plans
mers will start demanding higher quality items with more indi-
(Cataldi, Dickson, and Grover 2010; Fletcher 2007).
viduality (LeBlanc 2012).
On the consumption side, people are also stressed due to the
Fast fashion companies can emulate luxury products, but
speed of change. Therefore, individuals, especially in Western
they are less able to meet high ethical standards in sourcing,
industrial countries, want to slow down and have more time to
manufacturing, and distribution, and are less likely to have
enjoy life (Lasn 1999). Some consumers want less choice in
repair and upgrade services (Joy et al. 2012). Consumers
their consumption decisions and also want to consume less,
demanding more information about sourcing and manufactur-
as in the case of slow movement, for environmental reasons
ing are more likely to pay a premium for such products, which
or because of economic circumstances. Many consumers who
some researchers refer to as ‘‘ethical mainstreaming.’’ There-
have been forced to consume less because of economic circum-
fore, luxury fashion brands can partly counteract some of the
stances have become happier living a less pressured lifestyle
problems of fast fashion and achieve the ideals of both fashion
and spending more time with their families and friends. Hence,
and environmental sustainability (Joy et al. 2012).
they have started to realize that choice and increased con-
Aesthetics, which is also perceived as a barrier, can actually
sumption do not necessarily increase happiness and/or improve
become a motivating factor to support sustainable fashion prac-
quality of life (Prothero, McDonagh, and Dobscha 2010).
tices by providing means to resolve homogenization of design,
artificial newness, and change. Biehl-Missal (2013) argues that
art and aesthetics can be used against fashion’s commercial
meaning. The aesthetic perspective is important because the
Discussion and Macromarketing Implications
arguments against excessive consumption include many emo- Prior studies carried out on slow fashion and other alternative
tional and symbolic factors. Low quality, cheap fashion prod- approaches to fast fashion hold some promise that sustainabil-
ucts, and identical clothing items provided through ity will have an important role in shaping the future of fashion
unsustainable production by global fast-fashion retailers result industry. However, many barriers limit the diffusion and sus-
in ‘‘self-degrading styling’’ (Biehl-Missal 2013), and ‘‘pain- tainability of slow fashion, as addressed above. Therefore, for
fully simple designs that are crudely slapped together’’ (Cline slow fashion not to become another craze that might disappear
2012, p. 7). as quickly as other fashion trends, we emphasize some reme-
The British designer Vivienne Westwood argues that the dies that can enable and facilitate mobilization of a more sus-
present is the worst period in the history of style. She criticizes tainable fashion system. From a macromarketing perspective,
the rise of disposable fashion because it is making us all look it is important to consider the practices of both individuals and
the same. According to her, the advent of Primark and super- organizations as actors in markets. McRobbie (1997) is one of
market fashion lines selling items at very low prices has created the earliest scholars to present a more optimistic view of fash-
a boom in fast fashion with increasingly more consumers being ion. She argues that it is not appropriate to view fashion sector
dependent on quantity rather than quality. As a result, women as unmanageable, as there are always opportunities for change.
today have four times as many clothes in their wardrobes than However, this change is only possible with involvement and

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Ozdamar Ertekin and Atik 65

support of different actors (Cataldi, Dickson, and Grover 2010; actors and building a collective identity, thereby improving the
McRobbie 1997), as market creation requires collective action performance of the fashion industry. Talented and trained fash-
of and investment from several types of interested actors, ion designers working with small teams of well-paid, well-
including consumers (Struben and Lee 2012). Therefore, it is trained production workers can create consumer and producer
necessary to explore the social relations between producers and sovereignty, providing an honest system that is able to survive
consumers, and collaboration among all the actors involved. global competition (McRobbie 1997). Education and training is
In order for the slow approach to succeed, efforts need to be critical also in building awareness and increasing knowledge of
made both on a personal and societal level (Hadden 2012). On a outcomes of consumption practices (Prothero et al. 2011). For
personal level, we can oppose mass produced fashion; support instance, Pears (2006) demonstrates that unsustainable beha-
smaller businesses, fair trade and locally-made clothes; buy viors, such as wasteful fashion consumption, can be challenged
second-hand or vintage clothing; donate rather than dispose and sustainable practices developed by raising awareness of
of unwanted garments; choose clothing made with sustainable, fashion waste and stimulating individuals to take action. Thus,
ethically-made or recycled fabrics; select quality garments that adopting a community-oriented approach will help to develop a
will last longer and that can be repaired; make, mend, custo- sustainability movement through encouraging frugality, sim-
mize, and alter our own clothing; slow the rate of fashion con- plicity, and waste conservation (Pears 2006).
sumption by buying fewer clothes and less often. Cline (2012, Institutional entrepreneurs, who challenge aspects of institu-
p. 187) also argues that instead of consuming fast-fashion, tional fields, also play an important role in encouraging consu-
home sewing, clothes making, altering, and mending, provide mers to take action to achieve the changes they desire
an opportunity against consumption and extend the range of (Scaraboto and Fischer 2013; Thompson and Coskuner-Balli
sustainably produced clothing. On a societal level, conscious 2007). Thompson and Coskuner-Balli (2007) described colla-
consumption can be promoted; supply chain can be slowed boration between consumers and entrepreneurs to create a sep-
down to reduce the number of trends and seasons; awareness arate market that conformed to countercultural values. In
can be raised about the negative impacts of the fashion industry contrast, in Scaraboto and Fischer’s (2013) context, neither
on workers, communities, and ecosystems (Hadden 2012). consumers nor the institutional entrepreneurs are intending to
McRobbie (1997) proposes a relational economic model escape the mainstream market. However, in both markets insti-
based on a neighborhood system linking fashion designers, tutional entrepreneurs have inspired consumers. In the case of
local customers, and well paid workers. This new perspective slow fashion, designers (e.g. Katharine Hamnett), ethical retai-
on fashion is needed to address a lack of connection among the lers (e.g. TRAID), institutions and coalitions (e.g. London Col-
different stages of the fashion cycle: education and training, lege of Fashion, Sustainable Apparel Coalition, REC), have
design, production, retailing and distribution, advertising and started to inspire change efforts.
the image industry, and consumption. McRobbie’s alternative Scaraboto and Fischer (2013) identify three strategies for the
system has similarities to slow fashion philosophy. Similarly, mobilization of marginalized consumers: appealing to institu-
Cataldi, Dickson, and Grover (2010) signify the importance tional logics, publicizing institutional innovations, and allying
of collaboration between different actors and interconnectivity with powerful institutional actors. Some of these strategies can
in enabling slow fashion movement to emerge as a sustainable also be effective in promoting the strength and acceptance of
fashion model for the future. Their findings aim to strengthen slow fashion. Rather than contradicting the institutional logics
the slow fashion movement by providing guidance for various of commerce and art prevalent in the field of fashion, actors can
actors, including designers, suppliers, buyers, manufacturers, expand institutional practices consistent with these logics
retailers, and co-producers. (Scaraboto and Fischer 2013). For instance, by creating sus-
Collective identity formation is critical to mobilization tainable fashion garments that conform to the industry’s aes-
(Sturmer et al. 2003). By engaging in communicative action thetic ideals, fashion retailers can appeal to more consumers.
(Habermas 1984), actors challenge the practices of mainstream Increased publicity for institutional innovations such as use
marketers. Contexts including online forums, swishing, and of renewable or biodegradable fibers and low-energy process-
shwopping events can foster formation of collective identity ing techniques, as well as the promotion of swishing and
and enable communicative action among actors that can mobi- shwopping events, can all help slow fashion to gain strength
lize them to seek market changes they desire (Scaraboto and and acceptability and also enhance collective identity.
Fischer 2013). Co-creating slow fashion principles and a shared Through alliances with powerful institutional actors, consu-
definition of sustainability, establishing a global network for mers can increase their legitimacy and the impact of their lim-
the slow fashion movement, and harmonizing global garment ited resources (Scaraboto and Fischer 2013). Similarly,
and textile labeling initiatives under a slow fashion label are all working in partnership with big fashion retailers or institutions
actions that can help to strengthen the collective identity and, will enable slow fashion designers and retailers to gain
thereby, the slow fashion movement (Cataldi, Dickson, and strength. The actors who have large number of followers may
Grover 2010). accumulate symbolic capital that can increase their potential
Furthermore, interaction is required for collective identity to influence market changes within the organizational field
formation (White 1992). Education and training of all actors (Bourdieu 1989). Actors with symbolic capital are often
involved has an effective role in enabling interaction among approached by more powerful market actors interested in

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66 Journal of Macromarketing 35(1)

capitalizing on their influence (Scaraboto and Fischer 2013). current consumption habits, and trying to build awareness of
For instance, models like Kate Moss who wear sustainable ethical ways (Thompson and Coskuner-Balli 2007), we shed
clothes will enable slow fashion to become more acceptable light on the ways in which the slow fashion system can make
both by consumers and by retailers. Government can also real progress, and also identify the factors inhibiting its
play a critical role in promoting a sustainable fashion industry mobilization.
by providing support and funding for such developments Furthermore, most of the prior studies on sustainable
(McRobbie 1997). approaches to fashion examined the consumer side and were
The Sustainable Apparel Coalition, which consists of big more micro-oriented (Joy et al. 2012; Niinimäki 2010; Pears
retailers, apparel manufacturers, NGOs, and government agen- 2006). Studies that consider the different actors of the fashion
cies, is a perfect example of an alliance between different system are limited (Cataldi, Dickson, and Grover 2010). To be
actors. Market change is more likely to occur when supporters able to understand fashion as a cultural phenomenon, we must
of slow fashion forge a collective identity and become more see it as a series of social processes involving mutual depen-
legitimate in the fashion market, as in the case of the mobiliza- dencies between each sector, from design and manufacture,
tion of the marginalized consumers studied by Scaraboto and to advertising and consumption (McRobbie 1997). Kilbourne,
Fischer (2013). McDonagh, and Prothero (1997) also draw attention to the need
to consider environmental issues not simply as a micromarket-
ing management issue, but as a more global, holistic macro
Conclusion issue. Therefore, we use an institutional approach to understand
To conclude, if fashion consumption keeps increasing at the how different actors within the field of fashion contribute to
current rate as a result of accelerated product obsolescence, the this market change, since macro institutional approaches to
impacts on the social and ecological environments will pose a sustainability are becoming more and more critical for future
threat to the quality of life of future generations (Cataldi, Dick- research (Prothero et al. 2011).
son, and Grover 2010). It is unlikely that the current fashion
system and ongoing cycle of insatiable desires will or should Declaration of Conflicting Interests
continue indefinitely. Consequently, to break this vicious The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to
cycle, sustainability should become the core value in the fash- the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
ion industry currently driven by speed, artificial newness, and
planned obsolescence.
Funding
As discussed in depth here, some scholars and practitioners
believe that the slow approach can offer more sustainable and The author(s) received no financial support for the research,
authorship, and/or publication of this article.
ethical ways of approaching fashion and that slow culture is an
opportunity to build deeper and longer-lasting change towards
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Zeynep Ozdamar Ertekin is a PhD candidate of Marketing at Izmir
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children, retailing, and qualitative research. She has 15 years of pro-
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Retailing, 74 (4), 515-540.
in fashion apparel industry. She is currently working as the manager
Walker, Helen and Stephen Brammer (2009), ‘‘Sustainable Procure-
of the design department in a textile company in Izmir.
ment in The United Kingdom Public Sector,’’ Supply Chain Man-
agement: An International Journal, 14 (2), 128-137. Deniz Atik is Associate Professor of Marketing in the Department of
Welters, Linda (2008), ‘‘The Natural Look: American Style in the Business Administration at Izmir University of Economics in Turkey.
1970s,’’ Fashion Theory, 12 (4), 489-510. Her research focuses on consumption theories, especially theories of
Westervelt, Amy (2012), ‘‘Target, Nike, Levi’s Join Forces on Sustain- fashion, sustainability, vulnerable consumers, and qualitative research.
able Clothing,’’ Forbes, (July 26), (accessed December 2, 2012), Dr. Atik has been a visiting faculty at the University of Texas – Pan
[available at http://www.forbes.com/sites/amywestervelt/ 2012/07/ American (USA), Bocconi University (Italy), École Management de
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