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Grammar Is Important

Grammar text used formerly in Canadian and some American Schools for Grades 7-9 by A.W. McGuire Grammar Sentence Diagramming, Practice questions.

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100% found this document useful (1 vote)
1K views98 pages

Grammar Is Important

Grammar text used formerly in Canadian and some American Schools for Grades 7-9 by A.W. McGuire Grammar Sentence Diagramming, Practice questions.

Uploaded by

Caleb
Copyright
© Public Domain
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Gr 1RAMlM[AJR

IS IM1lPOJRTANT
A Basic Course

A. W. McGUIRE, B.A.

AGINCOURT
THE BOOK SOCIETY OF CANADA
LIMITED
FOREWORD
COPYRIGHT, CANADA, 1949
COPYRIGHT IN THE U.S.A., 1950
by
From many educational, social, and business groups in all
THE BooK SocmTY OF CANADA parts of the country has come the demand that students
Limited entering secondary schools have a good knowledge of English
grammar, including correct usage. A knowledge of English
grammar is recognized as a prerequisite to satisfactory work
in English composition and literature, and of great value
in the study of a foreign language. Its usefulness in social
It is an infringem~1;1t o~ the author's rights and a violation of the Copyright Law intercourse and in business goes without saying. We are
to produce or utihze m any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical pleased, therefore, to publish this text, which deals with
including photocopying, electrostatic copying, recording or by any informatio~
storage and retrieval system or any other way, passages from this book without the the essentials of English grammar in a straightforward man-
permission of the publishers. ner and with no intermingling of other phases of language
work.
Throughout the book grammar is presented in a simplified
way, so that pupils need not be discouraged or confused by
its difficulties. Each new point is carefully explained, and
followed by suitable exercises. A special feature of the careful
organization of GRAMMAR IS IMPORTANT is that only construe.:,
tions which have been already taught are used in the exercises
in the first ten chapters. Other important features are the
emphasis on the functions and relations of words, the inclusion
of oral exercises, and the avoidance of formal definitions, with
only a few exceptions. We know of no other book in which
detailed and clausal analyses are so well developed.
The subject matter usually prescribed for the junior high
school grades is covered in this text. A suitable division might
be: Chapters I-V (Grade 7); Chapters VI-XIV (Grade 8);
ISBN 0-7725-5009-3 and Chapters XV-XVIII (Grade 9). As the sequence of
topics has been very carefully worked out, it would seem
24 80 79 78 77 advisable for grades 7 and 8 to adhere to the order in which
V
they are presented. In grade 9 it is anticipated that the teacher
will select freely for review purposes from the lessons for the
earlier grades. From the abundant exercise material to be
found throughout the book, the teacher of any of the grades Table of Contents
should feel at liberty to select or omit in accordance with the CHAPTER I: ANALYSIS
ability of his class. Review exercises are provided, beginning Page Page
on pages 47 and 164; there are useful appendices beginning on Before You Begin . 1 Graphic Analysis •
page 175; and a detailed index starts on page 179. 7
Subject and Predicate 1 Short Modifiers 7
THE PUBLISHERS
Helping Words 2 Word Group Modifiers 7
Modifiers 4 Building Sentences 8
Complete Subject and Aids in Analysis 10
Complete Predicate 5 A Study of Analysis . . 11
Bare Subject and Written Analysis 12
Bare Predicate . 5 Practice in Analysis 13
Analysis of Sentences. 6 Position of Modifiers . -14
CHAPTER II: PARTS OF SPEECH
Nouns and Verbs . 17 Pronouns 19
Adjectives and Adverbs 17 Phrases 20
Parts of Speech 18 Prepositions 22
Relation of Words 18 Other Adverbs 23
Articles. 19 Conjunctions . . 25

CHAPTER Ill: VERBS AND COMPLETIONS


Object of Verbs 27 Transitive and
Analysis of Sentences Intransitive Verbs 31
with Objects 28 Copula Verbs . 33
Differences in Action Subjective Completion 34
Verbs 30 Verb Phrases 35

CHAPTER IV: KINDS OF SENTENCES


Kinds of Sentences
Interjections
37 There and Not . . 40
38 Complete Detailed
Exclamatory Sentences
Analysis of Interrogative,
38 Analysis .
Connected Phrases
. 42
44
Imperative and Objects of Prepositions 45
Exclamatory Sentences 39 Different Uses of the
Same Word. . 46
vi
vii
CHAPTER V: REVIEW

Review of Adverbs
Page
47 Review of Subjective
Page
I CHAPTER XI: SIMPLE AND COMPOUND SENTENCES

Simple and Compound


Page Page
Other Conjunctions, etc.. 107
Sentences 104 Missing Subjects . 108
Review of Adjectives . 47 Completion . · 48 Conjunctions in Graphic Analysis of
Review of Phrases. 47 Review of Conjunctions 48 Compound Sentences 105 Compound Sentences 109
Review of Objects of General Review . 48
Verbs 47 Relation of Words • 49 CHAPTER XII: COMPLEX SENTENCES
Detailed Analysis . • 50 Subordinate Clauses . 111 Noun Clauses as Subjects 119
Adverb and Adjective Relation of Noun
CHAPTER VI: NOUNS AND PRONOUNS Clauses . 113 Clauses . 119
Common and Proper Number in Nouns and Relation of Clauses 114 Separation of Clauses. 121
Nouns 52 Pronouns 57 Complex Sentences 115 Compound-Complex
Study of Pronouns 54 Case in Nouns and Clausal Analysis 115 Sentences 123
Classes of Pronouns 55 Pronouns 59 Noun Clauses . 118
Pronominal Adjectives 56 Declension of Pronouns 60 CHAPTER XIII: CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS
Person in Pronouns . 57 Declension of Nouns . 62
Co-ordinate Conjunctions 125 Phrasal Conjunctions 127
Predicate Nominative . 63
Correlative Conjunctions 126 Uses of Conjunctions . 128
Subordinate Conjunctions 126
CHAPTER VII: VERBS
Tense in Verbs • 64 The Perfect Tenses • 70 CHAPTER XIV: CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS
Special Uses of the Conjugation of Verbs. 71 "' Conjunctive Pronouns 130 Care with
Future Tense • 66 Principal Parts of Verbs . 73 Case and Relation of Conjunctive Pronouns . 133
Agreement Between Review of Tenses . • 74 Conjunctive Pronouns . 132
Subject and Predicate . 67
CHAPTER XV: VERBALS
CHAPTER VIII: SPEAKING AND WRITING CORRECTLY Participles . 135 Participial Phrases 141
Use and Relation of Gerunds 1L13
Correct Use of Verbs 77 Correct Use of Adverbs
Participles 136 Gerunds as Objects or
Watch these Prepositions. 86 and Adjectives 90
Present Participles 137 Subjective Completions 144
Watch these Pronouns 87 Correct Usage-Review . 91
Past Participles 137 Use and Relation of
Use and Relation of Past Gerunds 144
CHAPTER IX: NOUNS
- Participles 138 Infinitives . 146
Formation of Plurals Possessive Case in Nouns 96 Position of Participles 140 Use and Relation of
in Nouns 93 Gender in Nouns . . 97 Present Perfect Infinitives 147
Participles 140 Infinitives Used as
CHAPTER X: ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS
Use and Relation of Adjectives and Adverbs 148
Comparison of Adjectives 99 Correct Usage. . 102 Ptesent Perfect Root Infinitives 149
Comp<lr\son of Adverbs . 102 Participles . 141 Verbals: Definition of 150
viii ix
CHAPTER XVI: DIRECT AND INDIRECT OBJECTS
Page Page
Direct and lpdirect
Objects . . 151
CHAPTER I
CHAPTER XVII: ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE
Active Voice and ANALYSIS
Progressive Tenses 159
Passive Voice . 153 Subject and Predicate, Modifiers,
Conjugation in
Changing from Active Analysis of Sentences
Progressive Tenses • 160
to Passive Voice 154 Emphatic Tenses • 162
Conjugation in the Before You Begin
Passive Voice . 156 Before you begin the study of grammar from this
book let us talk very briefly about the subject and the
CHAPTER XVIII: GENERAL REVIEW 164 way it is presented here.
Great care has been taken to arrange and explain
APPENDIX 175 the various topics so that you can easily grasp them.
Try to learn each part thoroughly, because that will
INDEX
179 help you to understand what follows. Each day you will
see that you are making progress, and you will have the
satisfaction which comes from learning something well.
To learn grammar you must use your reason more
than your memory. If you reason out each point, your
memory will easily retain the various facts and rules.
A knowledge of grammar will aid you in reading,
in writing, and in speaking. People judge you by the
way you speak, and you cannot afford to make a poor
impression. Watch your English is a good slogan.

Subject and Predicate


In these two-word sentences, try to decide why each
word is used.
Grass grows. Pupils study.
Men work. Flowers bloom.
Children play. Horses run.
Wolves howl. Leaves fall.
Birds sing. Lightning flashes.
You will notice that the words in each sentence have
different uses. One word names the person or thing
X
1
spoken about, and the other tells what is said about HELPERS. Words which work with predicates are
that person or thing. PREDICATE HELPERS.
The part of a sentence which names the person or EXERCISE 2
thing spoken about is called the SUBJECT; the part which Write the following sentences, and place a single line
tells what is said about the subject is called the PREDICATE. under each subject and a double line under each predi-
In each sentence the subject is a NAME WORD and the cate. Decide whether the third word is a helper of the
predicate is an ACTION WORD. subject, or a helper of the predicate.
Example: Wild flowers bloomed .
.EXERCISE I
1. Snow melts easily. 7. Flies dart about.
(a) Study again the sentences on page I to see how the 2. Rusty hinges creak. 8. Good diamonds sparkle.
work of the subject differs from the work of the predicate. 3. Pigeons coo softly. 9. Tortoises walk slowly.
(b) Compose ten sentences with two words in each. 4. Owls screech loudly. I 0. Small bells tinkle.
Place a single line under each subject and a double line 5. Happy people sing. 11. Dim lights flicker.
under each predicate. 6. Ripe fruit spoils. 12. Tired workers rested.
Example: Fish swim.
--= EXERCISE 3

Helping Words Write the following sentences, and place a single line
under each subject and a double line under each predi-
Compare these sentences with those on the
cate. Connect the subject and its helper, or the predicate
preceding page.
and its helper, with a curved line.
Grass grows quickly. Diligent pupils study. Examples: Warm air rises. Time passes quickly.
Honest men work. Flowers bloom early. ........._,;;;;= - - ....._..
Children play here. Frightened horses run. 1. Small lambs bleat. 7. Crickets sing shrilly.
Hungry wolves howl. Dead leaves fall. 2. Winter lingers here. 8. Large snowflakes fell.
Birds sing sweetly. Lightning flashes suddenly. 3. Fierce gales blew. 9. Indians lived there.
In each sentence you see one word which is not on 4. Trains travel swiftly. 10. Sunlit waters glisten.
the preceding page. This word is connected in thought 5. Early birds twitter. 11. Dust whirled around.
with one of the other words. Read each sentence several 6. Rain falls everywhere. 12. Pioneers worked hard,
times to see the connection, and give the use of the new EXERCISE 4
word. Note, for example, in the first two sentences:
(a) Without using any word twice, compose sentences
Q,uickly tells how grass grows. It is connected in thought with three words in each, using only the following words:
with grows.
eyes, lions, fly, brave, steadily, savage, cry, sparks, sick,
Honest describes men. It is connected in thought with men.
hoarsely, upward, wilt, clocks, quickly, children, frogs,
Words which work with subjects are SUBJECT closed, died, tick, roar, soldiers, croak, sleepy, flowers.
2 3
(b) Using the sentences which you have written in (a), 7. Bright stars twinkle nightly.
place a single line under each subject and a double line 8. Wild geese passed overhead.
under each predicate. With a curved line connect the 9. New cars run smoothly.
subject helpers with subjects, and the predicate helpers 10. Gallant men perished there.
with predicates, as shown in Exercise 3. 11. Friendly people live here.
12. Much snow fell then.
Modifiers
In grammar we call the helping words MODIFIERS. Complete Subject and Complete Predicate
The word modify means to change. When you become Bare Subject and Bare Predicate
well acquainted with modifiers, you will see that they do,
in a way, change the meaning of the words they modify. In Exercise 5 you divided each sentence into two
For example, notice in these sentences how the modifiers parts, with the subject and a modifier in one part, and
change the meaning of the words they modify. the predicate and a modifier in the other part. One part
of the sentence is called the COMPLETE SUBJECT, and the
Hostile natives appeared. Friendly natives appeared.
other part is called the COMPLETE PREDICATE. The under-
When the modifier is connected in thought with lined words are the BARE SUBJECT and the BARE PREDICATE,
the subject, it is called a MODIFIER OF THE SUBJECT. When and are the main parts of the complete subject and the
it is connected in thought with the predicate, it is called complete predicate.
a MODIFIER OF THE PREDICATE.

EXERCISE 6
EXERCISES
Write the sentences which follow. Divide the complete
Write the sentences which follow. Place a single line subject from the complete predicate by a vertical line.
under the subject, a double line under the predicate, Place a single line under the bare subject, and a double
and connect each with its modifier as you did in Exer- line under the bare predicate.
cise 4. In addition, separate the subject and its modifier
from the predicate and its modifier by a vertical line. Indicate each modifier by the use of these marks:

.._.,, I
Example: Many flags fluttered gaily. Modifiers of the Bare Subject [ ] Modifiers of the Bare Predicate ( )
...__,, I
Example: [Dry] wood burns (well.)
I. Light canoes glide along.
1. Slender leaves stirred gently.
2. Big boys played roughly.
2. Dull days passed slowly.
3. Wealthy people spent freely.
3. Brave rescuers toiled ceaselessly.
4. Small fish swam about.
4. Thin ice breaks easily.
5. Happy days arrived again.
5. Young partridges hide quickly.
6. Good seeds sprout quickly.
6. Heavy bombers flew high.
4
5
7.Kind doctors spoke softly. Graphic Analysis
8. Hungry animals eat fast.
The separation of a sentence into parts by the use
9.Dark clouds passed over.
of lines and marks, such as you have done in preceding
10. Fancy skaters performed gracefully.
exercises, is called the GRAPHIC ANALYSIS of the sentence.
I I.Most birds migrate regularly.
As your markings show clearly the complete subject and
12. Noisy trains thundered by.
the complete predicate, it should not be necessary to
continue using a vertical line between them.
Analysis of Sentences
The separating of sentences into parts, which you Short Modifiers
have been doing in Exercises 5 and 6, is called ANALYSIS The shortest modifiers you will meet are : a, an, the.
OF THE SENTENCE. The word analyse means to separate You will learn more about these words later. When
into parts. Learning how to analyse sentences is one of occurring in a sentence, they should be separated from
the most important steps in grammar, and is necessary other modifiers, or from the subject.
to the study of more advanced work. It helps us to under-
Examples: [The] [crooked] road winds (around a hill).
stand the meaning and structure of sentences. It also . --=
shows the uses of words in the sentence. [The] animal turned (swiftly) (on its pursuers),
=
[A] call [for help] came (from the disabled ship).
- ----:-

EXERCISE 7

Analyse these sentences with lines and marks as you did Word-Group Modifiers
in Exercise 6.
A modifier is often a group of words, which is called
1. Strong winds blew continually. a WORD-GROUP MODIFIER. Sometimes a word-group
2. Heavy frosts came early. modifier can be replaced by a single word which has the
3. Huge breakers rolled ashore. same meanmg.
4. Healthy children sleep soundly.
Examples:
5. Tropical storms come suddenly.
Pupils study in this room. Pupils study here.
6. Educated people speak correctly.
Boys with good manners be- Mannerly boys behave prop-
7. Some pupils read fast.
have properly. erly.
8. Honourable men answer truthfully.
Nurses move about with Nurses move about carefully.
9. Welcome news travels rapidly.
IO. Many spectators cheered lustily. care.
Events of importance Important events happened
11. Old people walk slowly.
happened at that time. then.
12. Timid rabbits scampered away.
0.1.-2 7
6
Very often a word-group modifier cannot be replaced
by a single word because there is no word which conveys
1 1. (a) Ducks fly. (b) Wild ducks fly. (c) Wild ducks fly
over the lake. (d) Wild ducks fly over the lake in the
fall.
the exact meaning.
2. (a) Friends came. (b) Friends of my father came.
Examples: (c) Friends of my father came to our house. (d) Friends
Smoke from a dozen chimneys curled upward. of my father came to our house yesterday. (e) Friends
Scientists experiment in many ways. of my father came to our house yesterday for a visit.
Grain of various kinds grows there.
People travelfor different reasons. 3. (a) Birds sing. (b) Small birds sing. (c) Small birds
sing sweetly. (d) Small birds sing sweetly outside my
Study each sentence above which contains a word- window. (e) Small birds sing sweetly outside my window
group modifier, and decide on its analysis. This will in the morning.
show you that some word-groups modify subjects and
some modify predicates. EXERCISE 9

EXERCISE 8 Add to each short sentence by using one or more of the


word-groups listed below, and then analyse your sentences
Select each word-group modifier and tell what it modifies.
I orally.
1. The buds of trees open in the spring.
2. The rope slipped from my hand. I
,, Example: Steak sizzled in a hot pan.
3. Lights from many ships gleamed in the harbour. Bare Subject - steak
4. The car crashed through the fence. Bare Predicate - sizzled
5. Snow fell from the roof with a thud. Modifier of the Bare Predicate - in a hot pan
6. Clouds passed over the moon.
7. A load of hay upset in the lane. I. Steak sizzled. 7. Buildings toppled.
8. The marble in that mantel came from Italy. 2. Accidents happen. 8. Mercury expands.
9. A lake without a name nestled among the hills. 3, Pupils play. 9. Flowers wilt.
10. Long icicles hung from the roof. 4. Memories linger. 10. Flags waved.
1I. Purple violets grew in the ditches. 5. Opportunities come. 11. Water flows.
12. All eyes turned toward the speeding plane. 6. Trains arrived. 12. Stars twinkled.
of childhood at half-mast on every highway
Building Sentences on time to everyone for self-improvement
It is helpful to build up sentences and then by at the station on rainy days under the bridge
in the basement in a warm room through a large pipe
analysis to separate them into parts again. Study care- in dry weather in a thermometer on public buildings
fully the sentences of each of the following three groups, in a hot pan in a cloudless sky during the earthquake
and analyse each sentence orally. in our minds
8 9
Aids in Analysis A Study of Analysis
Work in analysis will be easy if you understand and
EXERCISE 10
remember the following points:
(r) Words and word-groups work together in a sentence (a) Study each of the following sentences and try to
to express a thought. understand the analysis which is shown.
(2) Word-groups modify subjects and predicates, and in 1. Hail pelted'(against my window) (in the night).
this way resemble single-word modifiers. Sometimes --=
these word-groups seem to point out rather than 2. [Pretty] [little] flowers grew (along the stream).
--=
describe. 3. Children [in the cities] play (in the parks) (during the
(3) When we analyse, we separate a sentence into its holidays).
=
parts, and give each its proper name. 4. [The] names [of candidates] appear (on the ballots).
(4) Before starting to analyse a sentence graphically or
5. Columbus landed (on an unknown shore).
in writing, do the work mentally. Read the sentence
carefully to see its meaning and its parts. 6. [Wild] animals prowl (through the jungle).
=
(5) Remember that the subject is never in a modifying 7. [A] [noticeable] change [in the weather] occurred (during
word-group. the night).
(6) In your study of a sentence, form the habit of asking 8. [Several] lines [of customers] stood (outside the door).
questions.
9. Rain fell (steadily) (for several hours).
Example: --=
10. [The] girls [at our school] skip (on the walks).
A brilliant star appeared nightly in the western sky.
The question, What is the statement about? shows the subject, 11. Pebbles [on the shore] glistened (in the sunshine).
star. 12. [A] [tame] squirrel comes (to our verandah) (in the
The question, What words describe the star? shows the
morning) (for food).
modifiers of the subject, a and brilliant.
The question, What word tells what the star did? shows the 13. Winds [from the ocean] blow (toward the land).
-- =
predicate, appeared. 14. [Thirsty] men looked (longingly) (at the water).
The questions, Appeared when? and Appeared where? show --
15. [An] avalanche [of snow] slid (over the cliff).
the modifiers of the predicate, nightly and in the western
sky .
(b) Copy each sentence without showing the graphic
(7) Modifiers of the predicate generally answer the analysis. Now close your textbook and analyse each sen-
questions How? When? Where? or Wiry? Each answer tence graphically. Check with the text to see how high
gives a separate modifier. Two answers to the same your score is.
question give two modifiers.
10 11
Written Analysis Practice in Analysis
In previous exercises you have done graphic analysis EXERCISE 12

of sentences. It is useful also to be able to analyse Decide on the analysis of each sentence, and then give
sentences in writing and without the use of lines and the work orally in class.
marks. This is called WRITTEN ANALYSIS, I. The weary travellers landed at the airport in the early
Example: Heavy rains fall there frequently. evening.
2. A pair of kingfishers darted across the bay.
Bare Subject - rains 3. A poor old man with a pack trudged along the road.
Modifier of the Bare Subject - heavy 4. The ivy on the wall drooped over my window.
Bare Predicate - fall 5. The doctor remained with the sick child during the
Modifiers of the Bare Predicate - (1) there (2) frequently night.
6. A cluster of burs clung to my sweater.
7. Many tall hollyhocks grow in our garden.
EXERCISE 11
8. The sharp tinkle of little bells came from the sheepfold.
9. The lengthening rays of the rising sun stretched over the
Analyse each sentence in writing. fields.
10. Scientific discoveries in agriculture added greatly to the
I. Rich samples of ore came from the mine.
country's wealth.
2. The trip down the river lasts about three hours.
11. The ground between the hills sloped gradually to the
3. Statesmen from many countries assembled for the con-
river.
ference.
12. The hungry little fellow looked eagerly at the food.
4. The bells of the church rang merrily on Christmas Day.
13. A couple of neighbouring boys came to our house for
5. Our holidays at the cottage passed quickly.
matches.
6. A devout group of pilgrims landed on the New England
14. The whistle of a train sounded in the distance.
shore.
15. The peaceful quiet of evening settled around us.
7. Threatening thunder rumbled through the sky.
8. Boys with toboggans scrambled up the hill.
9. A bewildered bird flew against the window. EXERCISE 13
10. Jolting old cars rattled over the rails.
Write each sentence and analyse it graphically.
11. Great bales of raw cotton lay on the warehouse floor.
12. A car with a flat tyre thudded over the pavement. 1. Dense clouds of smoke rose into the air.
13. The shortest day of the year comes in December. 2. The greatest discovery of all time came during the war.
14. The boys camped by a lake during the summer. 3. Shouts of applause arose from every spectator.
15. The winning team cheered heartily for their opponents. 4. The lonesome dog whined pitifully.
16. The youngest pupils of the school ran to the fence. 5. His route lay by the riverside.
12 13
6. A notice of the meeting appeared in every paper.
7. The cry of the hounds smote sharply on our ears. 9. From every window stared the faces of children.
8. A silvery full moon rode through the sky. 10. By this time the hounds appeared in sight.
9. The driver pulled on the reins with all his might. 11. In every direction lofty mountains towered into the
IO. Heavy loads of himber pass over the bridge daily. clouds.
11. The speed of the car shows on the speedometer. 12. During the war the national debt of Canada increased
12. The faithful dog watched for three days beside his master. greatly.
13. An open archway led into a spacious hall. 13. In the fresh furrow walked a stealthy old crow.
14. A large owl perched on a telephone pole. 14. At that time the price of copper rose steadily m every
15. Fossils of fish appear in many rocks.
country.
15. In the early morning the victorious knight departed for
Position of Modifiers
his own castle.
In the sentences you have studied, the subject with
its modifiers has come first; then the predicate and
predicate modifiers follow. However, the predicate may EXERCISE 15
precede the subject, and often the predicate modifiers Analyse each sentence in writing.
precede the predicate.
1. For a whole week a jar of untouched olives sat on the
Example: (Through the small settlement) sounded [the]
pantry-shelf.
[wild] cry [of savage Indians.] 2. The close friendship of the boys lasted for several years.
3. With terrific speed the rocket flashed through the sky.
EXERCISE 14
4. Snow on the highway interfered greatly with traffic.
Write •e ach sentence and analyse it graphically. First 5. For weeks the remnants of a defeated army wandered
get the subject and the predicate. Then decide where through the devastated land.
the modifiers belong. 6. Through a tiny crack snow sifted into our cabin.
1. At that very moment a mounted knight in armour 7. In many old castles repose relics of a glorious past.
approached swiftly. 8. Throughout the night a gentle rain pattered on the roof.
2. Now fades the glimmering landscape from the sight. 9. In these very fields our ancestors toiled hard.
3. For several years the men laboured earnestly together. 10. At the circus wild animals paced about in their cages.
4. In the evenings May-flies danced over the water. 11. In former times ruddy flames roared up from many
5. Beside the bed stood a rickety old chair. hearths.
6. Since the war many immigrants arrived in this country. 12. At daybreak the schooner slipped into smoother water.
7. In the early days doctors in the country often travelled 13. In the winter our supplies of food often diminished with
on horseback. alarming speed.
8. On several occasions disputes about the boundary line 14. The names of all the players appeared in the paper.
arose between the two countries. 15. In the spring birds of many kinds returned to the country-
14 side.
15
EXERCISE 16

Decide on the analysis of each sentence, and then give


the work orally in class.
CHAPTER II
1. News of the heroic rescue spread quickly through the
town. PARTS OF SPEECH
2. After his speech the audience applauded enthusiastically. Parts of Speech, Relation of Words, Phrases
3. In many eyes gleamed a sympathetic tear.
4. At this moment a queer little company of men emerged Nouns and Verbs
.
from the wood. Turn to page 1, and read the sentenc:s. N otice
5. During the summer huge icebergs drift south into the again that in the sentences given the ':ord which names
Atlantic. the person or thing spoken a?out_ is a NAME WORD,
6. After school the boys often swam in the creek. and the word which tells what 1s said about the person
7. At length in our sheltered valley the winter suddenly or thing is an ACTION WORD. Name words are called
began. NOUNS, and action words are called VERBS.
8. Across the field came the welcome caw of the first crow.
9. News of the atomic bomb spread rapidly throughout the EXERCISE 17
world. (a) Make a list of all the nouns _in Exer~ises 2 and]·
10. In a year the earth travels around the sun. (b) Make a list of all the verbs m Exercises 2 and _o ·
11. During the night smouldering embers kindled occa- (c) Make a list of twenty name words, and a hst of
sionally. twenty action words.
12. Through the dense forest a winding path led to the lake.
13. My dog always waits at the corner for me. Adjectives and Adverbs
14. In parliament the young country lawyer advanced
rapidly.
For this lesson, turn to the sentences on page 2.
15. During the eclipse a dark shadow passed over the moon. You have already learned:
( 1 ) Each of these sentences contains a subject, a
predicate, and a modifier.
( ) The subjects are name words or ·1.ouns, and the
2
predicates are action words or ~erbs. .
( ) The modifiers are of tw~ kinds. S~me modify su?-
3
jects, and some modify predicates. This means that _m
these sentences some modify nouns, and some modify
verbs.
Let us examine closely the modifiers of nouns and
verbs in each of these sentences, and make a list of those
17
16
EXERCISE 19
which modify nouns and a second list of those which
modify verbs. For example: (a) Give in "":riting th.e part of speech and the relation
The word quickly directs our thought to the verb of each word m Exercise 6. .
grows. It is in the sentence to tell how grass grows. (b) Give orally the part of speech and the relat10n of
The word honest carries our mind to the noun men. each word in Exercise 7.
It makes us think of a quality in men.
In grammar, words which modify nouns are called Articles
ADJECTIVES, and words which modify verbs are called The short modifiers a, an, the, are always . classed
ADVERBS. . t'ives. They are the most frequent modifiers of
as a dJeC
EXERCISE 18 re called ARTICLES. The refers to some
nouns, and a . ll d
(a) Make a list of all the adverbs in Exercises 2 and 3. articular person or thing, and is ca e . a DEFINITE
(b) Make a list of all the adjectives in Exercises 2 and 3. p
ARTICLE. A and an do not refer to any particular person
(c) Classify all the words in Exercise 5 as nouns, verbs, or thing, and are called INDEFINITE ARTICLES.
adjectives, or adverbs.
Example: The house at the corner burned.
A house at the corner burned.
Parts of Speech
When you classify words as you did in the last Pronouns
exercise, you give the PART OF SPEECH of each word. In Examine the following pairs of sentences:
other words, you give the grammatical value of each
word in the sentence. There are eight parts of speech, I. The boy went away. 3. The girl writes well.
and you have now learned to recognize four: noun, verb, He went away. She writes well.
adjective, and adverb. 2. The men worked steadily. 4. The paper tears easily.
They worked steadily. It tears easily.

Relation of Words you see in the second sentence of each pair that
a word is used instead of the noun i~ the first sentence.
We say that one word in a sentence is related to
A word that is used instead of a noun 1s called a PRONOUN.
another, because words work together to express thought.
By substituting pronouns f?r nouns, we are able to
We are now ready to give the part of speech and the
speak and write without repeating the name~ of persons
relation of a word to other words in the sentence.
and things, which would take time and be tiresome.
Example: Good readers speak distinctly.
Columbus} d1scovere
. d A men•ca.
good - an adjective modifying the noun readers Examples: Columbus landed here. He
readers - a noun, subject of the verb speak
speak- a verb having for its subject the noun readers The refrigerator} should be repaired.
distinctly- an adverb modifying the verb speak The refrigerator leaks. It
18 19
. ~~C~EW
(3) Each word-group is without subject and predicate.
Select the pronouns in these sentences. A group of words which is used with the value of
1. I come often.
2 Th. 8. He never came back a single word, and which is without subject and predicate,
· is goes together easily 9 S •
3 She b I h · · ome try earnestly. is called a PHRASE.
. W e _ongds ere. 10. You never worked better A group of words with the value of an adjective is
4• e arrive early S ·
5. It fits well. • 11 . d everal stayed away to- an ADJECTIVE PHRASE, and a group of words with the value
6. Many entirely agreed 12 Tahy. . of an adverb is an ADVERB PHRASE.
.
7. Th at always hangs there. . ey moved m yester- It is not always possible to replace the phrase in a
day.
sentence by a single word. }or example, the phrases
EXERCISE 21
in the following sentences can not be replaced by single
Give ?rally the part of speech and the words:
relation of each
word m the above sentences.
What is the name ef this street? (adjective phrase)
Phrases You did that with my approval. (adverb phrase)
Examine the following pairs of sentences: However, in such cases you can readily decide
1. Large trees grow there. whether the particular phrase has the value of an adjec-
Trees ef great size grow in that province. tive or an adverb.
2. Honourable men live everywhere. EXERCISE 22
M:n 'If honour live in every community. (a) Give orally the kind and the relation of each phrase
3. Sczentijic men investigate carefully. in Exercise Io.
Men ef science investigate with care. (b) Write all the phrases in Exercise II, and give the
4. D~sert winds blow strongly. kind and the relation of each.
Wmds over the desert blow with great force Example: We read in the library.
5 . .Northern rivers freeze then. •
in the library - an adverb phrase modifying the verb read.
Rivers in the north freeze during the winter.
EXERCISE 23
G!ve_ th~ p~rt of speech and the relation of each
word m Italics m the first sentence of each pair N (a) State orally the kind and the relation of each phrase
analyse the second sentence of each pair. . ow in Exercise 1 2.
From this work you see: (b) State orally the kind and the relation of each phrase
~i) hEach_
t
a~jective or adverb in italics in the first sentence
e pair Is replaced by a word-group modifier in the
in Exercise 13.
EXERCISE 24
second sentence. (a) State orally the kind and the relation of each phrase
2 in Exercise 14.
( ) hEa~h word-group has the same grammatical value
as t e smgle word it replaces. (b) State orally the kind and the relation of each phrase
20 in Exercise I 5.
21
Prepositions Other Adverbs
Examine the words in italics m the following
sentences: Examine the following pairs of sentences:
The boys walked to the school. I. Better grain grows here.
The boys walked from the school. 2. Pleasant memories linger with me.
The boys walked tnrough the school. Much better grain grows here.
The boys walked around the school. Very pleasant memories linger with me.
The boys walked past the school. 3. Hot days come in summer.
The boys walked into the school. Excessively hot days come in summer.
The boys walked in the school.
1 ne boys walked towards the school. Give the part of speech and the relation of the first
You notice that we can change completely the word in the first sentence of each pair.
meaning of a sentence by changing only one word. Study Notice the relation of each word in italics in the
the sentences again to see how an entirely different second sentence of each pair. In every case this word
meaning is conveyed by each sentence through the change modifies the adjective which follows it.
of the one word in italics. The new word expresses a A word which modifies an adjective is an ADVERB.
different relationship between the verb walked and the Now examine the following sentences:
noun school. If we substitute the pronoun it for the
noun school, the change in relationship is then between 1. A deer runs fast. 4. He went there.
the \ erb walked and the pronoun it. A deer runs very fast. He went nearly there.
A word which is placed before a noun or a pronoun 2. The guests arrived early.
to show its relation to another word is called a PRE- The guests arrived too early.
POSITION. It is always the first word in a phrase.
3. The students spoke well.
The use of a preposition should be given as follows:
The students spoke exceedingly well.
Examples: Snow from the roof fell on the verandah.
from - a preposition showing the relation between the Give the part of speech and the relation of the last
noun roof and the noun snow. word in the first sentence of each pair.
on - a preposition showing the relation between the noun Notice the relation of each word in italics in the
verandah and the verb fell. second sentence of each pair. In every case this word
modifies the adverb which follows it.
EXERCISE 25 A word which modifies an adverb is also an ADVERB.
Give in writing the use of each preposition in Exercise r r, We can now give the definition of an adverb. An
and then give orally the use of each preposition in ADVERB is a word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or
Exercises r 2 and r 3. another adverb.
22 0.1.-3 23
EXERCISE 26 Conjunctions
Give in writing the relation of each adverb. Examine the following sentences:
I. The road climbs very steeply. Boys and girls play in the yard.
2. He spoke quite freely about his experiences. The men shouted and sang in the street.
3. Scarcely enough food remained in the fort, A long but mild winter passed pleasantly.
4. An exceedingly old man lives there. Slowly and sadly the people walked along.
5. People moved away hurriedly. Sheep graze in the valleys and on the hills.
6. They worked with slightly different methods.
7. Some animals barely exist during the winter. By examining the words in italics we see:
8. An entirely new machine works well, (I) In the first sentence two nouns which are the subject
9. Only honest men work here. of the verb play are joined by and. This is called a
10. The prisoners nearly escaped. COMPOUND SUBJECT.
11. The train travels too slowly. (2) In the second sentence two verbs which have the
12. We arrived here just now. subject men are joined by and. This is called a COMPOUND
13. Much hotter days come in July. PREDICATE.
14. I merely glanced at the picture. (3) In the third sentence two adjectives which modify
15. Very small trees often grow quite thickly. the same noun are joined by but.
(4) In the fourth sentence two adverbs which modify the
EXERCISE 27 same verb are joined by and.
Give orally the relation of each adverb. (5) In the fifth sentence two adverb phrases which
1. The pilot steered straight ahead. modify the same verb are joined by and.
2. Two kittens frisk ed playfully over the lawn. Notice that in each sentence the joined words or
3. That happens quite frequently. phrases are used in the same way; that is, they have the
4. The plane climbed nearly perpendicularly. same relation in the sentence. A word which joins words
5. Almost perfect weather lasted throughout the summer. or phrases used in the same way in a sentence is called a
6. The screech of the siren drew steadily nearer. CONJUNCTION.
7. Your dog growls rather viciously.
8. The Scandinavians protect their forests carefully from The use of a conjunction should be given as follows:
fire. Examples: Horses or cows pasture in that field every summer.
9. Immediately the boat turned about. People live in houses of brick and of stone.
10. A very dark cloud hung directly overhead.
or - a conjunction joining the nouns horses and cows,
11. The last swimmer lagged far behind.,
which form the compound subject of the verb pasture.
12. Most naturalists observe closely.
13. An unusually severe storm swept over the city. and - a conjunction joining the two adjective phrases
14. The owl blinked continually. of brick and of stone, which modify the noun houses.
24 25

I
EXERCISE 28

Give in writing the use of each conjunction, and the re-


lation of the joined parts.
I. The teacher spoke firmly but kindly. CHAPTER III
2. We went and returned by the same route.
S. Smoke escaped through the windows and through the VERBS AND COMPLETIONS
doors. Objects of Verbs, Transitive and Intransitive Verbs,
4. The travellers on the train slept or read. Copula Verbs, Subjective Completions, Verb Phrases
5. Weary but determined soldiers marched to battle.
6. A long and heavy canoe passed slowly. Objects of Verbs
7. Eclipses of the sun and of the moon occur at certain times. Study the following sentences carefully:
8. Poor but honest people live here. The horses pulled the load.
9. I gazed into the sky and over the ocean. The mouse ate the cheese.
10. Men from the navy and from the army marched together. The hunter shot a deer.
11. Friends and foes mingled in a vast throng. The girl broke the dish.
12. Wood or coal burns well in this furnace. The policeman raised his hand.
The dog bit him.
EXERCISE 29
Try to analyse each sentence. In each italicized
Give orally the use of each conjunction, and the relation word you see something new. You discover a noun. or
of the joined parts. pronoun which is not the subject of a verb, and which
1. The Indians hunted and fished for food. is not part of a phrase.
2. Swiftly and fiercely the flames leaped forward.
3. We always camp by a lake or beside a river. By examining the sentences, you see that each verb
4. Parcels of equipment and of supplies lay everywhere on is an ACTION WORD, and that the noun or pronoun fol-
the wharf. lowing it names the RECEIVER ~F THE AC~ION: I~ other
5. Rare and expensive paintings hung on the walls. words, it names the person or thmg the act10n is directed
6. He pitches or catches equally well. towards.
7. The early settlers sowed and mowed by hand. A word which names the receiver of the verb's
8. Slowly but surely the damaged ship crawled into port. action is called an OBJECT OF THE VERB.
9. I study in the morning and in the evening.
10. We ate and slept in the same tent. The relation of an object should be given as follows:
11. A small but courageous dog lay at his master's feet. Examples: The boy closed the door.
12. Men and women bowl in this alley. We saw them.
13. We went and returned by the same route. door - a noun, object of the verb closed.
14. He speaks quickly but distinctly. them - a pronoun, object of the verb saw.
26 27
EXERCISE 30 EXERCISE 31

Give in writing the relation of each object. Write each sentence and analyse it graphically.
1. The girls painted the floor. 1. We gathered dry sticks for our fire.
2. The boys shovel the snow. 2. The boys carried the wood into the shed.
3. We ate our lunch at noon. 3. She hung her coat on a hook.
4. You passed them on the road. 4. The grocer placed the cans on a shelf.
5. Carpenters build houses. 5. Squirrels gather nuts for winter food.
6. I gave it to the man. 6. The boy made a good raft.
7. She knows the song well. 7. Birds eat the seeds of many fruits.
8. The ship crossed the ocean in six days. 8. The men crossed the river in a boat.
9. They carried him upstairs. 9. He drove the cows to the pasture.
10. We borrow books from the library. 10. Many farmers plough their fields in the fall.
11. The nurse placed the flowers in a bowl. 11. The boy caught a large fish.
12. The children picked the berries. 12. They moved the machine to another farm,
13. She paints pictures in her spare time. 13. The engine belched clouds of smoke.
14. Alan caught a mink in his muskrat trap. 14. The boys sharpened their skates for the game.

EXERCISE 32
Analysis of Sentences with Objects
Analyse each sentence in writing.
In the graphic analysis of a sentence which has an
I. The new equipment soon cleared the snow from the
object, we place three lines under the object. A curved
streets.
line indicates a modifier of the object.
2. The boys made a skating rink near the school.
Example: [The] Romans built good roads (in Britain). 3. Then the dog led the hunters to his wounded master.
= ...__,.. 4. We always raise the flag on public holidays.
5. He helped the blind man across the street.
In the written analysis of a sentence, the object and
6. We scored a goal in the last quarter.
its modifiers are usually placed last.
7. The early explorers made many important discoveries.
Example: Skilful packers place the delicious apples in boxes. 8. Sometimes a policeman directs traffic at the busy corners.
Bare Subject - packers 9. Musicians tune their instruments carefully.
Modifier of the Bare Subject- skilful 10. They heard the throb of the engine plainly.
Bare Predicate - place 11. Later the crippled destroyer rejoined the other ships.
Modifier of the Bare Predicate - in boxes 12. The pupils of rural schools often plant trees in the yard.
Object - apples 13. We raised every window in the room.
Modifiers of the Object - ( 1) the (2) delicious 14. The farmer built a fence around his orchard.
28 29
EXERCISE 34
EXERCISE 33
Study the verbs of these sentences to see whether the
Decide on the analysis of each sentence, and then give
action is direct or hidden. Then analyse each sentence
the work orally in class.
orally.
1. At last the searchers found the child beside an old barn.
1. Farmers spend much time in the fields.
2. The servants placed the best food before him.
2. Some subjects require careful study.
3. Tightly he held the precious toy in his hand. 3. Fire-escapes on schools ensure the safety of pupils.
4. The old gentleman has a hearty laugh. 4. The setting sun announces the close of day.
5. Often from the lonely lake he heard the cry of a loon. 5. Trappers in Arctic regions endure many hardships.
6. After this great victory he led his soldiers to the city. 6. In our conversation we recalled the names of many
7. Then Columbus made a new settlement on the island.
friends.
8. The constant drip of water wears holes in stones. 7. In pioneer days an exciting adventure befell a young
9. The modest wants of every day
trapper.
The toil of every day supplied. 8. At closing time the janitor locks the door.
10. Through much effort men discover the secrets of nature. 9. Such businesses usually pay handsome dividends.
11. Some careless folk the deed forgot. 10. The majority of people distinctly remember their early
12. At evening I heard the loud call of the whip-poor-will.
school days.
13. Several of the contestants answered all the questions
correctly.
14. Then from a rusted iron hook, Transitive and Intransitive Verbs
A bunch of ponderous keys he took. Examine the following pairs of sentences:
1. The boys rolled the lawn. 3. They grow vegetables.
Differences in Action Verbs Waves rolled toward the Weeds grow rapidly.
shore. 4. Boys fly kites.
~o1:1etimes the acti~n of the verb is not physical, Birds fly fast.
that is, it cannot be readily seen or percejved. Neverthe- 2. The pupils write letters. 5. We passed many houses.
less ~he verb does exp_ress an action which might be The pupils write well. The days passed slowly.
considered mental or hidden in some way. Analyse each of the above sentences orally. Notice
Study the following sentences, and notice that each particularly:
sentence contains an object, but in the second sentence ( 1) In every sentence the verb shows action.
of each pair the verb does not show a physical action. (2) In the first sentence of each pair the verb is followed
1. He lifted his hat. 2. The boy wiped his shoes. by an object. This object is required to complete the
My father owns a car. He considered my offer at once. meaning of the sentence.
(3) In the second sentence of each pair the same verb is
3. He threw the ball.
Our garden supplies vegetables for several families. not followed by an object.
30 31
When the verb takes an object, we say that it is a Copula Verbs
TR':NSI~IVE VERB. Transitive means to go across. The Study the following sentences, noticing the verbs,
action m the verb goes across to the object. When the and the words in italics that follow them:
verb does not take an object, we say that it is an INTRAN-
1. The boy is ambitious. 6. The melons seem ripe.
SITIVE VERB. Intransitive means not transitive.
2. I am happy. 7. He became a doctor.
The use of the verb in the sentence tells us whether 8. The road looks muddy.
3. The day was hot.
it is tr~n.sitive or ~ntransitive. The same word may be 4. The questions are ea.ry. 9. The chocolates taste
a tra~s1tlve verb m one sentence, and an intransitive 5. The girls werefriends. delicious.
verb m another. Notice this again from these examples.
An examination of the sentences shows:
Examples: The man ~aves furniture. The man moves quickly. (I) Some of the words in italics are adjectives which
He works his horses hard. He works in a store.
describe or modify the subject.
(2) Some of the words in italics are nouns and stand for
EXERCISE 35
the same person or thing as the subject.
(3) In every sentence the verb needs the word in italics
(a) Classify the verbs as transitive or intransitive. to help complete the meaning. Prove this by reading the
1. The storm raged during the whole night. sentences, leaving off the words which follow the verbs.
2. The bears ate the food in our tent. (4) The verbs in the sentences above do not express
3. The early settlers fenced their fields. action, but are used to link or join or couple the com-
4. The students listened attentively. pleting word to the subject.
5. The apples fell from the tree. Verbs which link or join or couple the completing
6. He guided the trembling child along. word to the subject are called COPULA VERBS.
7. They built a new school. Copula verbs are comparatively few in number. The
8. The policemen came quickly. most common are: am, is, are, was, were, seem, become,
9. He refused the offer of a handsome gift, appear, look, feel, taste, sound, smell, grow, turn.
10. We walked through the garden. It is interesting to notice that a few words can be
11. Kings live in palaces. used as transitive, intransitive, and copula verbs.
12. The boys moved the seats.
Examples: He turned the wheel. He turned quickly. He turned
13. All the pupils listened intently.
pale.
14. The shepherds watched their flocks.
Boys grow potatoes. Boys grow fast. Boys grow sleepy.
(b) Write sentences using each word as a transitive verb It is also well to note that the verbs am, is, are, was,
and as an intransitive verb:
and were are often intransitive.
ride, climb, see, study, play, bend, build, write, stand,
assist, teach, plough, shake, sound, eat. Examples: He is here. They were in the yard.
33
32
Subjective Completion EXERCISE 37

Let us examine again the words which complete the Give orally the relation of each subjective completion.
predicate in the sentences you have just studied. We have 11. The bathers were cold.
1. The dog is a wolfhound.
found that some are nouns, and stand for the same person 2. That parrot was my pet. 12. The water felt warm.
or thing as the subject. Others are adjectives which 3. A tomato is a fruit. 13. Your chum looks thin.
modify the subject. These words help the copula verb 4. Potatoes are tubers. 14. The children were noisy.
to form the complete predicate. A word which helps a 5. Her son became king. 15. The bear became angry.
copula verb to form the complete predicate is called a 6. Kittens are playful. 16. The voices sound loud.
SUBJECTIVE COMPLETION. 7. The berries look ripe. 17. This milk tastes sour.
8. Violets smell sweet. 18. The man turned pale.
When a subjective completion is an adjective, it is 9. Jays are inquisitive. 19. Olives seem salty.
called a PREDICATE ADJECTIVE; when it is a noun, it is 10. The king grew old. 20. Monkeys appear clever.
CALLED a PREDICATE NOUN.

The relation of a subjective completion should be


given as follows: Verb Phrases
Examples: The man feels weary. Study the following sentences, noticing especially
The men are partners. the words in italics:
weary - a predicate adjective completing the copula verb
feels and modifying the noun man. 1. The pupils sing. The pupils have sung.
partners - a predicate noun completing the copula verb The pupils are singing. The pupils have been singing.
are and standing for men. He had read well.
2. He reads well.
He was reading well. He had been reading well.

EXERCISE 36 3. I write on the board. I shall be writing on the board.


I shall write on the I shall have written on the
<?ive in writing the relation of each subjective comple- board.
t10n. board.

I. The river was swift. 6. The child was peevish. In the first sentence of each group, the verb is only
2. These men are good 7. My pet squirrel became one word. In the other sentences of each group, the verb
swimmers. a nuisance. -consists of two or more words. A verb which consists of
3. Our canoe is red. 8. This apple seems ripe. two or more words is called a VERB PHRASE.
4. The pie tastes delicious. 9. The brothers are lawyers. The word in a verb phrase which expresses the main
5. That pupil is a fast 10. His home is his castle.
reader.
idea is called the PRINCIPAL VERB. The first sentence of
each group shows the principal verb. Notice that the
34
35
principal verb has different forms. The additional or
helping words are called AUXILIARY VERBS. They are
used mainly to show a change of time.
CHAPTER IV
Do not confuse verb phrases with prepositional
phrases. A verb phrase is simply a verb consisting of KINDS OF SENTENCES
more than one word. It is proper to refer to a verb phrase
as the verb or bare predicate of the sentence. Kinds of Sentences, Complete Analysis,
Objects of Prepositions
EXERCISE 38
Kinds of Sentences
Name the principal and auxiliary verbs m each verb
phrase. Study the following sentences. Notice how each pair
1. I have eaten my dinner. differs from the other pairs.
2. We shall go there tomorrow.
3. He was lying on the ground. 1. They left for town early•
4. They were running in the yard. The boys play ball in the yard.
5. The pupils have been sliding on the frozen pond. •
2. Where are you gomg ·
'jl

6. He had said that before.


Who has my hat?
7. The boy is reading a good book.
8. Our friends are coming now. 3. Play more quietly.
9. The doctor did visit the sick man. Do write often.
10. The birds have been flying south lately.
11. The men will hunt for deer. The sentences in the first pair make a statement or
12. We shall be living there soon. th· These are called ASSERTIVE SENTENCES.
assert some mg. • d f; · exercises have
13. I have never seen the ocean. All the sentences you have stud1e so arm
14. She was visiting in the country. been assertive sentences.
15. The policemen had been wearing new uniforms.
In the second pair, the sentences ask ques:i~ns.
These are called INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES. I~ wntmg,
an interrogative sentence is follow~d by a quest10n mark,
which is also called an interrogat10n mark.
In the third pair, both sentences give coll1;mi:t!s;
but the second command is softened, and m1g
.
cons1dere d a reques t · These are called IMPERATIVE
SENTENCES.
37
36
Interjections Analysis of Imperative, Interrogative,
Words used to express strong feeling, such as and Exclamatory Sentences
surprise, excitement, despair, and anger, are called Notice that the subject of an imperative sentence
INTERJECTIONS. is omitted, and that it must be supplied when we analyse
the sentence.
Examples:
Examples: Sit in the front seat. You sit (in the front seat).
Oh, I did not notice you.
Take your bicycle from the porch.
Hurrah! We won the game. You take your bicycle (from the porch).
Hark! Someone is coming. -=~
Hush! Do not disturb her. In the analysis of an interrogative sentence, re-
Ah! That sounds better. arrange the sentence mentally to place the subject and
Hello! When did you come? predicate at the beginning. Then analyse the sentence
as it is given.
If the interjection is an ell1;phatic or forceful expres:.
sion, it is followed by an exclamation mark, as in the Examples: (When) is he going (away) ? What do you see?
=-= ======-=
last five examples. If it does not appear forceful, it is (He is going away when?) (You do see what?)

followed by a comma, as in the first sentence. In the In the analysis of an exclamatory sentence, re-
analysis of sentences, interjections are omitted. arrange the sentence mentally, to place the subject and
predicate at the beginning, and analyse it as it is given.
Examples: (How well) he spoke! What a mistake he made!
-= ~-=
Exclamatory Sentences
(He spoke how well!) (He made what a mistake!)
A whole sentence is sometimes used to give expres-
sion to a strong feeling. This is called an EXCLAMATORY EXERCISE 39

SENTENCE. It always ends with an exclamation mark. Analyse each sentence in writing.
Examples: How glad I am to see you! I. Did you find your pen?
What a perfect day this is! 2. Come with me to the circus.
What beautiful roses you have! 3. What did you have for dinner?
4. Call for me in the morning.
An exclamatory sentence often begins with an inter- 5. What huge pumpkins you have!
jection. 6. Leave the letter on the table.
7. Have you bought a ticket for the concert?
Examples: Oh, forget about it!
8. Arrange the flowers neatly in the dish.
Well, I am glad that examination is over!
9. Which road do we take?
Indeed, that is good news!
10. Sorry, I do not know the answer.
38 39
There and Not Note that when a word modifies a modifier (of the
The words there and not require special study. bare subject, bare predicate, or object), the two words
are placed together in analysis to make a single modifier.
You have been accustomed to using the word there
as an adverb, meaning in that place, or to that place. Examples: [The] [extremely bright] lights dazzled
Sometimes, however, the word there is used as an the eyes of the driver.
introductory word which fills out the sentence to give
.......... ~
it smoothness. When the word there is used in this way,
it is called an EXPLETIVE. It gets its name from a Latin ! shall see you (again) (very soon).
word which means to fill out. We omit expletives when There~ [too much] noise (in the room).
analysing sentences because they are not related (We omit the expletive.)
grammatically to other words in the sentence.
Examples: He went there (adverb).
EXERCISE 40
There is no answer (expletive).
Study the following sentences, and note the use of (a) Write each sentence and analyse it graphicaJly.
the word there in each one: (b) Explain orally in class the uses of the words there
There may be a storm soon.
and not.
They went there for the holiday. 1. There is not enough coal in the stove.
Then there came a heavy frost. 2. Not vainly did the pilgrims seek new homes.
There was a knock at the door. 3. There are strong lights in this room.
There is nothing there. 4. She will not see you tomorrow.
The word not is an adverb. It may modify a verb, 5. Not many days are left for shopping.
an adjective, or another adverb. 6. There was lightning in the night.
Study the use of the word not in each of the follow- 7. I have not forgotten your kindness.
ing sentences: 8. There is room for your hats on the rack.
He is not at home (adverb modifying the verb is). 9. They did not go to the meeting.
.Not sufficient warning was given (adverb modifying the 10. He has not yet arrived .
adjective sufficient). 11. There is a letter for you there.
.Not nearly sufficient warning was given (adverb modifying 12. There are thirty days in September.
the adverb near?J). 13. There were many exhibits at the flower show.
Do not answer in that manner (adverb modifying the verb 14. I did not see you there.
do answer). 15. There are some thrilling stories in that book.
Medicine will not cure him (adverb modifying the verb will 16. There were not many parents there.
cure). 17. There is time for another game.
40 41
EXERCISE 42
Complete Detailed Analysis
Write each sentence and analyse it graphically.
You have learned all the parts of a sentence, an?
1. A new boy came to our school today.
have now reached the last step in the kind of analysis
2. Previously we needed a player on our team.
that we have been doing. We call this DETAILED ANALYSIS.
1. The native was a devoted servant of the explorer.
In detailed graphic analysis use a wav~ line to show
4. In a terrific storm the plucky little ship nosed her way
a subjective completion and a curved hne to show a
into port.
modifier of a subjective completion. 5. Put the new tire in the t'ruck.
Examples of Graphic Ana(ysis: 6. I do not know any boys on the other team.
(At once) [the] [little] girl b e c a m e ~ ~ ~ 7. Meat was scarce during that long winter.
8. The mining engineer was having great difficulty with
[The] child seems very sick. sliding rock.
-= ~

[The] wood is not sufficiently dry. 9. The sky above us was inky black.
-=~ 10. All the air a solemn stillness holds.
11. Why were you climbing the fence?
Example of Written Ana(ysis: . 12. For several years we had not planted a garden.
At once the little girl became a beautiful gold statue.
Bare Subject - girl
Modifiers of the Bare Subject- (1) the (2) little EXERCISE 43
Bare Predicate - became Decide on the analysis of each sentence, and then give
Modifier of the Bare Predicate - at once the work orally in class.
Subjective Completion - statue .
I. In the spring our boys play baseball in vacant lots.
Modifiers of the Subjective Completion - (1) a (2) beautiful
2. Between the hunter and the deer was a wide swamp.
(3) gold
EXERCISE 41
3. I have read several stories about tigers.
4. We have been living here for a long time.
Write each sentence and analyse it graphically.
5. The dwellings of the natives were very small.
1. The life of a lion-hunter was dangerous.
6. Then the fireman moved very cautiously along the ledge.
2. Plans for the hike are now ready.
7. On every occasion his good manners were noticeable.
3. On the trip the plane flew over dense forests.
8. We have heard your words of warning.
4. Good highways connect all the principal towns of the
9. Canada is fortunately a country of great natural resources.
province. . 10. Since those early days life on Canadian farms has become
5. In the lock they saw several freighters.
happier and easier.
6. The lake looks beautiful at sunrise.
. . ? 11. In the autumn the leaves of the maples are very colourful.
7. Were the houses of the settlers cold m wm ter.
12. On long walking trips Scott gathered material for his
8. The roar of the engines faded in the distance.
novels.
9. A sudden storm turned the ship from its regular course,
43
42

J
Connected Phrases Objects of Prepositions
In some sentences several phrases are connected,
You learned that a preposition is the first word in
with one phrase modifying a word in another phrase.
a phrase. The last word in a phrase is called the OBJECT
In such cases, the two or more separate phrases make
OF THE PREPOSITION. Sometimes the words of a phrase
one modifier for purposes of sentence analysis.
are separated, as in the second example below.
Example: Rain poured through the roef ef our cabin in the pines. We give the relation of the object of a preposition
The modifier of the predicate is through the roof of as follows:
our cabin in the pines. Examples: The petals dropped off the rose.
Taken as three separate phrases, we show the rela- Whom are you writing to?
tion of these phrases as follows: rose- a noun, object of the preposition off.
through the roef- adverb phrase modifying the verb poured. whom - a pronoun, object of the preposition to.
of our cabin - adjective phrase modifying the noun roC!f:
in the pines - adjective phrase modifying the noun cabin.
EXERCISE 45

EXERCISE 44 Select the object of each preposition and give its relation
in writing.
Decide on the analysis of each sentence, and then give
the work orally in class. 1. The river is deep at that spot.
2. Whom did you get it from?
1. The birds ate the crumbs from our table.
3. Offers of help came from several friends.
2. We read by the light of the candle.
4. Will you take me with you?
3. The antics of a clown in rags amused the children.
5. I shall call at your house for the parcel on my way to
4. At this time of the year fishermen mend their nets. school.
5. In June an eagle built a nest in a tall pine about a mile
6. What were you pointing at?
from our cottage.
7. Many tons of coal for winter use were stored in the cellar
6. He came up over the hill in the flush of the early dawn. d~ring the summer.
7. On the day in question they had fastened their rope to a
8. I r~ad about it in the paper.
tree on the top of the cliff.
9. W.hpm were you talking to?
8. Presently the vacant space at the window was filled by
10. We waited at the corner for her.
another form.
11. Hearty applause came from every part of the room.
9. In front of us a huge flock of sheep filed slowly down that
12. Through a hole in the dyke water poured over the land.
narrow trail in the mountains.
13. The sailor pointed toward the island.
10. There in the midst of its farms reposed the Acadian village.
14. During the summer vacation I sleep in a tent.
44
45
Different Uses of the Same Word
The use of a word in the sentence determines what
part of speech it is. In the following sentences study the CHAPTER V
words in italics, which show this clearly:
1. We need your help. (noun)
REVIEW
We help our parents. (verb) REVIEW-Adverbs
2. The iron is hot. (noun) EXERCISE 47
It is an iron rod. (adj ective)
(a) Review carefully the work on adverbs on pages 23
They iron clothes. (verb)
and 24.
3. I have been here before. (adverb)
He sat before the fireplace. (preposition) (b) Give orally the relation of each adverb in Exercise 26.

4. Some men work hard. (adverb)


That is a hard task. REVIEW-Adjectives
(adjective)
EXERCISE 48
5. Our soldiers defend the right. (noun)
Judges often right injustices. (verb) Give orally the relation of each adjective in Exercise 42.
That is the right answer. (adjective)
He always acts right. (adverb)
REVIEW-Phrases
EXERCISE 46
EXERCISE 49
(a) Compose sentences using each of the following words
(a) Study again the work on phrases on pages 20 and 21.
as a noun. Then compose sentences using each word as a
verb: (b) Pick out the phrases from the sentences in Exercises
hope, mention, hurt, permit, review 43 and 44. Then in class, give orally the kind and the
(b) Compose sentences using each of the following relation of each phrase.
words as a preposition and an adverb:
under, by, over, through, without REVIEW-Objects of Verbs
(c) Compose sentences using each of the following
EXERCISE 50
words as an adverb and an adjective:
well, daily, fast, high, deep (a) Study again the work on objects of verbs on pages
(d) Compose sentences using each of the following 27 and 28.
words as a noun, verb, and adjective: (b) Give orally the relation of each object of a verb in
wrong, telephone, paper, return, blind Exercises 30 and 31.
46 47
REVIEW-Subjective Completion (d) Write five sentences with an adverb modifying an
EXERCISE 51
adverb.
(a) Review the work on copula verbs and subjective (e) Write three sentences with two adjectives and two
completions on pages 33 and 34. adverbs in each.
(b) Give orally the relation of each subjective completion EXERCISE 55
in Exercises 36 and 41. (a) Write three short interrogative sentences and analyse
each graphically.
REVIEW-Conjunctions (b) Write three imperative sentences and analyse each
EXERCISE 52
graphically.
(a) Study carefully the work on conjunctions on (c) Write three exclamatory sentences and analyse each
page 25.
graphically.
(b) Give orally the answers to Exercise 28. (d) Write three sentences with an adverb phrase at the
EXERCISE 53 beginning of each.
(a) Write two sentences with a conjunction joining two (e) Write three sentences with an adverb phrase at the
words which form a compound subject. end of each.
(b) Write two sentences with a conjunction joining two (f ) Write three sentences with an adverb phrase and
words which form a compound object. an adjective phrase in each.
(c) Write two sentences with a conjunction joining two EXERCISE 56
verbs which form a compound predicate. (a) Write sentences using each of the following ~ro~ps
(d) Write two sentences with a conjunction joining two of words as an adverb phrase, and then as an adJect1ve
adjectives. phrase:
(e) Write two sentences with a conjunction joining two
on the ground; in the boat; over the ocean;
adverbs.
by the building; for your help; through the forest
(f) Write two sentences with a conjunction joining two
adjective phrases. (b) Write five sentences in which the verbs have objects.
(g) Write two sentences with a conjunction joining two (c) Write five sentences in which the verbs are followed
adverb phrases. by subjective completions.

REVIEW-General REVIEW-Relation of Words


EXERCISE 54 EXERCISE 57

(a) Write five sentences with a verb phrase forming the Give in writing the part of speech, and the relation or
predicate of each sentence. the use of each word.
(b) Write five sentences with an adverb modifying a I. The wood of this tree is very strong and hard.
verb. 2. Presently the owner of the cabin appeared in the doorway.
(c) Write five sentences with an adverb modifying an 3. The giant plane flew swiftly over land and sea.
adjective. 4. They had concealed their discovery for two years.
48 49
REVIEW.:_Relation of Words 7. The weary hunter kindled a fire on the bank of the river.
8. We piled with care our nightly stack
EXERCISE 58 Of wood against the chimney-back.
Study these paragraphs and decide on the part of speech 9. The black panther is a ferocious beast.
and the relation or the use of each word. Then give the 10. Oft did the harvest to our sickle yield.
work orally in class. 11. There are still many undiscovered lakes in Canada.
The sky was friendly. We recognized some of the stars. 12. The ranger reported the forest fire from his tower on the
The Great Dipper was there. The North Star was also hill.
there. The studded belt of Orion was bright. The Little
Dipper was faint but clear. Other stars winked and sparkled
EXERCISE 60
at us from the sky. The snow winked and sparkled at us
from the ground. It was a diamond-studded night. White
Study each sentence to decide on its analysis, and then
beauty was everywhere.
We circled the silent islands with their empty cabins. give the work orally in class.
Then we turned for home. The moon was aloft now. She 1. Those red candles on the table are very pretty.
had grown prouder and colder. The stars were colder too. 2. Slowly the huge grizzly lumbered down the mountain-
The air was still. From the hill came the bark of a dog. It side.
came again and again. It and the crunch of our snow-shoes
3. Then a whirling flake of snow fell gently on the old man's
were the only noises of the night.
hand.
Adaptedfrom "White Beaury" by Charles B. Pyper. 4. For many people in a city the parks provide enjoyment in
summer.
REVIEW-Detailed Analysis 5. The golden sea its mirror spreads
Beneath the golden sky.
EXERCISE 59
6. At dawn the ship found herself in the thick of the fight.
Analyse each sentence in writing.
7. The greatest events in the world's history have occurred
1. For hours huge waves lashed the shore of the tiny island. in this century.
2. Where did you get this exciting book? 8. The blazing logs in the fireplace furnished ample light
3. From our seat in the gallery we could hear every word of during the winter evening.
the play. 9. From the mill the early settlers often carried sacks of
4. In dusky pods the milkweed flour on their backs to their homes.
I ts hidden silk has spun. 1O. We dropped the seed o'er hill and plain
Beneath the sun of May.
5. Many farmers in Canada are now harvesting their grain
11. In front of our house we planted a row of maples.
with combines.
12. Through vales of grass and meads of flowers
6. My golden spurs now bring to me. Our ploughs their furrows made.
50 51
EXERCISE 61
(a) Classify the nouns as common or proper.
I. The town of Whitby is close to Toronto.
CHAPTER VI
2. The city has a library on King Street. It was endowed by
NOUNS AND PRONOUNS Andrew Carnegie.
3. Easter and Christmas are special days.
Common and Proper Nouns 4. The shortest month is February.
Examine the following sentences and notice the 5. Sunday is the first day of the week.
difference in the italicized nouns in each pair; 6. Cuba and Iceland are islands.
1. They built a city there. 7. We crossed the ocean on the Queen Mary.
They built Victoria there. 8. David Livingstone discovered and named the Victoria
Falls in Africa.
2. The explorer sailed along the coast.
9. Shakespeare wrote many famous plays and poems.
Cook sailed along the coast.
10. Montreal is the largest city in Canada.
3. A nurse became famous. 11. Bunyan wrote Pilgrim's Progress in prison.
Florence Nightingale became famous.
12. Queen Victoria was greatly loved by her people.
4. The country has vast resources. 13. Mexico is on the southern border of the United States of
Canada has vast resources. America.
5. The river flows into the ocean.
(b) Give a proper noun to correspond with each com-
The St. Lawrence flows into the ocean.
mon noun in the following list, and give a common noun
The noun city in the first sentence might refer to to correspond with each proper noun:
any city anywhere in the world. The noun in the second
sentence of this pair names one particular city, Victoria. Examples: lake- Ontario; Edison - inventor.
In the same way, the noun explorer might be any ex-
lake girl Hudson gulf
plorer, but the noun Cook names one particular man,
Captain Cook. river day newspaper Vesuvius
island Paris ship railway
A noun which applies to any one of a class of things
is called a COMMON NOUN. A noun which names one isthmus Florida king ocean
particular person, place, or thing is called a PROPER strait month Tuesday street
NOUN. Notice that the name of one particular person, Edison province country Tennyson
place, or thing is always shown with a capital letter. Panama Caribbean woman Robin Hood
52 53
Study of Pronouns Classes of Pronouns
Pronouns are classified in certain ways because they Pronouns which stand for persons are called
differ in nature. PERSONAL PRONOUNS.The following are personal pro-
nouns:
EXERCISE 62
I, me, he, him, you, we, us, they, them, she, hers, his, yours, theirs,
(a) Study the sentences which follow and decide on the mine
analysis of each sentence.
(b) Make a list of all the pronouns in the sentences, Pronouns which are used in asking questions are
noticing similarities and differences. called INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. The following are
1. I have seen that before. interrogative pronouns:
2. He hurt himself. who, whom, whose, which, what
3. We met her there.
4. Are you going with me? Pronouns which point out a particular person or
5. I did not see you thing are called DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. They get this
6. It is your book. name from the Latin word, demonstro, which means
7. This is my pen. point out. The following are demonstrative pronouns:
8. Whom did you want?
this, that, these, those
9. Which did you choose?
10. We went with them. Example: The books are on the table. These are mine, but
11. Another will take my place. those belong to Tom.
12. All have listened attentively. Pronouns which stand for no particular person or
13. Some will believe anything.
thing are called INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. The following are
14. Everybody felt sorry for her.
indefinite pronouns:
15. Something hit him on the head.
16. He always considered the welfare of others. some, few, any, all, several, one, none, both, either, neither, many,
17. One should not say that. each, others
18. This is a valuable picture.
Also compounds of the above, as:
19. Several applied for the position.
20. Each should bring a notebook. someone, somebody, something, anyone, anybody,
21. You are keeping him from his work. anything, everyone, everybody, everything, no one
22. Anyone may make a mistake.
23. Few knew about their trouble. EXERCISE 63
24. Many went to the meeting.
25. What did he say about it? Classify the pronouns in Exercise 62 as personal, inter-
26. Who gave the money to him? rogative, demonstrative, or indefinite.
54 G.I.-5 55
Pronominal Adjectives Person in Pronouns
Give the part of speech and the relation of each There are three kinds of PERSONAL PRONOUNS, as
word in italics. follows:
1. This book belongs to me. 4. Whose son are you? ( 1) I, me, mine; we, us, ours
5. My work is easy. (2) You, yours; thou, thee, thine, ye
(Thou, thee, thine, and y e a re not commonly used)
2. That book belongs to you. 6. Some men are fortu-
(3) he, him, his; she, her, hers; it, its; they, them, theirs
3. Which way did they go? nate.
A study of these lists shows:
Your study of the italicized words in the above
(1) The pronouns in the first list stand for the person
sentences shows:
or persons speaking. These are called pronouns of the
(I) These words are adjectives, since they modify nouns. FIRST PERSON.
(2) They are pronouns, since they stand for persons or (2) The pronouns in the second list stand for the person
things. or persons spoken to. These are called pronouns of the
Words which have the value of both pronouns and SECOND PERSON,
adjectives are called PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. (3) The pronouns in the third list stand for the person
The relation of a pronominal adjective should be or persons spoken about. These are called pronouns of
given as follows: the THIRD PERSON.
Examples: These are your gloves. Which pair do you want? Pronouns such as myself, himself, yourself, herself,
your- a pronominal adjective modifying the noun gloves. itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves, are called COMPOUND
which- a pronominal adjective modifying the noun pair. PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
It should be noted that interrogative, demonstra-
EXERCISE 64 tive, and indefinite pronouns stand for the person or
Select the pronominal adjectives and give the relation of thing spoken about, and are of the third person. All
each. nouns are of the third person.
1. May I have your ruler? 6. These days are short.
2. Her writing is good. 7. Any seat will suit me. Number in Nouns and Pronouns
3. We need their heip. 8. That roast looks tender. Nouns and pronouns usually change their form to
4. They liked its colour. 9. Which hat did you buy? show whether one or more than one is meant.
5. Our time is precious.
Examples:
10. That building is very old.
(one): I me he girl sheaf fly man
11. Whose pencil are you using?
(more than one) : we us they girls sheaves flies men
12. Some boys are skilful carpenters.
13. Several members were late. When we tell whether one or more than one IS
14. My brother plays hockey well. meant, we give the NUMBER of a noun or pronoun.
56 57
The form of a noun or pronoun which shows one
person or thing is called the SINGULAR NUMBER. The Case in Nouns and Pronouns
form of a noun or pronoun which shows more than one Examine the following groups of sentences, and
person or thing is called the PLURAL NUMBER. notice the form of the personal pronouns used in them:
Note that most nouns form their plural by adding
1. I came home. 3. He entered the room.
s or es to the singular. We shall study later other ways
The man saw me. The teacher greeted him.
of forming plurals. The pronoun you has the same form
This is my bicycle. It is his coat.
for the singular and plural.
2. We rang the bell. 4. They work here.
We give the person and number of pronominal
The man saw us. The man praised them.
adjectives, just as we do for pronouns.
That is our house. These are their shoes.

In the first group of sentences you see three pro-


EXERCISE 65
nouns - I, me, my. These are three forms of the same
Give the person and number of each pronoun m pronoun. In each of the other groups you also see three
Exercise 62. forms of the same pronoun. Study the sentences to see
EXERCISE 66
if you can find a reason for this.
Why are three forms of the same pronoun needed?
Give the kind and number of each noun, and the kind, To get an answer to that question, give the relation of
person, and number of each pronoun in the following: each pronoun.
The trial and death of Socrates, as it has been written by From this work we learn:
his beloved pupil Plato, is even today one of the masterpieces ( 1) The subject of the verb in each sentence requires a
in the world's history. particular form of the personal pronoun.
It tells how Socrates appeared before his judges, the men (2) The object of the verb in each sentence requires a
of Athens, to answer the charges against himself, and it particular form of the personal pronoun.
gives the words of that wonderful defence. Socrates begs for (3) The sentence in each group which shows owner-
his life, not for his own sake, but for theirs; he is their ship or possession requires a particular form of the
heaven-sent friend, though they know it not. He is an old pronoun.
man already, and the Athenians will gain nothing by taking You see that these pronouns have different forms to
away from him the few years of life remaining. indicate different relations. For instance, I is the subject
Fearlessly he speaks to his judges of death. "Be of good form; me is the object form; my is the possessive form.
cheer about death," he cries to the crowded court, "and A noun changes its form to show possession, but it
know of a certainty that no evil can happen to a good man, has the same form when it is an object as when it is a
either in life, or after death. The hour of departure has subject.
arrived and we go our ways - I to die and you to live. When we tell whether a noun or pronoun is used
Which is better, God only knows."
in the sentence as subject, object, or to show possession,
58
59
we give its CASE. Nouns and pronouns used as subjects are (3) Pronouns he, she, it, of the third person:
in the NOMINATIVE CASE. Nouns and pronouns used as Singular Plural
objects are in the OBJECTIVE CASE. Nouns and pronouns Nominative: he she it they
used to show possession are in the POSSESSIVE CASE, Possessive: his her, hers its their, theirs
Certain pronouns have two possessive forms, as Objective: him her it them
follows:
my, mine; her, hers; our, ours; your, yours; their, theirs. (4) Declension of the pronoun who:
The first in each pair is always used with a noun, and Singular Plural
is called a POSSESSIVE PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVE. The second Nominative: who who
in each pair is used without a noun, and is called a Possessive: whose whose
POSSESSIVE PRONOUN.
Objective: whom whom
(The forms thou, thee, thine (thy), and ye are omitted, as they are not commonly
Notice that the object of a preposition requires the used.)
same form as the object of a verb. It is always in the Notice that the possessive pronouns its, hers, theirs,
objective case. ours,yours, are written without an apostrophe.

Declension of Pronouns EXERCISE 67

You have learned that personal pronouns change Give orally the case and the relation of each pronoun.
their form for number, and that they also change their I. Who did that? I 1. Who will go for it?
form for case. When we give the forms of a pronoun 2. The dog ran after them. 12. I was helping him.
for number and for case, we DECLINE the pronoun. This 3. Who came with you? 13. Your cousin visited us.
we call giving its DECLENSION. 4. You and he are tall. 14. Who knows the answer?
The study of these declensions will teach you when 5. Whom did you invite? 15. She and I will go to-
to use each form. 6. I saw you with them. gether.
7. He knows them well. 16. I saw her at the show.
(I) Pronoun I of the first person~
8. We ran from them. 17. Whom do you sit with?
Singular Plural 9. Whom should I ask? 18. Who lives in that house?
Nominative: I we 10. She lost her pen.
Possessive: my, mine our, ours 19. Whom did you buy that for?
Objective: me us 20. She and her brother left early.
(2) Pronoun you of the second person: 21. This present is for you and her.
Singular Plural 22. Whom are you going with?
Nominative: you you
23. They know their work well.
Possessive: 24. That money is for him and me.
your, yours your, yours
Objective: you you 25. Of whom were you speaking?
60 26. He and I live on the same street.
61
Declension of Nouns Predicate Nominative
Nouns can be declined, but the only changes in form A noun or pronoun which follows a copula verb
are to indicate the plural and to show the possessive case. is always in the nominative case. It is called a PREDICATE
NOMINATIVE. It completes the predicate and stands for
To form the possessive of nouns we use an apostrophe
and s in the singular (' s), and an apostrophe after the the same person or thing as the subject. See page 34 and
sin the plural (s'). You will lea,rn more about possessives notice that the only change is that we now call the
predicate noun a predicate nominative.
later.
A predicate nominative, which is always a noun or
For example, study the declension of the noun boy: pronoun, is a SUBJECTIVE COMPLETION. (YOU will remem-
Singular Plural ber that a subjective completion may be an adjective, in
Nominative: boy boys which case it is called a predicate adjective.)
Possessive: boy's boys' The relation of a predicate nominative should be
Objective: boy boys given as follows:
To give the relation of a possessive noun, simply say Example: The men are partners. That is he.
that it shows possession of what follows. partners - a predicate nominative completing the copula
Example: The boy's hat is brown. verb are, and standing for men.
boy's - a noun in the possessive case showing the possession he - a predicate nominative completing the copula verb is,
of hat. and standing for the person represented by that.
EXERCISE 68
EXERCISE 69
Give orally the case and the relation of each noun.
Give orally the relation of each predicate nominative.
1. The sun's rays were hot.
I. He is a sailor. 6. It was he.
2. The campers threw water on the fire.
2. It is I. 7. She is a musician.
3. Strange plants grow in tropical countries.
3. I am a teacher. 8. It was they.
4. Rich men's fortunes were not easily made.
4. You are a student. 9. Dictators are tyrants.
5. The settler's house was small.
5. It was she. 10. Crows are thieves.
6. Some early inhabitants of this earth lived in caves.
11. He became a skilful doctor.
7. The hunters saw a flock of wild geese above their heads.
12. They were good architects.
8. The i:ainbow's colours delight us.
13. Former enemies now appear good friends.
9. The boy's hands were cold.
14. Bees are tireless workers.
10. Large cakes of ice floated in the lake.
15. A dog is a good companion.
11. Farmers boiled sap in large kettles.
16. They are assistants in the library.
12. On the peaks of the mountains snow glistened m the
17. His great wealth seems a hindrance.
bright sunlight.
18. Obstacles are often incentives to greater effort.
13. Canada's capital is Ottawa.
62 63
Study these tenses of the verb know:
PRESENT TENSE PAST TENSE
Singular Plural Singular Plural
CHAPTER VII
1st Person I know we know I knew we knew
TENSE IN VERBS 2nd Person you know you know you knew you knew
3rd Person he knows they know he knew they knew
Tense in Verbs
Examine the following sentences and decide whether FUTURE TENSE

the action of the verb takes place in the present, past, Singular Plural
or future. 1st Person I shall know we shall know
1. He talks about his work. 2. They know their lessons. 2nd Person you will know you will know
He talked about his work. They knew their lessons. 3rd Person he will know they will know
He will talk about his work. They will know their
Note: Additional forms of the second person singular are:
lessons.
thou knowest, thou knewest, thou wilt know. These are
A study of these sentences shows: not commonly used.
(I) The verb in the first sentence of each group shows Study these tenses of the verb be:
PRESENT TIME. The action is happening now.
(2) The verb in the second sentence of each group shows PRESENT TENSE PAST TENSE
PAST TIME. The action is.finished or completed. Singular Plural Singular Plural
(3) The verb in the third sentence of each group shows 1st Person lam we are I was we were
FUTURE TIME. The action has not yet taken place, but 2nd Person you are you are you were you were
will take place in the future. 3rd Person he is they are he was they were
(4) The form of the verb for past time is different
from the form for present time. FUTURE TENSE

(5) To show future time, an auxiliary verb is used with Singular Plural
the form for present time. ISt Person I shall be we shall be
The change in the form of a verb to show a change 2nd Person you will be you will be
in time is called TENSE. The three tenses shown by these 3rd Person he will be they will be
verbs are known as the PRESENT, PAST, and FUTURE
EXERCISE 70
TENSES.
We are now ready to write the first person, second Write the present, past, and future tense forms of the
person, and third person pronouns with the tense forms following verbs:
of a verb. write, run, go, find, think
64 65
Special Uses of the Future Tense 9. We will never yield to the enemy.
In the future tense, the auxiliary shall is used in 10. They shall not receive help from me.
the first person, and the auxiliary will is used in the 11. I will aid you in every possible way.
second and third persons. This is called the SIMPLE 12. We shall not pass this way again.
FUTURE. The simple future shows what is expected to 13. You will enjoy the concert.
happen. 14. He will not come home.
Study these sentences.
15. You shall remain at home.
1. I will never reveal your plans.
16. She shall never have my consent.
2. "I will have that mouse," said the little kitten.
17. We shall have a pleasant afternoon.
3. "You shall not have that mouse," said the bigger one.
4. He shall not remain here. 18. I shall be glad to assist you.
5. They slzall not pass. 19. You will know him by his walk.
20. I will do it, and nothing shall stop me.
In these sentences the uses of the auxiliaries shall
and will are exactly reversed from those in the simple
future. Will is used in the first person, and shall is used Agreement between Subject and Predicate
in the second and third persons. This use of shall and Singular Plural
will is called the FUTURE OF PROMISE OR DETERMINATION.
1. I am at school. We are at school.
The speaker uses it to give a promise or express deter-
mination. 2. You are at school. You are at school.
We have this rule for the uses of shall and will. To 3. He is at school. They are at school.
show the simple future, use shall in the first person and In these sentences, a particular form of the verb
will in the second and third persons. To show the future must be used with each pronoun, although in some cases
of promise or determination, use will in the first person the same form of the verb is used with different subjects.
and shall in the second and third persons. Notice the different forms of the verb. With the
pronoun in the first person singular, we use am; with
EXERCISE 71 the pronoun in the third person singular, we use is; with
State whether the verb shows the simple future, or the the pronoun in the third person plural, we use arf. In
future of promise or determination. these sentences, as the subject changes in form to show
I. I shall probably go. 4. We will wait for you. a change in person and number, the form of the verb
2. I will not listen to you. 5. They will expect us. changes. This change is known as AGREEMENT BETWEEN
SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. We say that a verb agrees with
3. He will treat you well. 6. I shall try again.
7. We shall phone tomorrow. its subject in person and number.
8. Their work will please you. The verb be, which is shown above in the present
66 tense, has more changes for agreement between subject
67
and predicate than any other verb. With other verbs, the 9. (Was, were) your answer correct?
change is mainly in the third person singular of the 10. I (go, goes) to church on Sunday.
present tense. This is shown by the verbs in the following 1I. They (do, does) the chores every day.
sentences: 12. The girls (have, has) prepared a lunch.
I do not remember his name. 13. There (was, were) two children on the road.
You do not remember his name. 14. Dandelions (grow, grows) on our lawn.
He does not remember his name. 15. The little girls (was, were) very noisy.
16. You and I (go, goes) to the same dentist.
We do not remember his name.
17. The votes (was, were) all counted.
You do not remember his name.
18. Many of the neighbours (has, have) gone to the picnic.
They do not remember his name.
19. Who (was, were) those men in the car?
The change in the form of the verb for number also 20. At the door (sit, sits) Dick and Tom.
takes place when a noun is the subject. 21. (Was, were) you the first speaker?
22. Blanche and her sister (take, takes) the bus every night.
Example: The boy writes. The boys write.
23. Robert and his friends (is, are) here.
We must always use a plural form of the verb when
the subject is a plural noun or pronoun. Also, a plural EXERCISE 73
form of the verb must be used with a compound subject,
as: The boy and his sister come to school. Give the tense, the person, and the number of each verb.
A good way to learn agreement between subject and I. He always carried a book in his pocket.
predicate is to practise using the correct form of the verb 2. We rise early in the morning.
in sentences. 3. They will not see him again.
4. I recognized you at once.
EXERCISE 72 5. The boys answered the questions promptly.
6. I shall always respect him.
In the following sentences, choose the correct form 7. The explorers hunted lions in Africa.
of the verb: 8. The horses pull well together.
1. We (was, were) at school today. 9. You will never be without friends.
2. He (don't, doesn't) live on his farm. 10. The boat skims over the water.
3. Accldents (happens, happen) too frequently. 1 I. They were good neighbours.
4. I (like, likes) your hat. 12. She will not know you.
5. There (was, were) thousands of people at the Exhibition. 13. He has good judgment.
6. Hail and frost often (injure, injures) the fruit crops. 14. We shall be there early.
7. These seats (is, are) too far back. 15. Missionaries risked their lives in foreign countries.
8. Those boys (jJlays, play) in our school orchestra. 16. The painter works rapidly.
68 69
The Perfect Tenses Conjugation of Verbs
Examine the following sentences, and decide at what When we give the tense forms of a verb with the
time the action takes place: first, second, and third person pronouns, we CONJUGATE
the verb. You have already done this for the present,
I have finished my work.
You have finished your work.
past, and future tenses.
He has finished his work. Here is the conjugation of the verb see in the present
In each sentence the verb indicates an action which perfect, past perfect, and future perfect tenses.
has been completed in a time very close to the present, PRESENT PERFECT TENSE
and the auxiliaries have and has are used with the prin- Singular Plural
cipal verb. This is called the PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. IS! Person I have seen we have seen
2nd Person you have seen you have seen
Now examine the following sentences, and consider he has seen they have seen
3rd Person
the time of the verbs:
PAST PERFECT TENSE
I had finished my work before noon. Singular Plural
You had finished your work before noon. rst Person I had seen we had seen
He had finished his work before noon. 2nd Person you had seen you had seen
In each sentence the verb indicates an action which 3rd Person he had seen they had seen
was completed prior to another time or another action, FUTURE PERFECT TENSE
and the auxiliary had is used with the principal verb. Singular Plural
This is called the PAST PERFECT TENSE. 1st Person I shall have seen we shall have seen
Next examine the following sentences, and consider 2nd Person you will have seen you will have seen
3rd Person he will have seen they will have seen
the time of the verb:
I shall have finished my work by noon tomorrow.
You will have finished your work by noon tomorrow.
He will have finished his work by noon tomorrow.
In each sentence the verb indic2.tes an action which
will be completed before some point oftime in the future,
and the auxiliaries shall have and will have are used with
the principal verb. This is called the FUTURE PERFECT
TENSE.

You will find it easy to recognize perfect tenses from


the use of the auxiliary verb have in its various forms.
70 G.I.-6
71
Perfect Tenses of the Verb be Principal Parts of the Verb
On page 65 we conjugated the verb be in the present, The form of the principal verb which is used in the
past, and future tenses. Here is the conjugation of the perfect tenses is called the PAST PARTICIPLE. In the
verb be in the present perfect, past perfect, and future sentence, J have written, for example, written is the past
perfect tenses. participle.
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE
The present tense form, the past tense form, and
the past participle are called the PRINCIPAL PARTS OF
Singular Plural
THE VERB. The principal parts of some verbs are given
1st Person I have been we have been here, but you should consult the appendix of this book
2nd Person you have been you have been and your dictionary for the principal parts of other verbs.
3rd Person he has been they have been
Present Past Past Present Past Past
PAST PERFECT TENSE Tense Tense Participle Tense Tense Participle
Singular Plural begin began begun lie (to lay lain
bite bit bitten recline)
1st Person I had been we had been
break broke broken raise raised raised
2nd Person you had been you had been
bring brought brought rmg rang rung
3rd Person he had been they had been
burn burned or burned or nse rose nsen
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE burnt burnt run ran run
come came come saw sawed sawed or
Singular Plural
do did done sawn
1st Person I shall have been we shall have been draw drew drawn see saw seen
2nd Person you will have been you will have been drive drove driven sell sold sold
3rd Person he will have been they will have been eat ate or eaten set set set
eat* shake shook shaken
fall fell fallen show showed shown or
fly flew flown showed
get got got or sing sang sung
gotten sit sat sat
give gave given stand stood stood
go went gone take took taken
grow grew grown throw threw thrown
know knew known wear wore worn
lay (to laid laid write wrote written
place)
* pronounced "et".
72 73
REVIEW-Tenses (b) Write the following tense forms of the verb give:
EXERCISE 74 1. second person plural, present, perfect tense
(a) Write from memory the principal parts of the fol- 11. third person singular, future tense
lowing verbs: 111. first person singular, future perfect tense
1v. second person singular, past perfect tense
begin fly know see tell
come v. third person plural, future tense
get lay send throw
VI. first person plural, future tense
do give lie set write
drain go raise vn. first person plural, past tense
take
drive grow rise vm. third person singular, present perfect tense
speak
IX. third person singular, future perfect tense
(b) Write the conjugation of the verbs tell and send in x. first person singular, present tense
the present perfect, past perfect, and future perfect XI. third person plural, past perfect tense
tenses. xn. first person singular, present perfect tense

(c) Write the conjugation of the verb be (am) in the (c) Write the conjugation of the verbs take, go, and
present, past, future, present perfect, past perfect, and write in the present perfect, past perfect, and future
future perfect tenses. perfect tenses.
(d) Give orally the conjugation of the verbs rise, raise,
(d) Give orally the conjugation of the verbs do lie and and sing in the six tenses.
lay in the six tenses. ' '
EXERCISE 76
EXERCISE 75
Give the tense, person, number, and relation of each verb
(a) Write the following tense forms of the verb speak: in the following sentences:
1. third person plural, past tense Example: He pitched well in that game.
11. first person singular, present tense
pitched - verb, past tense, third person, singular number,
m. second person plural, future tense
having for its subject the pronoun he.
IV. third person singular, future perfect tense
v. first person plural, present perfect tense 1. I shall remain at home.
v1. third person singular, past perfect tense 2. The Indian had run the rapids many times.
vn. first person plural, future tense 3. We shall have finished the work before that time.
vm. second person singular, future perfect tense 4. The pupils had lowered the flag at noon.
Ix. third person singular, present perfect tense 5. She will be glad to see you.
x. third person singular, future tense 6. We have not played with this ball before.
xi. second person plural, past tense 7. They will have gone before evening.
xn. first person singular, past perfect tense 8. On several occasions Byrd had sailed for the Antarctic.
xm. second person singular, present perfect tense 9. For a whole week the ship held to its course.
74 75
10. By this time tomorrow I shall have left here.
11. They had decided to go home.
12. I have been there many times.
13. Flames leaped upward into the sky. CHAPTER VIII
14. He has lain there for some time.
15. Friends will meet us at the station. SPEAKING AND WRITING CORRECTLY
16. They have given their services freely.
You are beginning the work of an important chapter.
17. Before the great fire London had suffered from a plague,
The study of grammar shows how to speak and write
18. She works in an insurance office.
correctly. You have learned some rules, and now you are
to put them into practice.
The work here will help you to form good speech
habits. If you are careful to watch your language, you
will soon form the habit of speaking correctly.

Correct Use of Verbs


LIE, LAY
The word lie shows a state or position. The word
lay shows an action. Lie means to recline, to remain in a
fiat position. It is an intransitive verb and cannot take
an object Its principal parts are: lie, lay, lain.
Examples: Occasionally I lie on the couch.
Yesterday I lay in the sun.
That book has lain on my desk for several days.
Special Uses are:
The prairies lie in the western part of Canada.
The responsibility lies with you.
Lay means to place. I ts principal parts are: lay, laid,
laid. It is a transitive verb and takes an object.
Examples: I lay things away carefully.
When school closed I laid my books away.
I have just laid my gloves down.
Special Uses are:
Grasshoppers laid bare the fields.
He laid claim to the insurance.
76 77

.I__
l
Notice that you cannot lie anything down, but you Set means to put in a certain place or position.. _I ts
can lay it down. You cannot lay down to sleep, but you principal parts are: set, set, set. It is generally. a tran~1:1ve
can lie down to sleep. verb, but in the fifth example it is used as an mtrans1t1ve.
RISE, RAISE Examples: Set the kettle on the stove.
Rise means to move upwards. It is an intransitive Yesterday you set the kettle on the stove.
Have you set the kettle on the stove?
verb. Its principal parts are: rise, rose, risen. '

I
Special Uses are:
Examples: We rise early in the morning. They have set a time for the meeting.
The plane rose high into the sky. The sun sets in the west.
He has risen to speak.
Notice that you set dishes on the table, but the
Special Uses are: J
' dishes sit on the table.
The rebels rose in revolt.
He has risen in society. EXERCISE 77
The mountains rise to a great height. Write out the sentences, filling the blanks with the
Raise means to lift upwards. It is a transitive verb. proper forms of lie and lay.
Its principal parts are: raise, raised, raised. I. Yesterday !.. .............. on the couch in the morning.
Examples: He raises his head. 2. The cows have ...... ..... .... .in the shade for a long time.
They have raised the flag. 3. .......... ...... the mat at the door.
Special Uses are: 4. Usually I... ............. on my right side.
We raised his salary. 5. Shall I.. ..............your book on the desk?
That man raised a large family. 6. The bricklayer................ the bricks evenly.
Canada raised an army. 7. He had ........... ..... his hat on the bench.
8. The newsboy........... .. ... our paper inside the door.
Notice that you raise the pans from the table to put 9. The town ... .... .........in a pleasant valley.
them into the oven, but the dough rises. 10. He always ..... ......... ..the blame on others.
I 1. Last night !.. ........... ...awake for an hour.
SIT, SET
12. He has ................ his books down.
Sit means to rest in a sitting position. Its principal
parts are: sit, sat, sat. It is generally an intransitive verb. EXERCISE 78
Examples: The pupils sit in seats. Write out the sentences, filling the blanks with the
They sat on the ground. proper forms of rise and raise.
They have sat there for a long time.
1. The sun ......... ...... early in June,
Special Uses are: 2. They................ him to his feet.
The council sits every month. 3. I always .. ....... ..... ..the window at night.
He sits in the legislature for our constituency. 4. Many people............... .in rebellion.
78 79
5. They................ the boat from the bottom of the lake. CAN, MAY
6. The water.......... ...... during the night. Can means to be able, and is an auxiliary verb. May
7. The children have ................ money for the Red Cross. is used when permission is asked or granted, and is also
8. The moon has ................. an auxiliary verb. May is also used to express possibility,
9. The mountains ................ high into the sky. ?,S in the last three examples.
10. !.. .............. early this morning to study.
11. His employer................his salary. Examples: I can solve the problem.
12. Dairy workers................ early to deliver milk. They can succeed.
13. They had ................ the price ofbutter. May I sit here?
14. The mist has ............... .from the valley. You may have my pen.
It may rain today.
EXERCISE 79 We may not arrive until late.
Write out the sentences, filling in the blanks with the We may have a holiday tomorrow.
proper forms of sit and set.
BEGAN, BEGUN
l. In the tepee Indians .. .............. on the floor.
2. Did you ................the hen? These are the past tense and past participle forms
3. He has ................ there all night. of the verb begin. The use of begun in the past tense is
4. He had ................ the pail down. a common error. Use begun only in the perfect tenses.
5. The trapper........... ..... his traps in the woods. Examples: 1 began the lesson this morning,
6. Shall I.. ..............the chairs around the table? I have begun the lesson.
7. I often................ before the fireplace.
8. Who....... .........the price of cheese? COME, CAME, COME
9. He ... ............. the basket on the floor. These are the principal parts of the verb come.
10. Have you ever.......... .... .. in the gallery before? Notice that the present tense and past participle forms
11. He had ................ in parliament for many years. are similar. Never use come in the past tense.
12 ................. that box here.
13. Where do you .......... .... .. ? Examples: 1 come to school every day.
14. The sun ................behind a cloud. I came yesterday.
15. They................ out on a long journey. I have come for a visit.

BRING, FETCH DID, DONE

Bring means to carry from where you are. Fetch means These are the past tense and past participle forms of
to go and bring. Bring implies going one way;fetch implies the verb do. The use of done in the past tense is a common
going two ways. error. Done is always used with an auxiliary verb.
Examples: Bring your coat tomorrow. Examples: I did the chores.
Fetch a pail of water from the well. I have done the chores.
80 81
l
DOESN'T, DON'T •
I
I
EXERCISE 81
Write out .the sentences, filling in the blanks with may or
Doesn't is the shortened form of does not. It requires
can.
a subject in the singular number. Don't is the shortened
form of do not. It generally requires a subject in the 1. ................1 use your telephone?
plural number. 2. ! ................ never remember his name.
S. You ................ borrow my book.
Examples: The clock doesn't strike. 4. He................ play the accordion.
These flowers don't bloom early. 5. She ................ name many birds.
The following are exceptions to this rule: / don't, 6. .. ............. .I show my answer?
and you (singular) don't. 7. I.. .............. see your purpose.
8. This new automobile .. .... ... ....... travel seventy miles an hour.
9. .. .............. we cross the street at recess, please?
EXERCISE 80 10. I ...... ... .......do all the questions.
Write out the sentences, completing each with the correct 11. Foxes .. .............. run fast.
word in brackets. In each case be prepared to give the 12 ................. ! have another sandwich?
reason for your choice. 13. He................ play the piano well.
I. I always ................ my lunch to school. (bring, fetch) 14. This ................ be your last chance.
2. We ................ some new work today. (began, begun) 15 ................. ! see your mother?
3. He ................ write plainly. (don't, doesn't) 16. .. .............. he sing well?
4. I.. .............. all the chores before supper. (did, done) 17. ................ my father ride in your car?
5. You have................your story with a good sentence. (begun,
GIVE, GAVE, GIVEN
began)
6. Please ................some wood from the basement. (bring, These are the principal parts of the verb give. The
fetch) use of give in the past tense is a common error. Use
7. We ................ here last week for a picnic. (came, come) given in the perfect tenses.
8. Grandmother................all her own housework. (done, did) Examples: I give regularly to the Red Cross.
9. We had ................ home early. (come, came) I gave my report yesterday.
10. Do not... ............. so many books home from the library. I have given my report.
(bring, fetch)
11. That hat... ............. suit me. (doesn't, don't) KNEW, KNOWN
12. The players ................the game late. (begun, began) These are the past tense and past participle forms
13 ............ ..... ! borrow your coat? (may, can) of the verb know. Use knew in the past tense, and.known
14. They................ on the train yesterday. (come, came) in the perfect tenses. (There is no such word as knowed.)
15. I had just... ............. my music lesson. (begun, began)
16. He ................ come here often. (doesn't, don't) Examples: I knew that last year.
I have known that for a long time.
17. I. ............... my homework at school. (did, done)
82 83
SAW, SEEN 4. We................ a television set in the store. (seen, saw)"
These are the past tense and past participle forms 5. They................ probably come here tomorrow. (shall, will)
of the verb see. Never use seen in the past tense. 6. I have................the same recitation before. (given, gave)
Examples: I saw the picture. 7. Our friends had ................for a visit. (gone, went)
I have seen the picture. 8. He ................ my answer. (seen, saw)
I had seen the picture. 9. They................ all about it. (knew, knowed)
10. !.. .............. never forget my first attempt to swim. (will,
SHALL, WILL shall)
To show the simple future, use shall in the first 11. He has just................ away. (gone, went)
person and will in the second and third persons. To 12. Many people have ................ better days. (saw, seen)
show the future of promise or determination, reverse this 13. I.. .............. to school every day last year. (come, came)
use. This has. been dealt with previously on page 66. 14. Do not... ............. on the damp ground. (lie, lay)
15. He................ others to drive the tractor. (teaches, learns)
TEACH, LEARN 16. We ................ you in the store. (saw, seen)
Teach means to instruct. Learn means to acquire
knowledge, .and never to impart it. EXERCISE 83

Examples: He teaches them grammar. Write out the sentences, completing each with the correct
They learn grammar. word in brackets. In each case be prepared to give the
reason for your choice.
WENT, GONE I. I have ................ a car for two years. (drove, driven)
These are the past tense and past participle forms 2. I hope you ................ have a good time at the party. (shall,
of the verb go. Went should never be used in the perfect will)
tenses. 3. They had ............... .the lock on the door. (broken, broke)
Examples: I went there. 4. Your explanation ......... .......satisfy me. (doesn't, don't)
I have gone there. 5. These potatoes................ very small. (is, are)
You had gone there. 6. I... ............. never alter my decision. (will, shall)
She will have gone there. 7. The boy and his sister................ sick. (is, are)
8. They................ all the way home yesterday. (run, ran)
EXERCISE 82 9. He has................ his books away. (took, taken)
10. My brother and !.. ..............often at their home. (were, was)
Write out the sentences, completing each with the correct
11. You ................ receive my reply at once. (will, shall)
word in brackets. In each case be prepared to give the
12. He has ... .............several books. (written, wrote)
reason for your choice.
13. You and I.. .............. very fortunate. (was, were)
I. I certainly................not give my consent. (will, shall) 14. We................ you at the Exhibition Grounds. (saw, seen)
2. I.. .............. you my answer yesterday. (give, gave) 15. They................ many old songs. (sung, sang)
3. He................ his dog to sit up. (learned, taught) 16. The berries in this pail................ small. (is, are)
84 85
Watch These Prepositions EXERCISE 84

BESIDE, BESIDES Write out the sentences, completing each with the correct
Beside means at the side of Besides means in addition to. word in brackets. In each case be prepared to give the
reason for your choice.
Examples: He placed his bat beside the bench.
He thinks of others besides himself. 1. .He walked ................ the house ahead of me. (in, into)
2................. his board he received a small salary. (besides,
BETWEEN, AMONG beside)
3. This is a secret... ............. him and me. (among, between)
In referring to two, use between. In referring to
4. Bears are fond ....... ......... honey. (of, off)
more than two, use among. 5. She burst hurri edly................ the room. (in, into)
Examples: This secret is between you and me. 6. Much snow fell... ............. the roof. (off of, off)
He divided the profits among the workers. 7. You should ................ gone. (of, have)
8. Divide all the prizes ................ the three winners. (among,
Notice that it is a glaring error to use the nominative
between)
form of the pronoun, I, instead of the objective form, me, 9. They stuffed candies................ the Christmas stockings. (in,
after the preposition between. Never say: between you into)
and I. 10. We ate lunch ................ the stream. (besides, beside)
:
1, 11. The boys walked .............. ..together. (of, off)
IN, INTO
12. He thrust his hand .. ............. .the mitt. (into, in)
The preposition in shows a position within or inside.

I
13. The man divided his fortune ................ his five sons. (be-
The preposition into shows movement from without to tween, among)
a position within. 14. He might... .......... ... come with us. (of, have)
15. They moved ............. ...that house yesterday. (into, in)
Examples: He studies in his room. I
He came into my office.
Watch These Pronouns
ONE ANYONE NO ONE EVERYONE SOMEONE
OF, OFF EACH ANYBODY NOBODY EVERYBODY SOMEBODY
Of is a preposition. Off is a preposition, an adverb, These indefinite pronouns are singular in number,
and an adjective. Do not use off and of together. It is and they require singular verbs. Another pronoun in
wrong to say: He came off of the train. The correct the sentence which refers to one of these words must be
statement is: He came off the train. Consult your dic- in the singular number.
tionary for the other uses of the word off. Examples: Each of us is willing to do his share.
Note: Never use of instead of the auxi liary verb have. Say: You should hav~ Everyone has his ticket.
received the prize. Do not say : You should efreceived the prize.
Did anybody lose his fountain pen?
86
87

1_
EITHER, NEITHER YOU

Either and neither are indefinite pronouns. Do not You takes a plural verb whether it stands for one,
use these words in referring to more than two, and always or more than one. It never takes a singular verb. (There
use a singular verb with each word. is no such word as youse.)
Examples: Either of them is able to do that. Examples: Are you a carpenter?
Neither of the pupils knows the answer. · You are good citizens.

I, WE, HE, SHE, THEY WHO, WHOM


These pronouns must always be used in the nomina- Always use who in the nominative case, and whom
tive case. in the objective case.
Examples: They and we will go at the same time. Examples: Who called me?
She and he were away. Whom are you expecting?
He and I went together. Whom did you wave to?
ITS, IT'S
EXERCISE 85
The possessive form of the pronoun it is its, and
Write out the sentences, completing each with the correct
does not require an apostrophe. It's is the shortened
word or words in brackets. In each case be prepared to
form of it is.
give the reason for your choice.
Examples: The kitten licked its paws.
1. Neither he nor !.. .............. there. (were, was)
It's time to leave.
2. This book is ................. (yours, your's)
ME, US, HIM, HER,THEM 3. The children and ................................ having a good time;
Use these pronouns in the objective case. Note that (he, him; is, are)
4. Either Mary or Jane ................................ coat on my hook.
her is also a possessive pronominal adjective.
(have, has; their, her)
Examples: Let us divide the cake between them and us. 5 ................. do you see? (who, whom)
Will you telephone to him and her? 6. The bus will wait for you and ................. (I, me)
My dog will do many tricks for me. 7. Everybody must pay................ taxes. (his, their)
THEIR, THEIRS, THERE, THERE'S
8. It wasn't... .............. (I, me)
9 ................. and ................ frequently ................ on the boat. (he,
Their is a possessive pronominal adjective. The him; me, I; were, was)
possessive pronoun is theirs, which does not take an 10. I never could see ................ use. (its, it's)
apostrophe. There is an adverb and an expletive. 11. ................ anybody seen my sweater? (has, have)
There's is the shortened form of there is. 12. I bought this car for ................ and her mother. (she, her)
Examples: There is their house. 13 ................. either of you seen my keys? (has, have)
There's no other farm like theirs in the district. 14. Not one of these answers................ correct. (are, is)
88 89
15. Either of these roads ................ to the city. (leads, lead) 5. She sings ... .............. (beautiful, beautifully)
16. Everyone should know .. ..............neighbours. (his, their) 6. Your skates feel .. ............... (sharply, sharp)
17. John and .............. ..will help you. (me, I) 7. The mechanic spoke ............... .about his invention.
18. Neither of the windows ................ tightly. (shut, shuts) (confidently, confident)
19. All of the stores ............... .in the evenings. (close, closes) 8. The cake tastes ................. (well, good)
20 ................. names are difficult to pronounce. (there, their) 9. Birds sing............... .in the spring. (sweetly, sweet)
21. ................ are you waiting for? (who, whom) 10. The stranger spoke very................. (earnest, earnestly)
22 ................. and ................ generally................. (her, she; I, me; 11. Your explanation sounds ................ to me. (strange~
agrees, agree) strangely)
23. These books are ................. (their's, theirs) 12. Hounds smell ................. (keen, keenly)
24. Either time ................ convenient for me. (are, is) 13. That man always looks ................. (sad, sadly)
14. Don't you feel... ............. in this place? (queer, queerly)
Correct Use of Adverbs and Adjectives 15. The bell tolled very................. (faintly, faint)
16. The general looked ................ at the soldiers. (close, closely).
A word modifying a noun or pronoun is an adjective, 17. The taxi-drivers sounded their horns ................. (loudly,
while a word modifying a verb, adjective, or adverb is loud)
an adverb. You will remember that the copula verbs 18. The barber felt the edge of the razor................. (careful,
f eel, smell, sound, taste, look, are followed by predicate carefully)
adjectives. 19. The milk tastes .. ............... (sourly, sour)
GOOD, WELL
20. Drive ................ (careful, carefully)
Good is always an adjective. Well is generally an
adverb, but it is an adjective when it means in good REVIEW-Correct Usage
health. EXERCISE 87
Examples: He played well; he sang well. (adverbs) Choose the right word in each sentence and state your
He looks well. (adjective meaning healthy, modifying reason.
he)
l. (Who, whom) do you prefer for the position?
EXERCISE 86 2. How many of you (fetched, brought) a lunch?
\\Trite out the sentences, completing each with the correct 3. He is a (really, real) famous man.
word in brackets. In each case be prepared to give the 4. Do not put paper (in, into) the stove.
5. I have never (drove, driven) over this road before.
reason for your choice.
6. Your garden is growing (well, good).
I. The child does not feel... .............. (good, well) 7. This clock (don't, doesn't) keep good time.
2. The cookies smell .. ......... .. .... (well, good) 8. That road looks (badly, bad).
3. He swims and dives................. (well, good) 9. Neither of the two days (are, is) suitable to me.
4. He does not write ................. (plain, plainly) 10. The mat was (laying, lying) at the front door.
90 91
11. The boy was (sitting, setting) on his cap.
12. The successful pupils (shall, will) receive their certificates
soon.
13. The water in the lake (rises, raises) after a heavy rain. CHAPTER IX
14. The children have (gone, went) to school.
15. (Brightly, bright) coloured flowers make an attractive NOUNS
bouquet. Plurals in Nouns, Possessive Case, Gender
16. I (seen, saw) several strange birds.
17. The judge (give, gave) the man another chance, Formation of Plurals in Nouns
18. They (was, were) ready for the bus. r. Most nouns form their plural by adding s or es.
19. (May, can) we use your boat? apple, apples; box, boxes; brush, brushes.
20. The river meanders (lazily, la<)!) through the meadow, 2. Nouns ending in y preceded by a vowel form their
21. You should (ef, have) seen the circus.
plural by adding s.
22. The pupils behaved (well, good) at the game.
day, days; turkey, turkeys; toy, toys.
23. (Were, was) either of your parents there?
24. It is a long (way, ways) through the tunnel. Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant form
their plural by changing they to i and adding es.
city, cities; lady, ladies; country, countries.
3. Nouns ending in o preceded by a vowel form their
plural by adding s.
folio, folios; radio, radios; cuckoo, cuckoos.
Nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant usually
form their plural by adding es.
potato, potatoes; hero, heroes; echo, echoes.
Note: Musical terms, and a few other words which
end in o preceded by a consonant, add only s.
piano, pianos; solo, solos; soprano, sopranos;
rondo, rondos; banjo, banjos.
4. Some nouns ending inf or ft change the f to v and
add es ors.
loaf, loaves; leaf, leaves; wife, wives.
5. A few nouns form their plural by a vowel change
within the word.
man, men; tooth, teeth; mouse, mice.
92 93
EXERCISE 88
6. A few nouns use n or en to form their plural.
child, children; ox, oxen. Write the following words in a column, and beside each
7. Some nouns which come from foreign languages write its plural:
have their foreign plurals. axis cliff piano crisis knife pailful
solo negro radio tomato if formula
basis, bases; curriculum, curricula; datum, data;
fife goose banjo wharf valley man-of-war
larva, larva:; phenomenon, phenomena;
so sheaf child motto soprano maid-servant
radius, radii; stratum, strata; tableau, tableaux.
8. Compound nouns usually pluralize the more im- EXERCISE 89
portant word. Give the singular of each of the following:
father-in-law, fathers-in-law; governor-general, remedies moneys
wives wolves allies larvae
governors-general; lieutenant-governor, lieutenant- spoonfuls potatoes
feet folios shelves echoes
governors.
ways oases ponies factories tableaux sons-in-law
Note: A few compound nouns pluralize both parts. lice beaux leaves thieves chimneys storeys
man-servant, men-servants. roofs strata parties glories baths women-
g. Some nouns are plural in form but singular in mean- 8's two's cantos calves wrenches servants
ing, and require a singular verb. lives oxen cargoes stories volcanoes
news, mumps, measles, civics.
EXERCISE 90
Example: The news was good.
\Vrite each sentence, using the correct word in italics.
Other nouns are always plural, and require a plural I. The news (is, are) good.
verb. 2. The lumps of sugar (is, are) hard.
scissors, ashes, trousers, tongs, riches, thanks.
3. The (axes, axis) of the earth is an imaginary line joining
Example: Riches do not always bring happiness. the poles.
10. Letters, figures, and words used merely as words, 4. The scissors (was, were) sharp.
form their plural by adding an apostrophe and s. 5. The (oases, oasis) are often far apart in the desert.
e's, 9's, and's. 6. Take two (spoons full, spoonfuls) of this medicine.
7. Mathematics (is, are) an easy subject for some students.
Examples: Your e's and your 9's are not legible. 8. The (tableau, tableaux) was well acted.
Avoid the use of so many and's. 9. Mumps (is, are) an infectious disease.
1 1. A few nouns have the same form in the singular and 10. Ashes (was, were) used with fat to make soap.
plural. l I. ( This, these) larva (is, are) very small.
deer, moose, salmon, trout, Iroquois, sheep. 12. Several boxes of candy (was, were) on the shelf.
12. Some nouns have two plural forms. 13. ( This, these) phenomena (is, are) unusual in winter.
brother, brothers, brethren; penny, pennies, pence. 14. In this quarry notice several (layer, layers) oflimestone.
94 95
EXERCISE 91
Possessive Case in Nouns
Write the possessive singular and possessive plural of
I.To form the possessive case of singular nouns we
each of the following nouns:
add an apostrophe and s.
man OX woman sister editor merchant
girl's book, John's hat, dog's collar. bird wolf actor friend family giraffe
Note: In the case of a few singular nouns which have wife child gypsy lawyer mother monkey
hero week enemy teacher turkey mother-in-
two s sounds, .only the apostrophe is added. The addi-
law
tion of another s sound would make these words difficult
to pronounce. Gender in Nouns
conscience' sake, Moses' laws. Nouns which represent a male being are of the
MASCULINE GENDER, and nouns which represent a female
2. To form the possessive case of plural nouns not
b_eing are of t~e FEMININ~ ?ENDER. Nouns which may be
ending ins, we add an apostrophe ands. either masculme or femmme are said to be of COMMON
women's, children's, oxen's. GENDER, as:

. 3. To form the possessive case of plural nouns ending child, bird, cousin.
m s, we add only the apostrophe. Nouns which represent objects without life are of
girls', ladies', officers'. the NEUTER GENDER.
chair, box, house, hill.
4. The possessive case of compound nouns is formed
However, we frequently speak of certain inanimate
by adding an apostrophe and s to the last word. objects as if they had gender. For example, ship, moon,
son-in-law's, sisters-in-law's, men-of-war's. nature, are often referred to as she. In other languages
you may study, you will find that objects without life
. 5. The idea of possession for things that are not living
are often of masculine or feminine gender.
1s often expressed by a phrase beginning with the pre-
Nouns of the opposite gender are shown in the
position of. This usually sounds more pleasing than using
following ways:
the word with an apostrophe.
I. By the use of different words.
the end of the road, the roof of the house,
king man husband uncle
the streets of the town.
queen woman wife aunt
With nouns indicating time the apostrophe ands are monk father nephew youth
usually used. nun mother mece maiden
an hour's delay, a month's notice, one year's master goose
interest, a day's work. mistress gander
96 97
2. By the addition of an ending to the masculine.
actor baron count deacon
actress baroness countess deaconess
god heir hero tiger CHAPTER X
goddess heiress heroine tigress
lion ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS
patron prince host
lioness patroness princess hostess Comparison of Adjectives and Adverbs

3. By changing one part of a compound noun. Comparison of Adjectives


he-wolf man-servant landlord Examine the words in italics in the following
she-wolf maid-servant landlady sentences:
Monday was a cold day.
EXERCISE 92
Tuesday was a colder day than Monday.
State the gender o~ e~ch noun, and give its opposite
gender. Before begmnmg, study gender forms in the Wednesday was the coldest day of the three.
Appendix. Here you see three forms of the adjective cold, which
lad duck goose widow actor daughter are used to show different degrees of coldness. When we
nun mare vixen master prophet shepherd change the form of adjectives in this way, we COMPARE
hen heir baron bride tigress bachelor them, or give their COMPARISON.
cow duke youth deacon heroine princess
ewe lord In the above sentences three different degrees of the
uncle waiter hostess maid- same quality are expressed. The adjective cold is said to
servant be in the POSITIVE DEGREE. The adjective colder is formed
by adding er to the positive degree, and it is said to be in
the COMPARATIVE DEGREE. The adjective coldest is formed
by adding est to the positive degree, and it is said to be
in the SUPERLATIVE DEGREE.
The comparative and superlative degrees of adjec-
tives are formed in three ways.
1. The first way of forming the comparative and
superlative degrees of adjectives is by using er or r with
the positive to form the comparative, and est or st with the
positive to form the superlative. This is called REGULAR
COMPARISON. This method is used with adjectives of one
98 99
syllable, and with adjectives of two syllables when the 3. The third way of forming the comparative and
comparative and superlative forms are easily pronounced. superlative degrees of adjectives is by using different
Positive Comparative Superlative words for different degrees. This is called IRREGULAR
large larger largest COMPARISON.
bright brighter brightest Positive Comparative Superlative
h appy happier happiest good, well b etter best
noble nobler noblest bad, evil, ill worse worst
strong stronger strongest far farther farth est
pretty prettier prettiest many, much more most
wealthy wealthier wealthiest little less, lesser least
lazy lazier laziest fore former foremost
quiet quieter quietest near nearer nearest (next)
clever cleverer cleverest late later (latter) latest (last)
old older (elder) oldest (eldest)
2.The second way of forming the comparative and
superlative degrees of adjectives is by placing in front Notice that the last three adjectives above are regu-
of the positive form the adverbs more and most, or less larly compared, but that in addition each has other
and least. This is called PHR.ASAL COMPARISON. It is used forms showing irregular comparison.
with adjectives of more than two syllables, and with some Note: Some adjectives represent qualities that do
adjectives of two syllables. not vary. Such adjectives cannot be compared, as:
Positive Comparative Superlative straight, circular, square, daily, yearly.
plentiful more plentiful most plentiful
beautiful more beautiful most beautiful EXERCISE 93
cautious less cautious least cautious
intelligent Give the comparative and superlative forms of the follow-
more in telligent most intelligent
patient ing adjectives:
more patient most patient
difficult less difficult least difficult gay kind good thick worthy healthy
big near bad quiet careful pleasant
It should be noticed that some adjectives may be old late small lucky lonely generous
compared by regular comparison or by phrasal com- hot safe great little wealthy beautiful
parison. far much early pretty earnest wonderful
deep easy sweet clever famous industrious
Positive Comparative Superlative dark thin pale high liberal majestic
simple simpler simplest quick large poor rich sincere handsome
simple more simple most simple true dull mean noble happy
100 101
Comparison of Adverbs The superlative degree is used in comparing more
than two persons or things. We must say: John is the
Adverbs are compared in the same way as adjectives.
I. By adding er and est to the positive degree. (regular
tallest of the three boys. There are many pupils in our
comparison) : class, but I am the youngest.
Positive Comparative Superlatine EXERCISE 94
fast faster fastest Write out each sentence, using the correct word m
soon sooner soonest italics.
2. By the use of more and most before the positive form 1. Both drawings are good, but yours is the (best, better).
(phrasal comparison) : 2. Is wood or steel the (more, most) durable?
3. This is the (faster,fastest) of the two horses.
Positive Comparative Superlative
4. He is the (less, least) talkative of all the children.
swiftly more swiftly most swiftly
5. John is the (tallest, taller) of the two boys.
3. By using different words (irregular comparison): 6. Both rivers are wide, but this is the (widest, wider).
Positive Comparative Superlative 7. This is the (brighter, brightest) of the two rooms.
well better best 8. Is your father or mother the (most, -more) musical?
much more most 9. This is the (duller, dullest) of all the books I have read.
far farther farthest 10. He is the (stronger, strongest) of the two men.
little less least 11. This is the (busier, busiest) season of the year for farmers.
badly worse worst 12. Which is the (youngest, younger) of the two brothers?

Some adverbs that cannot be compared include the


following:
now, then, there, here, too, yonder, very, so,
therefore, how.

Correct Usage
The comparative degree is used to show that one
person or thing possesses more (or less) of a certain
quality than another person or thing. Two colours may
be bright, but one may be brighter than the other. We
must always use the comparative form when comparing
two persons or things. It is wrong to say: This is the
brightest of the two colours. We must say: This is the
brighter of the two colours.
102 G.I.-8 103
Conjunctions in Compound Sentences
The words most commonly used to connect the
CHAPTER XI
clauses of compound sentences are and and but. You
studied these words when they joined words and phrases
SIMPLE AND COMPOUND SENTENCES used in the same way in the sentence, and you learned
Simple and Compound Sentences, that they are called CONJUNCTIONS. You now see that
and their Analysis conjunctions also join clauses used in the same way in
the sentence.
Simple and Compound Sentences
Study these sentences.
Study the following groups of sentences:
1. Parts of Holland are below the sea-level.
1. We heard a plane. 2. Great dykes hold back the water.
We did not see it. 3. By this means much land is saved for cultivation.
We heard a plane, but we did not see it. 4. Parts of Holland are below the sea-level, but great dykes
2. The boys cleaned the yard. hold back the water, and by this means much land is saved
The girls planted the flowers. for cultivation.
The boys cleaned the yard, and the girls planted the flowers.
Notice that the first three sentences are closely con-
We see: nected in thought. In such cases, it is often desirable to
(1) In each of the first two sentences of a group there is combine several statements into one compound sentence.
one subject and one predicate. This has been done in the fourth sentence.
(2) The first two sentences of each group are joined to
form the third sentence. Select the clauses of the fourth sentence. It is evident
A sentence which contains only one subject and one that the clauses are equal in value, since each can form
predicate is called a SIMPLE SENTENCE. a sentence. They are therefore principal clauses. Note
that we omit the connecting word (conjunction) in
A part of a sentence which contains a subject and
reading the clauses.
a predicate is called a CLAUSE. Clauses which can form
sentences are called PRINCIPAL CLAUSES. They are also
EXERCISE 95
sometimes called INDEPENDENT CLAUSES •.
You will notice that in the third sentence of each Combine the following simple sentences into compound
group above the clauses are the same as the first two sentences.
sentences of the group. A sentence which is made up of 1. Mary took her umbrella. She did not need it.
two or more principal clauses is called a COMPOUND 2. He called at the house. He left a parcel.
SENTENCE. The verb compound means to combine. Two 3. Queen Bess smiled. She walked dryshod upon the out-
or more statements are combined to form a compound spread cloak.
sentence. 4. I could stand. I was too weak to walk.
104 105
5. Coke is a kind of fuel. It is not so heavy as coal. Other Conjunctions in Compound Sentences
6. He bought some land. He built a house on it. In addition to and and but, a few other conjunctions
7. Dark clouds gathered quickly. It did not rain. are used to join clauses in compound sentences. These
8. He was in a dangerous place. He was not afraid. include: or, nor, so, for, yet.
9. Our new school was built last year. The formal opening
was today. Examples: I did not have enough money, or I would have
10. My aunt has been ill for a long time. She never com- bought it.
plains. The problem was difficult, yet he solved it easily.
1I. I spent my holidays at a camp. I had a good time. The water in the well is good, for it was recently
12. The river is frozen. It is not safe for skating. tested.
13. I searched for my knife. I did not find it.

EXERCISE 96 EXERCISE 97
Divide each compound sentence into simple sentences. Select the clauses in these sentences.
I. The snow fell fast, and a white blanket soon covered the
1. I tried very hard, and at last I succeeded.
ground.
2. They were away, and the house was very still.
2. Henry jumped for the ball, but it whizzed past him.
3. There were frosty nights last spring, and the apple blossoms
3. We wanted to buy his dog, but he would not sell it.
were injured.
4. The soil was poor, and little rain fell that year, but the
4. It is noon, for the bell has rung.
settlers rejoiced at their first crop.
5. The sailors threatened to throw Columbus into the sea,
5. The boys bought peanuts, and in the park they fed the
but he still refused to turn back.
saucy squirrels.
6. Frank will plant the garden, or he will get someone to
6. I raised the window, and a bat flew in.
do it.
7. The spring weather was unfavourable, but the summer
7. Then the brothers were taken to Joseph's house, and they
brought rains, and the crops revived.
bowed to the earth before him.
8. They did not expect us so soon, and they were not ready
8. The boys rented a cabin, and they lived there for a week.
to receive us.
9. We did not see you, or we would have waited.
9. The thunder rolled, and the lightning flashed, but we
10. The twilight deepened, and the stars shone out.
ran on.
11. Cold weather came early, for the ground was frozen in
10. There were fish in the river, but we could not catch them.
November.
1 I. The outcome of the election was uncertain, and excite-
12. Planes circled the wreckage, but few survivors were seen.
ment ran high.
13. She is clever, yet she did not pass.
12. His father gave him good advice, and he never forgot it.
14. We must cultivate the soil, or crops will not grow well.
13. My watch was slow, and I missed the train.
15. We could not see the plane, nor could we hear it.
14. There was much snow during the winter, and in the
16. The power was off, so we did not hear the news.
spring the river was high.
107
106
Missing Subjects Graphic Analysis of Compound Sentences
When two principal clauses have the same subject, In analysing compound sentences, omit the con-
it is often omitted in the second clause. This makes the junctions, and analyse each principal clause.
sentence read more smoothly. Example: We landed (on the island,) and [the] boys pitched
Example: He petted the horse for a time, and then leaped
our tent (in an open field.)
lightly on its back. '--3
Always supply the missing subject when you select Conjunctions are sometimes omitted in compound
the clauses in a compound sentence, as follows: sentences. This is particularly true in poetry, but is also
He petted the horse for a time - principal clause. found in prose, especially where there are three or more
then he leaped lightly on its back - principal clause. principal clauses in the sentence.
EXERCISE 98 Examples: [The] chateau burned; [the] [nearest] trees
Select the clauses in these sentences. shrivelled; trees [at a distance] surrounded

1. His horse was shot under him, but he mounted another the burning building (with a new forest of
and joined a second charge. ~
2. We visited from island to island, and traded with great smoke.)
profit. (There) lies [the] port; [the] vessel puffs
3. She went to London and was presented at court. her sail;
4. Tom Sawyer surveyed the fence, and all gladness left him, '--5
and a deep melancholy settled down upon his spirit. (There) gloom [the] [dark] [broad] seas.
5. We found tracks and traced the animal to its den.
EXERCISE 99
6. This must be fertile soil, for the crops are abundant.
7. The sparrow hopped up to him and looked at him for a Write each sentence and analyse the clauses graphically.
moment, with her head on one side. If you have any difficulty with this exercise, you should
8. A soft answer turneth away wrath, but grievous words
review the section on Aids in Ana[ysis. (See page 10.)
stir up anger. 1. The ragged stranger wiped his feet carefully on the mat,
9. H e arrived home early and went directly to his room. and he removed his hat politely.
10. The sun came from behind a cloud and flooded the valley 2. There he opened a shop for his father, but business was
with light. not good.
1 I. I hunted everywhere for the lost kitten, but could not 3. Along the line of smoky hills
find it. The crimson forest stands,
12. We listened intently and peered into the darkness, but we And all the day the blue-jay calls
could not hear or see anything. Throughout the autumn lands.
108 109
4. In our country we reckon a man's wealth in money and
lands, but in Lapland wealth is reckoned in reindeer.
5. Great mountains tower above its shore,
Green rushes fringe its brim,
CHAPTER XII
And o'er its breast for evermore
The wanton breezes skim. COMPLEX SENTENCES
6. The merchants gathered stones and threw them at the Subordinate Clauses, Complex Sentences, Clausal Analysis,
apes in the trees. Compound-Complex Sentences
7. In his youth he formed the habit of reading widely, and
now he derives great pleasure from it. Subordinate Clauses
8. Snow and ice cover the peak of the mountain during the Study the following pairs of sentences:
whole year, but the lower slope is bare in the summer. I. I came then.
9. Edison was a great inventor, and his discoveries have I came when you called me.
helped us all. 2. We looked there.
10. For me spring is the best time of the year, but many We looked where he pointed.
people prefer the fall. 3. This is a treasured book.
11. The stove in the old school was large, and it easily heated This is a book which I treasure.
the room. 4. That was a suitable time.
12. British Columbia has developed many industries, but it That was a time which was suitable.
still holds the glamour of its pioneer days. An examination of all the parts in italics shows:
( 1) In the second sentence of each of the first two pairs of
sentences a group of words takes the place of an adverb.
(2) In the second sentence of each of the third and
fourth pairs of sentences a group of words takes the place
of an adjective.
These groups are:
when you called me
where he pointed
which I treasure
which was suitable
You can see that each group has a subject and a
predicate. Each group is therefore a clause. It is evident
that no group expresses a complete thought, because
each depends on some other part of its sentence to make
its meaning clear. Such a group of words is called a
SUBORDINATE CLAUSE.
110 111

___.__.
EXERCISE 100 Adverb and Adjective Clauses
In this exercise the subordinate clauses are in italics. A subordinate clause which has the value of an
(a) Select the subject and predicate of each subordinate adverb is called an ADVERB CLAUSE. A subordinate clause
clause. which has the value of an adjective is called an ADJECTIVE
CLAUSE.
I. We waited until the train left.
2. Men who are honest are respected. A word, phrase, or subordinate clause can some~
3. He has work that exercises his mind. times be used to express the same idea.
4. I will go unless I am too tired. Examples: I. He is an honourable man. (adjective)
5. We went to the store after you left us. He is a man of honour. (adjective phrase)
6. A forest once grew where this ciry stands. He is a m.a n who is honourable.
7. I worked during the holidays because I needed the money. (adjective clause)
8. They will play in the game if they are needed. 2. I went early. (adverb)
9. I have not seen him since he left school. I went at an early hour. (adverb phrase)
10. The deer ran into the woods as we approached. I went while it was early. (adverb clause)
11. My father has some coins that are very old.
12. This is the place where we live. EXERCISE IOI
13. I went to school though I did not feel well.
Write each sentence, using a subordinate clause in place
14. Do you remember the times when we played together?
15. The miller ground the grain while the farmer waited. of the word or phrase in italics.
1G. We reached home before the storm began. 1. I remained at home for that reason.
2. Iron always expands then.
(b) State whether each subordinate clause has the value
3. That was the farm of my grandfather.
of an adverb or an adjective.
4. He is the guilry man.
1. The trees that grow there are small. 5. People with good manners avoid embarrassing others.
2. I drove carefully because the road was icy. 6. We sat under a shady tree.
3. The man who sent you is my friend. 7. I left at sunrise.
4. I shall see you when you return. 8. He lived in Australia during his youth.
5. The apples which you sent were delicious. 9. Valuable papers are generally kept in vaults.
6. I left the house before he arrived. 10. These are noticeable symptoms.
7. My dog goes where I go. 11. He is a sincere man.
8. That is an insect which injures flowers. 12. That is a matter for consideration.
9. The owner was away wizen the house burned. 13. They live at thefork in the road.
10. We bought the house which your father built. 14. Contagious diseases should be controlled.
11. He read a book while he waited. 15. They are respectable people.
12. My father knows the artist whom you met. 16. I went at his request.
112 113
.. ...,.__

Relation of Clauses Complex Sentences


We give the relation of adverb and adjective clauses Examine these sentences. You will see that each of
as follows: the first two sentences contains a principal clause and a
subordinate clause. The third sentence contains a prin-
Examples: He sometimes reads while he eats.
cipal clause and two subordinate clauses.
The hat that you selected suits me.
while he eats - a subordinate adverb clause modifying the 1. The mercury in a thermometer contract1i"'when the weather
verb reads. is cold.
that you selected - a subordinate adjective clause modifying 2. Many people live in houses that their ancestors built.
the noun hat. 3. As he was putting the cup to his lips, he noticed a dying
soldier who cast eager eyes upon it.
EXERCISE 102
A sentence which contains a principal clause and
Write each subordinate clause, and give its kind and re- one or more subordinate clauses is called a COMPLEX
lation. SENTENCE.
l. I. chose this book because our teacher recommended it.
2. The men rested while it was raining. Clausal Analysis ~-
3. The flowers that you gathered are fragrant. When we select all the clauses in a sentence aild tell
4. You have opportunities now which will never come the kind and the relation of each subordinate clai'i.se, we
again.
are doing CLAUSAL ANALYSIS. Here is the clausal analysis
5. We like people who are polite.
of the third sentence of the group above.
6. They fish where the water is not deep.
7. He remained until the work was finished. he noticed a dying soldier - principal clause.
8. The girl that you met is my cousin. As he was putting the cup to his lips - a subordinate adverb
9. They left here as the sun was setting. clause modifying the verb noticed.
10. I will tell him when he comes. who cast eager eyes upon it - a subordinate adjective clause
11. Do you know the piece that the band is playing? modifying the noun soldier.
12. I laughed when I heard the joke. EXERCISE 103
13. When Alice in Wonderland ate the cake, she grew ex-
Using the work shown above as a model, give in writin(Y
0
tremely tall.
the clausal analysis of each sentence.
14. The pupils went in before the bell rang.
15. He is the man who bought the house. I. We remained in the cabin while the storm lasted.
16. While he was speaking we were called from the room. 2. That was a time which I shall never forget.
17. Peaches fall when they are very ripe. 3. The man who built this house was a good carpenter.
18. When the day dawned we were far on our journey. 4. When the winter is nearly over the maple sap will start
)9. I always do some work before I leave for school. to run.
20. He returned the money which he found. 5. As we neared home our hearts beat happily.
114 115

__,,..__
6. After we had latched the gate we hurried to the house 2. While I am lying on the grass
because we were cold and wet. Thy twofold shout I hear.
7. I know a place where blackberries grow. 3. He lifted the book which I had laid on the floor.
8. When the news of Cabot's achievement spread in Bristol 4. My heart leaps up when I behold
he became a popular hero. A rainbow in the sky.
9. He has many friends because he is friendly. 5. When snow and ice cover the ground the Laplander
10. When the ice melts in the spring the log1) that have been travels in his sled.
prepared during the winter, are floated down the river. 6. Poor Gulliver was constantly exposed to all sorts of
dangers because he was so small.
EXERCISE 104 7. As he went along by the canal he admired the flowers
Decide on the clausal analysis of each sentence, and then which grew there.
give the work orall,t in class. 8. Ants that do not build in the soil sometimes gather a
1. Before school cl6ses we make plans for our holidays. variety of material from the neighbourhood of the place
2. An incubator is a machine which requires daily attention. that has been chosen for a nest.
3. A great plain where sheep now roam was once . the site 9. The redbreast sings from the tall larch
of a city. That stands beside my door.
4. Men who sought the Northwest passage were bold and 10. Between the dark and the daylight,
daring. When the night is beginning to lower,
5. When you study you make good use of time that will Comes a pause in the day's occupations,
never return. That is known as the children's hour.
6. He wore a panama hat that had seen many summers. 11. Before he had finished at school, he began work in the
7. Basketball is a game which I enjoy very much. newspaper office which he now owns.
8. If you learn to be observant you will see many things that 12. When he goes for a walk, his friend is always with him.
most people miss. 13. The dog stayed where his master left him.
9. Our dog howls when I play the harmonica. 14. His father own~ the largest farm that is in the county.
10. After we have had enough practice, the coach will select 15. She talked constantfy while she sewed.
the boys who will play on the team. 16. The fishermen wore boots that reached to their knees.
11. I did not sleep well because I was excited over the game. 17. The ship will not sail if the weather is unfavourable.
12. After we ate our lunch, we went to see an old man whom 18. As I was going to school one morning, a squirrel ran into
we had met when we were there before. its hole in the path where I was walking.
19. While he was walking along the beach, the keen eyes of
EXERCISE 105 the old sailor saw a ship that was floundering in the heavy
Decide on the clausal analysis of each sentence, and then sea.
give the work orally in class. 20. The general was buried with all the honours which his
I. I know the song that the bluebird is singing. country could give him.
116 117
Noun Clauses Noun Clauses as Subjects
Analyse the first sentence of each of the following You have learned that a noun clause may be used
pairs, and select the clauses in the second sentence of as the object of a verb. A study of the following sentences
each pair. will show you that the noun clause may also be used as
the subject of a verb. Select the noun clause in the second
1. We heard your reply. 2. I know the man.
We heard what you said.
sentence of each of the following pairs:
I know who he is.
3. They realized the danger. 1. It is true.
They realized that there was danger. What you say is true.
In each pair, notice the similarity between the ob~ 2. His failure is hard to understand.
ject in the first sentence and the subordinate clause in the That he failed is hard to understand,
second sentence. 3. That is a secret.
We may state our observation and conclusion in Where it is hidden is a secret.
this way:
4. The time is not known.
( r) In the second sentence of each pair a clause replaces When it happened is not known.
a noun which is the object of the verb in the first
5. It is here.
sentence. What I found is here.
(2) Therefore the clause in the second sentence of each
pair has the value of a noun, and is used as the object If you ask questions as you were taught in the section
of a verb. Aids in Anarysis, on page ro, it will help you to select
A clause which has the value of a noun is called a noun clauses used as subjects or objects in sentences. It
NOUN CLAUSE. is interesting to note that a noun clause is sometimes
introduced by when and where, which often introduce
EXERCISE 106
adverb clauses. A noun clause may also be introduced
Select the noun clauses in these sentences. by that, which often introduces adjective clauses.
1. I think that I shall ride.
2. D,o you remember where you put the bat?
3. I understand that he speaks several languages. Relation of Noun Clauses
4. My father knew where we were.
Vve give the relation of a noun clause as follows:
5. Perhaps you can recall what he told you.
6. The jury decided that he was innocent. Examples: I heard that you won the prize.
7. The boys believed that they were on the right road. What you say interests me.
8. Have you decided where you will hang the picture ? that you won the prize - a noun clause, object of the verb
9. He said that we might go. heard.
10. I have not heard why he gave up his position. what you say - a noun clause, subject of the verb interests.
118 G.1.-9 119
EXERCISE 107 Separation of Clauses
Write each noun clause and give its relation.
When a subordinate clause modifies a word in an-
1. The boy discovered that he was alone in the building. other subordinate clause, list the clauses separately.
2. Where he got his money is a mystery.
3. I observed that his fingers were very long. E xamples: We did not know the way when we reached the
4. What he said amused her. place where the road divided.
5. Always remember that honesty is the best policy. I discovered where there is a beach that is excel-
6. The Greeks saw that they must gain their end by craft, lent for bathing.
7. He gave away what he had saved.
The clauses in the first sentence are:
8. I noticed that his clothes were carefully brushed.
9. We thought that we would never reach home. W e did not know the way - principal clause.
10. Where he went I did not ask. when we reached the place - a subordinate adverb clause modify-
11. When an earthquake will occur is never known. ing the verb did know.
12. We admire what you did. where the road divided- a subordinate adjective clause modify-
13. Columbus believed that the earth was round. ing the noun place.
14. I did not hear what you said.
The clauses in the second sentence are:
15. We did not know that you were a musician.
I discovered- principal clause.
EXERCISE 108 where there is a beach~ a subordinate noun clause, object of
Give orally in class each noun clause and its relation. the verb discovered.
1. We saw that the lake was too rough for pleasant sailing. that is ex~ellent for bathing - a subordinate aqjective clause
2. I never could understand why you did that. modifying the noun beach.
3. Bees know where the clover is.
Please notice that in the second example the prin-
4. That he plays baseball well is true. cipal clause I discovered does not include the object of
5. The sailor knows when the wind will change. the verb, which, strictly speaking, it should do. In clausal
6. What you tell us is interesting. analysis it is simpler to separate the principal clause from
7. My brother promised that he would send me a present, the noun clause which is an object.
8. She does not know that I am here. However, when a noun clause is used as a subject
9. Never say what you do not mean. it must be included in the principal clause.
10. I realized that you would be pleased.
Example: Where he went is a mystery.
11. I dreamt that I passed my examination.
12. We sometimes forget that others have feelings. The clauses in this sentence are:
13. When good fortune will come cannot be foreseen. Where he went is a mystery - principal clause.
14. You have described what happened very well. Where he went- a noun clause, subject of the verb is.
120 121

L
EXERCISE 109 EXERCISE 111

Give in writing the clausal analysis of each sentence. In- Decide on the clausal analysis of each sentence, and then
clude the principal clause, and give the kind and the give the work orally in class.
relation of each subordinate clause. I. I thought that perhaps Shakespeare had stayed at the inn
1. The boy searched for the money which he had lost where we slept.
2. What I shall do then I do not know. 2. If you know where he is you should tell us.
3. When my pony died I felt that I had lost a friend. 3. What I thought then is still my opinion.
4. One never knows what he can do until he tries. 4. When he saw that they had brought his brother Benjamin,
5. Unless you go with me I will not go. he was very much pleased.
6. A wise man is one who never tells all that he knows. 5. That you were right I have never doubted.
7. When I was a child I often wondered what held the earth 6. The caravan drivers from whom he bought spices told
in place. him lhat they came from a great distance.
8. Although he had a golden crown he was not satisfied. 7. I have not forgotten many amusing things that happened
9. After we reached home I realized that I was very tired. when I was a child.
10. I know people who always sing when they are happy. 8. I remember how the pony stopped of his own accord
when we met anyone on the road.
9. If he had known before he sold the farm that there was
EXERCISE 110
oil on it, he would have asked a higher price.
Decide on the clausal analysis of each sentence, and then
give the work orally in class.
1. The jacket that you want is expensive. Compound-Complex Sentences
2. When I was on my way to school I met a man who had
Examine this sentence, and you will see that it con-
an axe on his shoulder.
tains two principal clauses and one subordinate clause.
3. He said that I was a fine little fellow.
4. Because this pleased me I said that I would turn the The youth walked with a light and joyous step, and he sang
grindstone for him. a merry song as he hurried on.
5. When the evidence has all been given you will agree that You see that the clauses are:
my dog did not kill the sheep.
The youth walked with a light and joyous step- principal clause.
6. The man who tries to profit by his mistakes is wise.
he sang a merry song- principal clause.
7. If you consider my offer carefully you will find that I have
been generous. as he hurried on - a subordinate adverb clause modifying the
8. That is the reason which he gave when he left. verb sang.
9. An old man whom I knew when I was young told me that A sentence that contains two or more principal
he had once talked with Queen Victoria. clauses and one or more subordinate clauses is called a
10. When I went to the store I forgot what I was told to buy. COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCE.
122 123
EXERCISE 112

Decide on the clausal analysis of each sentence, and then


give the work orally in class.
1. He asked why you were absent, and I replied that I did CHAPTER XIII
not know.
2. We tapped the trees early, but the sap did not run well CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS
because the weather was too mild. Co-ordinate, Correlative, Subordinate, Phrasal
3. He says that I should study medicine because doctors
do so much good, but I know what I want to do. Co-ordinate Conj unctions
4. When we left for camp we expected that our supplies You have learned that certain conjunctions JOlil
would be there, and we were greatly disappointed when words and phrases used in the same way in a sentence.
we discovered that they had not arrived. They are also used to join principal clauses in a com-
5. There is a park near Orillia which is a notable spot pound sentence. Study carefully the use of each con-
because Champlain camped there when he was on his junction in these sentences.
way to Lake Huron, and in the park now stands a monu- Examples: l. Ice and snow covered the pond.
ment that was erected in memory of the great explorer. 2. He worked early and late.
6. I know that you have given me good advice, and I 3. The blankets were light but warm.
promise that I will not disappoint you. 4. We sat and talked for an hour.
7. He said that every man is the master of his own fate, but 5. I will work in the factory or in the office.
I think we must admit that chance does play a part. 6. There was a fire, for the bell rang.
8. Sunset is fading beyond the hills and the shades of even- Certain conjunctions are also used to join sub-
ing steal softly into the valley where our tent is pitched. ordinate clauses of the same kind and use.
9. When our team came out on the ice they knew that they
Examples: 1. He knows what makes clouds and why they cross
would have to work hard, and during the game every
the sky.
player used all the strength and skill that he had.
2. He studies before he goes to school and while
10. That he was a great man can not be denied, but I recall
his mind is fresh.
that he had a long line of distinguished ancestors from
3. Those were times when money was scarce and
whom he inherited much.
when people worked long hours.
Conjunctions which join words, phrases, and clauses
used in the same way in a sentence are called co-ORDIN·
ATE CONJUNCTIONS. Co-ordinate means of the same rank;
the joined parts have the same rank or grammatical
value.
The most commonly used co-ordinate conjunctions
are: and, but, or, for, yet, nor, so.
124 125
EXERCISE 113
The most commonly used subordinate conjunctions
(a) Use each of the co-ordinate conjunctions listed on are: after, although, as, because, before, for (meaning
page I 25 in a sentence to join two principal clauses. because), if, since, than, though, unless, until, when, where,
(b) Use any two words in the list in a compound while.
sentence which contains three clauses. In this list of subordinate conjunctions, you will
(c) Use the word and in sentences to join: notice a number of words that you have already seen
two nouns two adverbs two noun clauses used as prepositions. It is not difficult to tell whether
two verbs two adjective phrases two adjective clauses a word is used as a preposition or a subordinate con-
two adjectives two adverb phrases two adverb clauses junction in a sentence, since the subordinate conjunction
always introduces a clause containing a subject and
Correlative Conjunctions predicate.
Co-ordinate conjunctions which are used in pairs are Note that the word than is a subordinate conjunc-
called CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS. tion. It usually introduces a subordinate clause which is
Examples: He locked both the doors and the windows. not complete.
Either you or I should do the shopping. Examples: I am older than you. He walks faster than I.
.Neither the man nor the boy could swim.
The complete sentences are:
The most commonly used correlative conjunctions
I am older than you are. He walks faster than I walk.
are: either-or; neither-nor; both-and; not onf:y-but also.
Notice that each pair forms a single conjunction. The subordinate clause in the first sentence modifies
the adjective older. The subordinate clause in the second
Subordinate Conjunctions sentence modifies the adverb faster.
Study the italicized words in the following sentences:
EXERCISE 114
1. We waited until the train came.
2. This is the town where he lives. (a) Write complex sentences, using each of the con-
3. I know that my answer is correct, junctions listed above to introduce a subordinate clause.
(b) Write five complex sentences with three clauses in
You will notice :
each, using :;i,ny two of these conjunctions in each sen-
(I) Each word in italics begins a subordinate clause.
tence.
(2) Each word in italics joins the subordinate clause to
some other word in the sentence. Phrasal Conjunctions
A word that introduces a subordinate clause, and Some conjunctions consist of two or more words,
joins it to some other word in the sentence, is called a and are called PHRASAL CONJUNCTIONS.
SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTION. Please note that a sub- Examples: We shall leave as soon as he comes.
ordinate conjunction is considered a necessary part of He walks as if he is tired.
the subordinate clause, and must be included in it. The boys as well as the girls are sleepy.
126 127

i
In the preceding sentences, as soon as and as if EXERCISE 116

are SUBORDINATE PHRASAL CONJUNCTIONS. In the third Give orally the use of each conjunction, and the relation
sentence, as well as is a CO-ORDINATE PHRASAL CON- of the joined parts. (See page 25.)
JUNCTION.
1. Do you use tea or coffee?
Other subordinate phrasal conjunctions commonly 2. We waited and watched for an hour.
used are: provided that, in order that, so that, as though.
3. He is a kindly and generous fellow.
4. The can bobbed up and down on the waves.
Uses of Conjunctions
5. He had neither money nor position.
We give the uses of conjunctions which join clauses 6. The sun shines on friend and foe alike.
as follows: 7. Boys and girls work together in the garden.
Examples: When the fishermen landed to dry their nets, they 8. The woman is poor but contented.
met some Indians, and they began to trade in furs.
9. She types slowly but accurately.
when - a subordinate conjunction introducing the subordinate
10. You are either clever or lucky.
clause when the fisherm en landed to dry their nets, and joining
the clause to the verb met. 11. The weather was neither cold nor hot.
and - a co-ordinate conjunction joining the principal clauses 12. Smoke and steam were escaping through the doors and
they met some Indians and they began to trade infurs. through the windows.

EXERCISE 115 EXERCISE 117


Give in writing the use of each conjunction.
Give orally the use of each conjunction.
1. He plucked a rose from the bush, and the rose became
1. When he realized what had happened he was jubilant.
in his hand a beautiful gold en flower.
2. When he had been on the island ten or twelve days he 2. We arrived at the camp after darkness had fallen, and
realized that he would lose count of the time if he did not when day dawned we looked upon a sight which sur-
find some way of measuring it. passed in beauty anything that we had ever seen.
3. We soon reached the level country and drove for many 3. Because the roads were bad we left early for school, but
miles over a beautiful plain that I had never seen before. the bell h';l.d rung before we arrived.
4. I enjoy a walk on a cold winter night when the snow 4. When you consult your dictionary for the meaning of a
crunches beneath my feet and when the stars sparkle word, you may see that it is defined by several synonyms
overhead.
as well as by one or more definitions.
5. The firemen came when they were called, but it was too
late. 5. We soon passed your island, and I recognized the very
6. When night comes, the land loses its heat very quickly spot where we camped last summer.
because it has not stored it up, and the land air grows 6. When I felt a tug on my line I thought that I had caught
cold. a large fish.
128 129
always in different clauses. A conjunctive pronoun h_as
the same person and number as its antecedent, but Its
case is determined by its use in its own clause.
CHAPTER XIV
Examples: John is the boy who did it.
CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS These are problems which we must solve.
Conjunctive Pronouns and their Antecedents
In the first sentence, who is third person, singular
Conjunctive Pronouns number because its antecedent boy is third person, singu-
Examine these pairs of sentences. lar num'ber. However, notice that who is in the nomina-
I. John is the boy. He did it. tive case because it is subject of the verb did in its own
John is the boy who did it. clause. In the second sentence, which is third person,
plural number, because its antecedent problems is third
2. These are problems. We must solve them.
These are problems which we must solve.
person, plural number. It is in th~ o?jective case because
it is object of the verb must solve m its own clause.
In these pairs of sentences we see:
Examine these sentences:
(I) Two simple sentences are joined to form a complex
sentence. 1. He related what had happened.
(2) In the first pair, the word who joins the two simple 2. What you say is true.
sentences, and also replaces the pronoun he. Therefore 3. I know what you mean.
who is both a conjunction and a pronoun. 4. I asked what he was thinking about.
(3) In the second pair, the word which joins the two
simple sentences, and also replaces the pronoun them. By selecti,ng the clauses in each sentence, and by
Therefore which is both a conjunction and a pronoun. studying the •/4rord what, we see that in each sentei:ice w~at
A word that has the value of both a conjunction is a conjunctive pronoun. What is an unusual con1unct1ve
and a pronoun is called a CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUN. It is pronoun because it has no antecedent. It _really stan?s
also sometimes called a RELATIVE PRONOUN. for the words that which, and might be said to contam
In the second sentence of the first pair, the words its own antecedent. Try substituting the words that
boy and who represent the same person. It is easy to see which for what in each of the above sentences.
that who refers to the noun boy. In the second sentence
Like other conjunctive pronouns, what takes _its case
of the second pair, the word which refers to the noun
from its own clause. Decide on the case of what m each
problems. The word to which a conjunctive pronoun
of the above sentences.
refers is called its ANTECEDENT. The word antecedent
means going before. The common conjunctive pronouns are: who, whose,
A conjunctive pronoun and its antecedent are whom, which; that, what.
130
131

l_
Case and Relation of Conjunctive Pronouns Care with Conjunctive Pronouns
The case and relation of conjunctive pronouns Many errors in speech and writing are made in
should be given as follows: using the words who, whose, and whom. Notice that:
Examples: She is the girl that sang so well. ( r) Who, whose, and whom are three forms of the same
There is a man whom I know. pronoun. Always use who in the _nominati_ve ~ase, whose
The teacher praised the pupils, whose desks were tidy. in the possessive case, and whom m the obJect1ve case.
He remembered what happened. (2) The conjunctive pronoun whom may be the object
that- a coajunctive pronoun, third person singular, nomin- of a verb or a preposition in its own clause.
ative case, subject of the verb sang.
whom- a coajunctive pronoun, third person singular, objective Examples: Did you recognize the man whom we passed?
case, object of the verb know. He is the stranger whom I spoke of.
whose - a conjunctive pronoun, third person plural, possessive As you see in the second example, it is correct to
case, showing the possession of desks. separate a conjunctive pronoun from the preposition
what - a conjunctive pronoun, third person singular, nomin- which takes it as its object. This sentence can also be
ative case, subject of the verb happened, written: He is the stranger of whom I spoke.
(3) Never use which in referring to persons. It is used
EXERCISE 118 only in referring to thi11gs.
Give in writing the person, number, case, and relation of (4) That is used in referring to either persons or things.
each conjunctive pronoun.
(5) Whose is usually used in referring to persons. How-
1. These are the new books which I bought. ever, it is also correct to use it to replace of which in
2. He repeated what he had heard. regard to things.
3. The people whom I live with are very kind.
Examples: I I returned the picture, the frame of which was
4. He is the man that directed the orchestra. broken.
5. They are the people whose car was damaged,
I returned the picture whose frame was broken.
6. We know what you think about it.
7. Here is a boy who will guide you. EXERCISE 119
8. That is the hat which I want. \Vrite out each sentence, using the proper word in brack-
9. He listened to what you said. ets. Be prepared to give the reason for your choice.
10. This is the house that Jack built.
I. Did you notice the girls (who, whom) went in ahead ofus?
11. I recall the man whom you mention.
2. Is he the friend of (whom, who) you spoke?
12. Is she the girl whom you skated with?
3. He is the man (that, which) did it.
13. These are scenes which delight me.
4. Are they the relatives (who, whom) you visited?
14. I know he is a boy that you can trust, 5. These are natives (who, whom) never harm strangers.
132 133

l
6. Anyone (who, whom) you choose may go with us,
7. It was the boys (who, whom) were noisy.
8. I do not know the girls (who, whom) we passed.
9. He is a man (who, whom) is always helping others. CHAPTER XV
10. The people (who, which) made these brooms are blind.
11. We recognized the man (who, whom) had given us a ride. VERBALS
12. He is a mechanic (whom, who) my father works with. Verbals: Participles, Gerunds, Infinitives
13. He is the boy (who, whom) should do it.
14. They are people (who, whom) we know well.
Participles
15. He is a man for (whom, who) I have great respect. Let us examine the words in italics in the following
sentences:
1. The boy throws the ball.
2. The boy throwing the ball is my brother.
In the first sentence, the action verb throws takes the
object ball. In the second sentence, the action word
throwing takes the object ball, and is therefore like a verb.
It is also like an adjective, since it describes the noun boy.
A word that has the value of a verb and an adjective is
called a VERBAL ADJECTIVE or PARTICIPLE.
Study the words in italics in these sentences.
1. The man walking along the road is a farmer.
2. The man walking is a farmer.
In the first sentence, walking has the value of a verb,
since it is an action word and has an adverbial modifier.
It also has the value of an adjective, since it modifies the
noun man. In the second sentence, walking has the value
of a verb, since it is an action word and may have an
adverbial modifier. It is an adjective, since it modifies
the noun man. Therefore walking is used in both sentences
as a participle.
Read carefully the following sentences, and explain
why each word in italics is a participle:
I. The girls wearing Irish costumes are in the play.
2. The man waving his hand is the referee.
134 0.1 .- 1 0 135
EXERCISE 120(b)
3. The boys playing marbles are brothers.
4. Icebergs drifting at sea are dangerous. Give orally the use and the relation of each participle.
5. The girls standing there attend our school. 1. The tulips opening now were planted last fall.
6. Weeds growing in the garden spoiled its appearance. 2. We saw men, women, and children picking tomatoes for
7. The dog barking is mine. the cannery. .
8. The girl singing is an actress. 3. The man speaking to her is a member of the legislature.
The participles you have studied have these charac- 4. A storm coming up suddenly made us hurry home.
teristics: 5. We passed a canoe drifting in the lake. . .
6. The man tuning the piano is a good musician.
(a) They end in ing.
7. I saw them entering the hall.
(b) They are formed from verbs and express action. 8. Wolves howling at night frightened us.
(c) They always modify a noun or pronoun. 9. We found the child wandering in the park.
(d) They may have an object and an adverbial modifier, 1O. Saws buzzing made a cheerful noise.
or they may be without either. 11. People leaving on this plane will be in England tomorrow.
12. Men hunting deer discovered the lake.
Use and Relation of Participles
The use and relation of a participle should be given Present Participles
as follows: All the participles you have studied en? in i~g, and
Examples: We saw children gathering flowers. refer to an action that is still going on, which might be
The people living near us are good neighbours. called an incomplete action. Read some of the sentences
gathering- a participle. As a verb, it takes the object flowers; again, noticing parti~ula~ly _the time ~f the action. .
as an adjective, it modifies the noun children. A participle which md1cates an mcomplete act10n
living - a participle. As a verb, it has the adverbial modifier is called a PRESENT PARTICIPLE.
near us; as an adjective, it modifies the noun people.
EXERCISE 120(a) Past Participles
Give in writing the use and the relation of each participle. Study the words in italics in these sentences.
1. Children going to school discovered the fire. I. We found it hidden in a book.
2. The men counting the ballots are scrutineers. 2. A letter opened by mistake came in today's mail.
3. He watched another boy making a kite. 3. The parcel left in the car is mine.
4. The pupils singing are the oldest in the school. 4. I like music played softly.
5. I like to hear clocks ticking. 5. A tr~e fallen across the road blocked the traffic.
6. The month just ending was a busy one for me. 6. A fire started by campers did much damage.
7. We found him working among his flowers. 7. He is a man known for his generosity.
8. The boy eating the apple is my brother. 8. They left him wounded.
136 137
From our study of these sentences, we see: EXERCISE 121

(a) Each word in italics is formed from a verb and Give in writing the use and the relation of each parti-
expresses action. ciple, stating whether it is a present or a past participle.
(b) The action is completed. It refers to past time. 1. The birds ate the grain scattered on the snow.
(c) Each word in italics modifies a noun or pronoun. 2. The man, questioned closely, admitted his mistake.
(d) Some words in italics have adverbial modifiers and 3. The boys fishing by the bridge are having good luck.
some have not. ' 4. Supplies dropped from a plane saved many lives.
5. I saw the girls sliding down the hill.
Since all the words in italics are formed from verbs
6. Grain sown in good soil usually grows well.
and express action, and are used as adjectives to modify
7. The squirrels have food stored away for winter.
no1:ns o_r p~onouns, they must be participles. A participle 8. The chimes ringing from our church are heard in all parts
which mdicates a completed action is called a p AST of the town.
PARTICIPLE.
9. Words spoken thoughtlessly often cause pain.
. . As you hav~ l_earned, present participles always end 10. The peaches, piled in heaps on the ground, soon spoiled.
m zng. Past participles usually end in d, ed, t, n, or en. 11. People living on farms are usually busy.
Note that past participles may have adverbial 12. \Ve saw trees uprooted by the hurricane.
modifiers, but they never take an object.
Note: You learned earlier that the past participle is EXERCISE 122
used with the auxiliary have to form perfect tenses Give orally the use and the relation of each participle,
of the verb. It is the third in the list of the principal stating whether it is a present or a past participle.
parts of a verb, as: give, gave, given.
1. Boys playing along the shore found the damaged canoe.
2. The road begun in the late fall was never finished.
Use and Relation of Past Participles 3. Wood chopped in the winter is dried in the summer.
4. We saw several cars almost buried in snow.
The use and relation of a past participle should be
given as follows: 5. He caught a fox stealing his chickens.
6. I prize a book given to me by my mother.
Examples: We saw walls covered with ivy. 7. We passed a blind man using a white cane.
Many of the people invited did not come. 8. They saw us eating dinner in the restaurant.
covered- a past participle. As a verb, it has the adverbial 9. Campers sometimes leave food and papers scattered
modifier with iry; as an adjective, it modifies the noun about.
walls. 10. Old people often remember poetry memorized in child-
invited- a past participle. As a verb, it may have an hood.
adverbial modifier; as an adjective, it modifies the noun 11. Children eating their lunch sat on the steps of the school.
people. 12. King Philip watched his son controlling the horse.
138 139
Position of Participles Use and Relation of Present Perfect Participle
A participle often comes before the noun or pro- The use and relation of a present perfect participle
noun it modifies. Study the participles in these sentences. should be given as follows:
1. Sleeping soundly, I did not hear the noisy fire-alarm bell. Example: Having wasted his money, he was penniless.
2. Opening the door, I saw an old man. having wasted - a present perfect participle. As a verb, it
3. Seen from a plane, objects on the ground look extremely takes the object monry; as an adjective, it modifies the
small. pronoun he.
4. Given plenty of time, he solved the problem. EXERCISE 123
5. Dressed warmly, we did not feel th; cold.
Give orally the use and relation of each participle.
Present Perfect Participles 1. The carpenter, having finished his work, went home.
2. Having found a good book, I sat up late to read.
Study the italicized words in these sentences. 3. Never having travelled by plane, we were eager to start.
1. Having locked the doors, we went to bed quickly in the old 4. Encouraged by the cheering, we did our best.
cabin. 5. The boys, having earned some money, planned ways of
2. Having done their best, the boys did not worry about losing spending it.
the game. 6. Attacked by bandits, the travellers defended themselves.
3. Having gone early, we got a good seat very close to the 7. Bowing to the audience, the pianist left the stage.
platform. 8. Having noticed signs of a storm, the hunters returned.
4. Having seen all the sights at the Exhibition, we came home. 9. Having thanked our host, we hurried away.
5. Having been absent, I missed the lesson in my best subject. 10. Laying down his paper, he joined in the conversation.

Notice that in each sentence the word having is used


with the past participle of a verb to modify a noun or Participial Phrases
pronoun. Both words together form the PRESENT A participle is usually followed by a modifier or an
PERFECT PARTICIPLE, and in the examples above take object. The whole group is called a PARTICIPIAL PHRASE.
an object or adverbial modifier. (You will recall that It always has the value of an adjective.
have together with the past participle of the principal Examples: Coming in late, I tried to be very quiet.
verb forms the perfect tenses; here having with the past The boy tending goal is our new player.
participle of the principal verb forms the present perfect The girl arranging the hats is a milliner.
participle.) The land drained by the Saskatchewan River covers a
large part of Wes tern Canada.
My father, remembering my birthday, brought me a
present.
The gardener,fiaring afrost, covered his plants.
140 141
From the preceding examples you can learn how to Gerunds
punctuate sentences that contain participial phrases. The Study the words in italics in these sentences.
rules are:
1. We read books.
( 1) A participial phrase at the beginning of a sentence
is always follo, .,ed by a comma. 2. Reading books in the library is a pleasure.
(2) A participial phrase that merely describes is preceded 3. Reading is a pleasure.
and followed by a comma. We say that it is a non-essen- In the first sentence, the action verb read takes the
tial phrase. That is, it may be omitted without seriously object books. In the second sentence, the action word
changing the meaning of the sentence. The last two reading takes the object books, and has the adverbial
examples illustrate this rule. modifier in the library. It is therefore like a verb. It is
(3) A participial phrase that points out a particular also like a noun because it is subject of the verb is.
person or thing is not preceded or followed by a comma. In the third sentence, reading is like a verb because
You see this in the second, third, and fourth examples. it is an action word, and may be followed by an object or
In such cases, the phrase is an essential or necessary part adverbial modifier. It is like a noun because it is subject
of the sentence, explaining the word it modifies. It we of the verb is.
left out the phrase, the sentence would not convey the A word that has the value of a verb and a noun is
complete idea of the writer.
called a VERBAL NOUN or GERUND.
EXERCISE 124
EXERCISE 125
Copy the following sentences, putting in the necessary
commas: Select the gerunds and explain orally how each does the
work of a verb and a noun.
1. The soldiers fearing an attack kept a close watch all
night. 1. Living here seems very pleasant.
2. The boy skating in front is the captain of the team. 2. Swimming is good exercise.
3. Hampered by head winds the plane was many hours late. 3. Making watches requires skilled workmen.
4. The campers knowing the risks of forest fires were very 4. Eating too quickly gave him indigestion.
careful. 5. T ending my garden taught me many things about plants.
5. Being aware of danger he was cautious. 6. Splicing a rope is easy for a sailor.
6. The man collecting tickets is the conductor. 7. Climbing mountains appears a dangerous sport.
7. The hunters having built a fire to frighten away wolves 8'. Jumping over the fence is not easy.
rolled up in their blankets. 9. Rising early is common in the country.
8. Turning the corner quickly I collided with my friend. 10. Skiing on the hills delighted the children.
9. Dogs properly trained display much intelligence. 11. Studying arithmetic was his favourite pastime.
10. The athlete seeming exhausted sank to the ground. 12. Talking in the library is not permitted.
11. That runner making a final effort won the race. 13. Pitching a ball develops muscle.
142 143
Gerunds as Objects and Subjective Completions 6. Helping you is a pleasure.
7. He entertained his friends by showing pictures taken
You have seen the gerund (or verbal noun) used
during his vacation.
as the subject of a sentence. It may also be used as the
8. She excels at introducing a speaker.
object of a verb or preposition, or as a subjective com-
pletion. Study the gerunds in italics in the following 9. Mice destroy fruit trees by gnawing the bark.
sentences: 10. I stopped playing in the orchestra.
11. I like studying astronomy.
1. I like camping beside a lake. (object of a verb)
12. Fretting never helps.
2. He enjoys picking berries. (object of a verb)
3. He succeeds by studying hard. (object of a preposition)
EXERCISE 127
4. She is skilful in making d esigns. (object of a preposition)
5. Seeing is believing. (subjective completion) Give orally the use and the relation of each gerund.
6. Acting is imitating. (subj ective completion) 1. The children enjoy wading in the water.
2. He began his address by telling a story.
Use and Relation of Gerunds 3. Collecting stamps is an interesting hobby.
4. This is the b est time for catching trout.
The use and relation of a gerund should be given
5. W e avoided the crowds by going early.
as follows:
6. Shouting is not singing.
Examples: We began practising our parts in the play. 7. Playing hockey is a national sport.
Harmonizing is singing with others. 8. Do you believe in practising immediately before a game?
practising- a gerund. As a noun, it is obj ect of the verb began; 9. M ending shoes is the work of a cobbler.
as a verb, it takes the obj ect parts. 10. They gave him a medal for rescuing the child.
Harmonizing- a gerund. As a noun, it is subj ect of the verb 11. Walking in the country is pleasant exercise.
is; as a verb, it expresses action. 12. The debaters pleased the judges by speaking distinctly.
singing - a gerund. As a noun, it is a subjective completion, 13. H e tried teaching his dog a new trick.
completing the copula verb is; as a verb, it has the 14. Does traveiling excel reading in increasing our knowledge
adverbial modifier with others. of foreign lands ?
15. I like getting letters, but I am not always prompt in
EXERCISE 126
answering them.
Give in writing the use and the relation of each gerund. 16. Making pastry is the work of a baker.
1. Did you have any difficulty in finding the way? 17. They tried turning the lock with a nail.
2. H e earns extra money by delivering papers. 18. Many get pleasure from working among flowers.
3. Shovelling coal is hard work. 19. Laughing is good for us.
4. I prefer waiting for a bus. 20. We should learn the art of thinking.
5. We intended going to the rink tonight. 21. Growing and selling vegetables is a profitable business.
144 145
Infinitives Use and Relation of Infinitives
Examine the words in italics in these sentences. We give the use and relation of an infinitive just
I. Seeing is believing. as we give the use and relation of a gerund.
2. To see is to believe. Example: He wants to see the game.
You know that seeing and believing are gerunds, and To teach is to instruct someone.
that each has the value of a noun and a verb. Here they to see - an infinitive. As a noun, it is object of the verb wants;
are replaced by to see and to believe, each of which must as a verb, it takes the object game.
also have the value of a noun and a verb. Verb forms to teach- an infinitive. As a noun, it is subject of the verb is;
such as to see and to believe, which are used in the same as a verb, it expresses action.
way as gerunds, are called INFINITIVES. to instruct- an infinitive. As a noun, it is a subjective com-
Like a gerund, an infinitive may be the subject of pletion, completing the verb is; as a verb, it takes the object
a verb, the object of a verb, or a subjective completion; someone.
and it may take an object and have an adverbial modifier. EXERCISE 129

Examples: To skate well requires practice. Give in writing the use and the relation of each infinitive.
I intend to go. I. To know him is to admire him.
To study is to learn. 2. They learned to sing many folk songs.
We tried to open the door. 3. The boys offered to shovel the snow from our walk,
I learned to type at school. 4. They decided to leave in the morning.
Do not fail to visit the monument. 5. To look there never entered my mind.
6. She wants to consult a lawyer.
EXERCISE 128 7. We mean to ask permission this evening,
Explain the use of each infinitive m the following 8. They intend to visit Niagara Falls.
9. Do you wish to come with us?
sentences.
10. To learn to pitch well is his greatest ambition.
I. He soon learned to ride the bicycle.
2. To act on the stage is her ambition. EXERCISE 130
3. He likes to skate at the rink.
4. To reach a decision took only a moment.
Give orally the use and the relation of each infinitive.
5. He refused to work fast. 1. He wishes to start soon.
6. The girls wish to sit here. 2. They endeavoured to launch the boat.
7. To err is human. 3. To understand that is easy.
8. I promised to go with him. 4. I hope to know the result of the election tomorrow.
9. In the summer we plan to swim, to ride, and to rest. 5. We managed to get there on time.
10. He wanted to know your name. 6. To blame him would be wrong.
146 147
7. They feared to leave the children alone. The use of the infinitive as adjective or adverb
8. To meet her is to like her. should be given as follows:
9. Will you promise to write often? Examples: He had a chance to learn a trade.
10. He dreaded to face the stranger. We ran to catch the train.
11. Try to swim without splashing. You are wise to do that.
to learn - an infinitive. As a verb, it takes the object trade;
12. He expects to rent his cottage for the summer.
as an adjective, it modifies the noun chance.
13. To speak both English and French is a great advantage. to catch- an infinitive. As a verb, it takes the object train;
14. I plan to see him tomorrow. as an adverb, it modifies the verb ran.
15. Do not attempt to cross the street without looking in to do - an infinitive. As a verb, it takes the object that; as
both directions. an adverb, it modifies the adjective wise.

Root Infinitives
Infinitives Used as Adjectives and Adverbs To is called the sign of the infinitive. In some cases
In addition to the uses you have already learned, the sign to is omitted. Then the infinitive is called a
infinitives may have the value of adjectives or adverbs. ROOT INFINITIVE.

Examples: He does nothing but read. (to read)


Examples: This is a book to enjoy.
I have seen him do that. (to do)
Fools who came to scoff remained to pray.
He bade us enter. (to enter)
The infinitive to enJoy in the first sentence describes You need not leave so soon. (to leave)
book, and therefore has the value of an adjective, modi- We watched the clouds drift by. (to drift)
fying book. The infinitive to scoff in the second sentence
tells why they came, and therefore has the value of an EXERCISE 131
adverb, modifying the verb came. Similarly, to pray has Give in writing the use and the relation of each infinitive.
the value of an adverb because it tells why they re-
1. We go to school to learn.
mained. 2. That was a day to remember.
When an infinitive is used in a sentence as an 3. They will come to visit us.
adjective or adverb, it appears to lose its value as a noun. 4. We did not have any wood to burn in the fireplace.
This is not really the case, as you will see if you supply 5. This is a machine to comb wool.
in such sentences the words that are understood. For 6. We went to meet our friends.
example, the sentence I came to see you could be written 7. This is a good time to cut hay.
I came in order to see you, since that is the meaning. Then 8. I am ready to leave.
the infinitive to see is object of the phrasal preposition 9. We have not a minute to spare.
in order. 10. They stopped to inquire the way.
148 149
EXERCISE 132

Give orally the use and the relation of each infinitive.


I. We decided to rise early. CHAPTER XVI
2. To hold that position requires great ability.
3. Did you wish to have your vacation in July? DIRECT AND INDIRECT OBJECTS
4. She needs to review her lessons more thoroughly.
5. He jumped high to catch the ball.
Direct and Indirect Objects
6. They agreed to sell the farm. Read these sentences carefully, paying special atten-
7. Now is the time to announce your decision. tion to the words in italics.
8. We intend to succeed.
9. The children went to see the parade. I. He bought his mother a present.
10. I hope to please my mother when I take home my report. 2. They sent the doctor a telegram.
11. He dimmed his lights to assist the approaching cars.
12. To watch the bees was his delight. 3. She made the children new coats.
4. Give me your pen.
Verbals
In the first sentence, the verb bought appears to take
You have now studied three kinds of words formed two objects - present and mother. In the same way, in
from verbs. They are participles, gerunds, and infinitives. sentences 2, 3, and 4, the verbs appear to take two objects.
These are called VERBALS.
Suppose we look again at sentence 1, He bought his
mother a present. This could be written: He bought a
present for his mother. This has exactly the same mean-
ing. vVith sentence 2, They sent the doctor a telegram,
we could write: They sent a telegram to the doctor. Both
sentences have the same meaning.
The last word in each of the four sentences listed
above represents the thing toward which the action of
the verb is directed. It is called the DIRECT OBJECT. The
word in italics represents the person or thing the action
is done to or for. It is called the INDIRECT OBJECT.
Notice that an indirect object always precedes a
direct object in the same sentence.
G,I,-11 151
150
EXERCISE 133

Select the direct and indirect objects in each sentence.


I. He offered me his knife.
2. I told you his address. CHAPTER XVII
3. His mother knitted him a warm sweater.
ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE
4. He gave his horse some feed.
Active and Passive Voice, Progressive
5. The teacher read us a chapter of the book. Tenses, Emphatic Tenses
6. My father made me a boat.
7. Did you write her a letter? Active and Passive Voice
8. They found him a position. Examine each pair of sentences to see how the
9. Please hand me the paper.
same idea is expressed in two ways.
10. The usher gave me a good seat.
11. He told the judge his story. 1. The boy broke the window.
12. The company pays its shareholders small dividends, The window was broken by the boy.
13. He willed his son the farm.
2. My father built this house.
14. We gave the birds some crumbs.
This house was built by my father.
EXERCISE 134 In the first sentence of each pair the verb expresses
Select the objects of verbs and tell whether they are an action, and the subject names the doer of the action.
direct or indirect. In the second sentence of each pair the verb, in a changed
I. Did he ask you the price of the coat? form, expresses the same action, and the subject names
2. We offered him a ride in our car. the receiver of the action.
3. He left the waiter a tip. The change in the form of the verb to show whether
4. The boy gave the man a polite answer. the subject is the doer or the receiver of the action is
5. I chose her a gift. called VOICE. When the subject indicates the doer of the
6. She brought us some lunch. action the verb is said to be in the ACTIVE VOICE. When
7. He told them tales of his travels in Italy. ' .
the subject indicates the receiver of the act10n, the verb
8. Your visit did him good.
is said to be in the PASSIVE VOICE.
9. The children took the sick woman a bouquet of flowers.
10. The messenger handed the policeman a telegram.
EXERCISE 135
11. Have you told anyone our secret?
12. The successful inventor built his mother a comfortable Tell whether the verb is in the active or passive voice.
house. I. The lifeguard rescued the child.
13. He gave the class a good report of the game. 2. A board was torn off by the wind,
14. Your answer gives me another idea. 3. Blacksmiths shoe horses.
152 153
4. The dishes will be washed by the girls.
EXERCISE 136
5. Piles of leaves were burned by the gardener.
6. The men praised the foreman. (a) Write out each sentence, changing the verbs from
7. Three trout were caught by my chum. active to passive, and from passive to active. Make sure
8. The robins ate the cherries. that the tense of the verb remains the same.
9. The snow was melted by the sun. 1. The engineer quickly stopped the train.
10. The men moved the piano. 2. Many rabbits are killed by wolves.
11. Did they mention it? 3. Robert will represent our school at the meeting.
12. After the picnic they cleared up the litter. 4. The landlord notified the tenant to leave.
13. The glass in the greenhouse was broken by the hailstones. 5. Every year the farmer taps the sugar-maple trees.
14. Henry and I cleaned the car. 6. Much sediment is carried by rivers.
15. The accident had not been reported by the motorist. 7. These posters were made by senior pupils.
8. Our examination results will be published in the news-
Changing from Active to Passive Voice paper.
9. The sightseers are being conducted by a guide.
When you change the verb in a sentence from the 10. Several books of travel were ordered by the librarian.
active to the passive voice, the object in the active voice 11. The policeman caught the thief.
becomes the subject in the passive voice. 12. More freight is now transported by plane than ten years
Examples: I. The editor wrote the story. (Active Voice) ago.
The story was written by the editor. (Passive 13. The driver applied his brakes.
Voice) 14. The corn was damaged by the frost.
2. The hunter noticed tracks in the snow. (Active - 15. We reached the summit at twilight.
Voice)
(b) Change ~ from active to passive, and from
Tracks in the snow were noticed by the hunter. passive to active.
(Passive Voice) -<
1. The men cleared the wreckage from the track.
. Notice that the passive voice is made up of the 2. The boy directed the stranger.
different forms of the verb be together with the past 3. The drought was ended by a heavy rain.
participle of the principal verb. 4. The people were waked by the barking of their dog.
Since only transitive verbs can have objects, it is 5. In the fall the farmer fills his silo with corn.
apparent that only transitive verbs can be changed to 6. Old trails through the forest were made by the Indians.
1:he passive voice. 7. You will disappoint your parents.
Note: The word that shows the doer of the action 8. The carpenter shingled the roof of the house.
is often omitted in the passive voice. 9. A good watchmaker repaired my watch.
Example: I found the purse. (Active) 10. I opened the door very carefully.
The purse was found. (Passive) 11. The crops were damaged by the storm.
12. I have told that story many times.
154
155
Conjugation in the Passive Voice EXERCISE 137
You learned how to conjugate verbs in six tenses (a) In the active voice, write the conjugation of the
in the active voice. (Pages 65 and 7 I.) Here you are verbs tell and know in the present, past, and future tenses.
shown the conjugation of the verb see in the passive voice. (b) In the passive voice, write the conjugation of the
PRESENT TENSE verbs tell and know in the present, past, and future tenses.
Singular Plural
EXERCISE 138
Isl Person I am seen we are seen
2nd Person you are seen (a) In the active voice, write the conjugation of the
you are seen
3rd Person he is seen verbs hear and hurt in the three perfect tenses.
they are seen
(b) In the passive voice, write the conjugation of the
PAST TENSE
verbs hear and hurt in the three perfect tenses.
Singular Plural
rsl Person I was seen we were seen EXERCISE 139
2nd Person you were seen you were seen (a) In the active voice give orally the conjugation of
3rd Person he was seen they were seen the verbs teach and show in the six tenses.
FUTURE TENSE (b) In the passive voice, give orally the conjugation of
Singular Plural the verbs teach and show in the six tenses.
Isl Person I shall be seen we shall be seen
2nd Person you will be seen you will be seen EXERCISE 140
3rd Person he will be seen they will be seen (a) In the active voice give orally the conjugation of
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE verbs help and praise in the six tenses.
Singular Plural (b) In the passive voice, give orally the conjugation of
Ist Person I have been seen we have been seen verbs help and praise in the six tenses.
2nd Person you have been seen you have been seen
3rd Person he has been seen EXERCISE 141
they have been seen
PAST PERFECT TENSE
Write the following tense forms of the verb choose:
Singular Plural 1. third person singular, past tense, passive voice
Isl Person I had been seen we had been seen n. second person plural, future perfect tense, passive
2nd Person you had been seen you had been seen voice
3rd Person he had been seen they had been seen m. first person plural, present perfect tense, passive voice
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE 1v. third person plural, past perfect tense, passive voice
Singular v. second person singular, present tense, passive voice
Plural
ISl Person I shall have been seen v1. third person singular, future perfect tense, passive
we shall have been seen
2nd Person you will have been seen voice
you will have been seen
3rd Person he will hav.e been seen they will have been seen vu. third person singular, future tense, passive voice
vm. first person plural, present tense, passive voice
156
157
EXERCISE 142 Progressive Tenses -Active and Passive
Give orally the following tense forms of the verb help: Study the following sentences, paying particular
i. first person singular, present tense, passive voice attention to the tense and form of each verb:
ii. third person singular. past tense, passive voice 1. I am watching you.
iii. third person plural, future tense, passive voice 2. I was watching you.
1v. second person singular, present perfect tense, passive
3. I shall be watching you.
voice
v. first person plural, past tense, passive voice Here the verb phrase indicates an action as going
v1. second person plural, past perfect tense, passive voice on at the time shown by the tense of the verb. It is a
vu. third person plural, past perfect tense, passive voice continuing action at that time. A continuing action is
viii. thi_rd person singular, future perfect tense, passive shown by a PROGRESSIVE TENSE of the verb.
v01ce The progressive tenses of the verb watch shown
1x. second person singular, future tense, passive voice above are the present, past, and future. There are also
x. fir~t person singular, present perfect tense, passive PERFECT PROGRESSIVE TENSES.
v01ce
Examples:
xi. third person plural, present tense, passive voice I have been watching. (present perfect progressive)
xii. first person plural, present perfect tense, passive voice I had been watching. (past perfect progressive)
I shall have been watching. (future perfect progressive)
EXERCISE 143
All the progressive tenses given above are in the
Write the following tense forms of the verb pay: active voice. . In the passive voice, we find progressive
1. third person singular, present tense, active voice tenses in the present and past only.
11. third person plural, past perfect tense, passive voice
Examples:
111. first person singular, past tense, active voice
I am being watched. (present progressive tense, passive
1v. second person plural, future tense, passive voice
voice)
v. first person plural, past perfect tense, passive voice
I was being watched. (past progressive tense, passive voice)
v1. third person plural, future tense, active voice
vu. first person plural, future perfect tense, passive voice Notice that in the active voice, progressive tenses
viii. third person singular, past perfect tense, active voice are formed by using the present participle of the
1x. se~ond person singular, present perfect tense, passive principal verb with different forms of the verb be. In
v01ce the passive voice, the two progressive tenses are formed
x. third person singular, future tense, active voice
by using the past participle of the principal verb,
preceded by the word being, with the present and past
xi. first person singular, past perfect tense, active voice
forms of the verb be.
xii. first person plural, present tense, active voice
159
158
Conjugation in Progressive Tenses EXERCISE 144

You are given here the first person, singular and (a) Write in full the conjugation of the verb tell in the
plural, for each progressive tense, active voice; and for six progressive tenses, active voice. For your model, use
the two progressive tenses in the passive voice, of the the conjugation of the verb see on another page.
verb tell. (b) Write the conjugation of the verb tell in the present
ACTIVE VOICE and past progressive tenses, passive voice.
Singular Plural
EXERCISE 145
Present Progressive: I am telling we are telling
Past Progressive: I was telling we were telling (a) Give orally the conjugation of the verb watch in
Future Progressive: I shall be telling we shall be telling the six progressive tenses, active voice.
Present Perfect (b) Give orally the conjugation of the verb watch in the
Progressive: I have been telling we have been telling present and past progressive tenses, passive voice.
Past Perfect
Progressive: I had been telling we had been telling EXERCISE 146
Future Perfect Write the following tense forms of the verb give:
Progressive: I shall have been we shall have been
1. third person singular, present progressive, active
telling telling
voice
11. first person plural, future progressive, active voice
PASSIVE VOICE
m. second person singular, past perfect progressive,
Singular Plural
active voice
Present Progressive: I am being told we are being told
1v. first person singular, future perfect progressive, active
Past Progressive: I was being told we were being told
vmce
v. third person plural, past progressive, active voice
v1. second person plural, present perfect progressive,
active voice
vn. first person singular, present progressive, active voice
vm. third person singular, future progressive, active voice
1x. third person plural, past perfect progressive, active
vmce
x. first person plural, past progressive, active voice
xi. first person singular, present tense, passive voice
xn. third person plural, past tense, passive voice
xm. second person plural, present tense, passive voice
xiv. third person singular, present tense, passive voice
xv. first person plural, past tense, passive voice
160 161
EXERCISE 147
Emphatic Tenses
Conjugate eac,h of the following verbs m the present
Examine the verbs in these sentences.
emphatic and past emphatic tenses:
I. He lives there. 2. I gave it to you.
He does live there. I did give it to you. sing, work, study, try, play

In the first sentence of each pair, the verb simply


asserts. In the second sentence of each pair, the verb
asserts emphatically. The emphasis is shown by the use
of the words do and did. These auxiliaries !'-1elp the prin-
cipal verb to form an EMPHATIC TENSE.
Emphatic tenses are found in the present and past
only. Here are the emphatic tenses of the verb think.
PRESENT EMPHATIC TENSE
Singular Plural
ISt Person I do think we do think
2nd Person you do think you do think
3rd Person he does think they do think
PAST EMPHATIC TENSE
Singular Plural
Ist Person I did think we did think
2nd Person you did think you did think
3rd Person he did think they did chink
It should be noted that, in addition to its use as an
auxiliary verb in emphatic tenses, do is used as an
auxiliary in questions and in negative statements, and
in the imperative.
Examples: Where do you live? Why did he leave?
I do not wish to go. We did not see them.
Do stay!
Note also that do may be used as a principal verb.
Examples: You do better than you think.
He does his work neatly.
They did well to come.
162 163
9. She and he are friends.
10. Who stood beside me?
11. I knew that you went with them.
CHAPTER XVIII 12. We invited him for dinner.
13. That is she at the desk.
GENERAL REVIEVV 14. John and he are cousins.
15. We saw b.im and his sister at the game.
REVIEW-Nouns
16. These are hardy rose-bushes.
REVIEW EXERCISE I
17. Everybody knew where you had gone.
From the following sentences select orally the nouns, giving the
18. For whom did you vote?
kind, number, case, and relation of each:
19. I do not know the boy whom you spoke to.
1. Newfoundland is Canada's tenth province. 20. He does not sing as well as she.
2. When Cartier sailed across the Atlantic in 1543, he was not
21. He is a better player than I.
crossing unknown seas.
3. Television is a scientific achievement that will provide enter- 22. We could not find the man who owned the car.
tainment for the millions.
4. Mount Vesuvius towers above the city of Naples.
5. The directors' signatures are on the promissory note. REVIEW-Correct Usage of Pronouns
6. Several of Norway's modern ships were purchased from other REVIEW EXERCISE 3
countries.
Write out each sentence, using the correct word from the pair
7. The fourth of July is a national holiday in the United States.
given in brackets. Be prepared to give the reason for your choice.
8. Richard's eyes sparkled with indignation, but his better
nature quickly overcame it. He pressed his hand against his 1. I am older than (she, her).
brow and studied the face of the humbled baron, in whose 2. (Who, whom) is the guilty one?
features pride and shame were contending. 3. He said that you and (me, I) might go,
4. They should not blame (we, us).
5. He is younger than (I, me).
REVIEW-Pronouns
6. We waited for you and (him, he).
REVIEW EXERCISE 2 7. (Who, whom) did the teacher call?
Give orally the kind, person, number, case, and relation of each 8. You skate as well as (me, I).
pronoun. 9. I think it was (her, she).
1. They made room for us in their car, 10. You and (I, me) were in the same class.
2. I left my coat on the bench. 11. No one except (he, him) would do that.
3. Everyone but me has a new hat. 12. You work faster than (I, me).
4. Who wili help me to mow the lawn? 13. They saw you and (I, me) together.
5. He and I went together. 14. Did you think it was (him, he)?
6. Several praised him for his speech. 15. (Who, whom) are you going with?
7. You are taller than he. 16. People like (she, her) need plenty of sleep.
8. For whom are you waiting? 17. (Who, whom) did you tell?
164 165
18. This seat is good enough for you and (me, I). 4. They ................ at the museum yesterday. (was, were)
19. We met (they, them) at the corner. 5. Every pupil in our class ... ............ that the examination was
20. They are friends (whom, who) I seldom see. difficult., (think, thinks)
6. There .. .............. a good supply of vegetables on the market.
(was, were)
REVIEW-Classes of Verbs
7. The members of the council often................. (disagrees,
REVIEW EXERCISE 4 disagree)
Classify the verbs as transitive, intransitive, or copula. 8. All the companies in our town ...... .........good wages. (pay,
1. The boys were playing games in the yard. pays)
2. The weather suddenly turned cold. 9. The man and the woman ................crossing the street. (was,
3. She seems contented. were)
4. I did not believe the report. 10. There ....... ,........ too many people in this room. (is, are)
5. Most children sleep soundly. 11. Here ........ .... .... the boy and his sister. (comes, come)
6. He became a great musician. 12. ....... .. ... ... there any vacant seats? (was, were)
7. The woman prepared the dinner in a hurry. 13. The white lines on the curves in the road .. .............. accidents.
8. The sick child grew nervous during the storm. (prevent, prevents)
9. Birds generally build their nests in .sheltered places. 14. There ................ to be particles of sand in the spinach. (seem,
10. The snow never m elts on the peaks of some mountains. seems)
11. I was very happy after the game. 15 . .. ........... ...you late for dinner today? (were, was)
12. He has been away for a month. 16. One ofmy friends ..... .... .... ... to that school. (go, goes)
13. These cakes taste good. 17. The hunter and his dogs ............ ....crossing the field. (are, is)
14. Do you feel dizzy? 18 ........... ...... there anyone in our class who failed? (were, was)
15. He opens his letters with a penknife. 19. This is one of the houses that. .. .. ........ ... sold. (was, were)
16. The story sounded mysterious to me. 20. Many who work in this factory .. ...... ....... .in the country.
17. He walked hurriedly away. (lives, live)
18. We were on the ship for three days. 21. The names of the members of the committee ................ not
19. The boys found some old coins in the cave. published. (was, were)
20. The boat looks safe. 22. Not one of my answers ................correct. (is, are)
21. He is a very capable workman. 23 ...... ...... ..... there many at the game? (was, were)
22. The teacher did not see us. 24. The farmer and his neighbours .... ............doing the work.
(are, is)

REVIEW-Agreement between Subject and Predicate


REVIEW EXERCISE 5 REVIEW-Conjugation of Verbs
Use the correct word from the pair given in brackets and be REVIEW EXERCISE 6
prepared to give the reason for your choice. '
(a) Conjugate the verb begin in the present, past, and future
1. Clouds continually .... ..... ... .... through the sky. (pass, passes) tenses.
2. Many varieties of the palm-tree .............. . Jound in tropical (b) Conjugate the verb eat in the present perfect, past perfect,
countries. (is, are) and future perfect tenses.
3. He ........ .... .. .eat much meat. (don't, doesn't) (c) Conjugate the verb study in the six tenses.
166 G .I.-1~ 167
REVIEW EXERCISE 7
20. They (done, did) us a favour.
21. I have (drove, driven) a car for a long time.
Give orally the following tense forms of the verb come:
22. He (giue, gave) away most of his money.
1. second person plural, future tense 23. I have never (ate, eaten) here before.
11. third person singular, past tense
24. We (drunk, drank) from a wooden cup.
m. first person plural, present tense 25. He (sit, sat) in the same spot again today.
1v. third person plural, past perfect tense
v. first person singular, future tense
vi. third person plural, future perfect tense REVIEW-Correct Usage of Adjectives and Adverbs
vu. first person plural, present perfect tense REVIEW EXERCISE 9
vm. third person plural, future tense
Write out each sentence, using the correct word from the pair
IX. third person singular, present tense
given in brackets.
x. second person singular, past perfect tense
1. The hungry man looked ........................... at the food. (eager,
eagerly)
REVIEW-Correct Usage of Verbs 2. The woman feels ........................ in her own home. (happy,
happily)
REVIEW EXERCISE 8 3. Try to act.. ..............with strangers. (natural, naturally)
Write out each sentence, using the correct word from the pair 4. Your plans look ................ to me. (well, good)
given in brackets. 5. He appeared ................ to leave. (anxious, anxiously)
1. Have you (give, given) your oral composition yet? 6. The child does not talk ...... ........... (clear, clearly)
2. I (saw, seen) your brother at church yesterday. 7. You were ................ fortunate today. (sure, surely)
3. That horse has (ran, run) on this track before. 8. They are not ..... .......... ready. (near, nearly)
4. I know you (done, did) your job well. 9. She skates very .. ..... .... ..... (graceful, gracefully)
5. The ships have (went, gone) out with the tide. 10. You have done this work ............... (good, well)
6. They have (known, knew) each other for a long time. 11. That horse won the race... . .... ...... (easily, easy)
7. She had never (saw, seen) the ocean before. 12. The flowers smell ............ (sweetly, sweet)
8. We (come, came) home yesterday. 13. Several guests felt.. ...... . ...... after eating the food. (queerly,
9. The boys have (went, gone) for a Christmas tree. queer)
14. The doctor says that the boy is not ................ (good, well)
10. He has never (done, did) that kind of work.
11. I (give, gave) him my hockey-stick for the game. 15. How ................ the child looks! (prettily, pretty)
16. The boy spoke .. .... .. ........ to his employer. (politely, polite)
12. They (begun, began) to drill the new well today.
17. He waited .... ............ for news from his son. (anxious,
13. Who (sung, sang) in the choir on Sunday?
14. Have you (seen, saw) a robin yet? anxiously)
18. Food tastes ................when we are hungry. (good, well)
15. Several pupils have (written, wrote) long letters.
19. He spoke very ................ . (disagreeable, disagreeably)
16. They have (took, taken) the flag down.
20. I felt ................ when I heard you were coming. (well, good)
17. Has the teacher (rung, rang) the bell?
21. That news sounds ........ ........ . (well, good)
18. This wheat has (grew, grown) fast.
22. He looked ................ after .his operation. (bad, badly)
19. It (begin, began) to rain in the night.
169
168
REVIEW-Different u~es of the Same Word REVIEW-Clauses
REVIEW EXERCISE 13
REVIEW EXERCISE 10
In the following stanzas select all the clauses, and give the kind
(a) Compose sentences using each of the following words as a
and the relation of each subordinate clause.
noun. Then compose sentences using each word as a verb.
plant, place, mark, watch, search 1. Sadly, as the shades of even
(b) Use each word as a preposition and an adverb. Gathered o'er the hill,
in, near, up, past, above While the western half of heaven
(c) Use each word as an adjective and an adverb. Blushed with sunset still,
early, back, right, first, only From the fountain's mossy seat
(d) Use each word as a noun, a verb, and an adjective. Turned the Indian's weary feet.
light, equal, sound, work, open 2. T he curfew tolls the knell of parting day,
(e) Use each word as a preposition and a conjunction. The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea,
after, for, until, before, since The ploughman homeward plods his weary way,
And leaves the world to darkness and to me.
3. When I was a beggarly boy
REVIEW-Clauses And lived in a cellar damp,
REVIEW EXERCISE 11 I had not a friend or a toy,
(a) Write a sentence with a noun clause as the subject of the But I had Aladdin's lamp;
verb. ·when I could not sleep for cold,
(b) Write a sentence with a noun clause as the object of the I had fire enough in my brain,
verb. And builded with roofs of gold
(c) Write a complex sentence which contains a principal clause, My beautiful castles in Spain!
an adjective clause, and an adverb clause.
(d) Write a complex sentence which contains a principal clause,
REVIEW-Clauses
REVIEW EXERCISE 14
an adjective clause, an adverb clause, and a noun clause. In the following extracts select all the clauses, and give the kind
(e) Write a compound-complex sentence. and the relation of each subordinate clause.
1. Tom was sitting at the bottom of his bed unlacing his boots,
so that his back was toward Arthur, and he did not see what
REVIEW-Clauses and Relation of Words had happened, and looked up in wonder at the sudden silence.
2. When I was a little advanced into the island I saw an old
REVIEW EXERCISE 12 m an, who appeared very weak and infirm. He was sitting on
(a) In the following extract select all the clauses, and give the the bank of a stream, and at first I took him to be one who had
kind and relation of each subordinate clause. been shipwrecked like myself. I went towards him and saluted him,
(b) Give orally the part of speech and the relation or use of each but he only slightly bowed his head.
word. 3. I had been often told that the rock before me was the haunt
In the heat of the action, as he advanced at the head of the of a genius; and that several had been entertained with music
grenadiers of Louisburg, a bullet shattered his wrist, but he wrapped who had passed by it, but never heard that the musician had
his handkerchief about the wound, and showed no sign of pain. before made himself visible.
170 171
REVIEW-Direct and Indirect Objects
REVIEW-Verbals
REVIEW EXERCISE 16
REVIEW EXERCISE 15
(a) Write three sentences in which a pronoun is the object of
Give the kind, use, and relation of each verbal.
a preposition.
1. Flying a kite requires a steady breeze. (b) Write three sentences in which a noun is the object of a pre-
2. Tangled and broken, the wires lay on the street. position.
3. To hitch one's wagon to a star means to plan ambitiously. (c) Write three sentences in which a noun or pronoun 1s the
4. Skating at top speed, he outdistanced all his competitors. direct object of a verb.
5. We enjoyed listening to the symphony concert. (d) Write three sentences in which a noun or pronoun is the
6. Having gone out in a hurry, he forgot his coat. indirect object of a verb.
7. A boy went by, whistling a lively tune.
8. The children picked flowers growing along the road.
REVIEW-Verbs: Active and Passive Voice
9. To eat too much candy is a mistake.
REVIEW EXERCISE 17
10. They asked us to paint the house.
11. We saw people strolling in the park. (a) Conjugate the verb think in the six regular tenses, active
12. He enjoys discussing politics. voice. ·
(b) Conjugate the verb send m the six regular tenses, passive
13. The children planned to surprise their mother with a gift.
vmce.
14. I was glad to meet her.
15. To remember names is easy for some.
16. She went out to get a magazine. REVIEW-Verbs: Progressive Tenses
17. Letters dropped in this mailbox are collected late a t night. REVIEW EXERCISE 18
18. Having come so far, we want to get a seat for the game. (a) Conjugate the verb show in the six progressive tenses, active
19. Snow drifting across the highway blocked traffic. voice.
20. Trees uprooted by the hurricane lay on every side. (b) Conjugate the verb hear in the present progressive and past
21. That is a plane to carry freight . progressive tenses, passive voice.
22. He determined to outwit the enemy.
23. Having been hurt in the game, he was limping badly.
REVIEW-Verbs: Emphatic Tenses
24. Tents pitched by the Boy Scouts soon covered the field.
REVIEW EXERCISE 19
25. This is the mine discovered by the trapper.
26. Having read the book, I enjoyed the motion-picture. Conjugate each verb in the present emphatic and past emphatic
27. Sewing in a poor light is not a good practice. tenses :
28. She pleased him by admiring his pony. believe, learn, help, drive, buy

173
172

_,_,_, - -
APPENDIX
Gender Nouns, Principal Parts of Verbs, Foreign Word
Plurals, Comparison of Adjectives

A - Gender Nouns
Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine
abbot abbess husband wife
author author or king queen
authoress lad lass
bachelor spinster landlord landlady
or maid lord lady
beau belle master mistress
billy-gqat nanny-goat monk nun
or he~goat or she-goat nephew mece
boy girl poet poet
bridegroom bride or poetess
buck doe prophet prophetess
cock hen ram ewe
colt filly shepherd shepherdess
drake duck son daughter
duke duchess stag hind
emperor empress uncle aunt
fox vixen waiter waitress
gander goose widower widow
gentlema1, lady youth maiden

175
(

Present Past Past


B - Principal Parts of Verb Participle
Tense Tense
Present Past Past sewed sewn or
sew
Tense T ense Participle sewed
arise arose arisen shine shone shone
awake awoke awoke or sow sowed sown or
awaked sowed
bear bore borne speak spoke spoken
bid bade or bidden or strive strove striven
bid bid swim swam swum
bind bound bound swing swung swung
bite bit bitten wake woke or waked, woke
blow blew blown waked or woken
burst burst burst weave wove woven
buy bought bought work worked or worked or
catch caught caught wrought wrought
choose chose chosen
climb clirnbed climbed
dive dived dived C - Plurals of Some Foreign Words
drink drank drunk
Singular Plural
fight fought fought
find found found analysis analyses
forget forgot forgotten appendix appendices
forsake forsook forsaken axis axes
freeze froze frozen bandit bandits or
grind banditti
ground ground
hang hanged hanged crisis cnses
(of person in capital punishment) formula formulas or
hang hung hung formulre
index indexes or
(of thing or person in all other cases)
hide hidden indices
hid
hold held medium media
h eld
mowed or memorandum memorandums or
mow mowed
memoranda
mown
prm·e proved parenthesis parentheses
proved
ride ridden vertebra vertebrre
rode
176 177

I
~
r

D - Comparison of Adjectives
Positive Comparative Superlative
angry angrier angriest GENERAL INDEX
busy busier busiest
careful more careful Adverbs, 17 Analysis, 1 (continued)
most careful
clauses, 113 imperative, 39
common commoner commonest comparison of, 102 interrogative, 39
eager more eager most eager correct use of, 90 simple and compound, 104
earnest more earnest most earnest definitions of, 18, 23 with objects, 28
easy easier other, 23 practice, 13
easiest
phrase, 21 study of, 11
fearful more fearful most fearful used as infinitives, 148 written, 12, 42
healthy healthier healthiest
lively livelier liveliest Adjectives, 17, 99 Antecedents
lovely clauses, 113 of conjunctive pronouns,
lovelier loveliest comparison of, 99, 178 130-1
sultry sultrier sultriest irregular, 10 I
ugly uglier ugliest phrasal, 100 Articles
unkind unkinder unkindest regular, 99-101 definite, 19
worldly cotrect use of, 90, 102 indefinite, 19
more worldly most worldly definition of, 18
worthy worthier worthiest phrase, 21 Case
possessive pronominal, 60 in nouns and pronouns, 59
predicate, 34 nominative, 60
pronominal, 56 objective, 60
definition of, 56 of conjunctive pronouns, 132
used as infinitives, 148 possessive, 60
verbal, 135 possessive, in nouns, 96

Agreement Clauses, 104


between subject and predicate, adverb and adjective, 113
67 definition of, 104
independent, 104
Analysis, 1 noun, 118
aids in, 10 noun, as subjects, 119, 121
clausal, 115, 121 principal, I 04
complete detailed, 42 relation of, 114
graphic, 3, 7, 42 separation of, 121
definition of, 7 subordinate, 111
of compound sentences, 109
of sentences, 6, 28 Comparison
definition of, 6 of adjectives and adverbs,
exclamatory, 39 99-102, 178
179
Completion Participles (continued) Pronouns (continued)
Interjections
subjective, 34, 63, 144 position of, 140 definition of, 19
definition of, 38
definition of, 34 present, 137 demonstrative, 55
Modifiers, 4, 41 present perfect, 140 indefinite, 55
Conjugation of verbs, 71 position of, 14 use and relation of, 141 interrogative, 55
in passive voice, 156 short, 7, 19 use and relation of, 136 number in, 5 7
in progressive tenses, 160 word-group, 7 plural, 58
Parts of speech, 18 singular, 58
Conjunctions, 25, 105 not, 40 person in, 57
classes of, 125 Persons in pronouns, 57 personal, 55, 57
co-ordinate, 125 Nouns, 17 possessive, 60, 61
phrasal, 128 case in, 59 Phrases, 20, 21 predicate nominative, 63
correlative, 126 clauses, 118 adjective, 21 relative, 130
definition of, 25 as objects, 118 adverb, 21 study of, 54
in compound sentences, 105, as subjects, 119 connected, 44
107 common and proper, 52 definition of, 21 Receiver of the action, 27
phrasal, 127 definition of, 52 participial, 141
subordinate, 126, 127 declension of, 62 rules of punctuation of, 142 Relation (see Use)
phrasal, 128 definition of, 17 prepositional, 36
use of, 128 formation of plurals in, 93 verb, 35 Sentences
analysis of, 6
gender in, 97, 175
Declension Predicate, 1 with objects, 28
list of common, 175
of nouns, 62 number in, 57 agreement with subject, 67 assertive, 37
of pronouns, 60 plural, 58 bare, 5, 36 building, 8
singular, 58 complete, 5 complex, 111, 115
Emphatic tenses, 162 possessive case in, 96 compound, 25 compound, 104
definition of, 2 conjunctions in, 105, 107
Expletive, 40 predicate, 34
helpers, 3 graphic analysis of, 109
predicate nominative, 63
modifier of, 4 compound-complex, 123
Gender proper, 52
nominative, 63 exclamatory, 38, 39
in nouns, 97, 175 definition of, 38
Number
Gerunds, 143 in nouns and pronouns, 57, Prepositions, 22, 86 imperative, 37, 39
58 correct use of, 86 definition of, 37
as objects or subjective com-
definition of, 22 interrogative, 37
pletions, 144
definition of, 143 Object, 154 objects of, 45 kinds of, 37
use and relation of, 144 direct and indirect, 151 use and relation of, 22 simple, 104
gerunds as, 144
Helping words, 2, 3 of prepositions, 45 Pronouns, 19, 87-9 Speaking correctly, 77
of verbs, 27 case in, 59
Infinitives, 146 classes of, 55 Speech, parts of, 17
as adjectives and adverbs, 148 Participles, 73, 135 conjunctive, 130, 131, 133
use of, 149 definition of, 135 care with, 133 Subject, 1, 154
definition of, 146 past, 73, 137 case and relation of, 132 agreement with predicate, 67
root, 149 use and relation of, 138 correct use of, 87-89 bare, 5
use and relation of, 147 phrase, 141 declension of, 60 complete, 5
180 181

I
.ii..._
Subject (continued) .Verbal adjective, 135
compound, 25
definition of, 25 Verbal noun, 143
definition of, 2
helpers, 2 Verbs, 17
missing, l 08
modifier of, 4 auxiliary, 36
noun clauses as, l 19 completions, 27
conjugation of, 71- 3
Tenses copula, 33
definition of, 64 correct use of, 77-85
emphatic, 162 definition of, 17
future, 64 differences in action verbs,. 30
simple, 66 intransitive, 31-3
of promise or determination, definition of, 32
66 objects of, 27
special uses of, 66 past participle, 73
future perfect, 70 phrases, 35
in verb, 64 principal, 35
past, 64 principal parts of, 73, 176, 177
past perfect, 70 tense in, 64
perfect, 70 transitive, 31-3, 154
perfect progressive, 159 definition of, 32
present, 64
present perfect, 70 Voice
progressive (active and active and passive, 153
passive), 159 definitions of, 153
conjugation in, 160 changing from active to
passive, 154
there, 40 conjugation,
active, 71
Use and Relation passive, 156
of conjunctive pronouns, 132
of gerunds, 144 Words
of infinitives, 147
action, 2, 17
of participles, 136
different uses of th e same, 46
of past participles, 138
foreign (plurals of), 177
of present perfect
helping, 2
participles, 141
name, 2, 17
of prepositions, 22
relation of, 18
ofwords, 18

Verbals, 135, 150 Writing correctly, 77

182

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