Tafila Technical

University Faculty of
Engineering
Department of Mechanical
Engineering
Materials Science
“Chapter 9 report”

Student Name: Ahmad Nader Ghawanmeh.

Student ID: 320180101053.

Date:10/5/2020

Instructor Name: Eng. Audai AL-Akailah.

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Contents:
Phase Diagrams…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………3

Component……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….3

System………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………3

Solubility limit in metals……………………………………………………………………………………………………………4

Phase and main differences between phases……………………………………………………………………………4

Phase equilibrium…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….5

Metastable phase…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….5

Unary phase diagram……………………………………………………………………………………………………………(5-6)

Binary phase diagram…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..(6-7)

Isomorphous phase diagram……………………………………………………………………………………………………8

Eutectic phase diagram………………………………………………………………………………………………………..(8-9)

Solvus line, solidus line, liquidus line, invariant point………………………………………………………….(9-10)

Eutectoid and peritectic reaction……………………………………………………………………………………………10

Iron – Iron Carbide phase diagram……………………………………………………………………………………(11-12)

Hardness, Brinell, Rockwell, Vickers…………………………………………………………………………….(13-14-15)

Reference……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….15

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 • Phase Diagrams:
The understanding of phase diagrams for alloy systems is extremely important because there is
a strong correlation between microstructure and mechanical properties, and the development
of microstructure of an alloy is related to the characteristics of its phase diagram. In addition,
phase diagrams provide valuable information about melting, casting, crystallization, and other
phenomena.

Phase Diagrams: components are involved (sugar and water), the sum of the concentrations at
any composition will equal 100 wt%. The solubility limit is represented as the nearly vertical line
in the figure. For compositions and temperatures to the left of the solubility line, only the syrup
liquid solution exists; to the right of the line, syrup and solid sugar coexist.

• Component:
For The term component is frequently used in this discussion; components are pure metals
and/or compounds of which an alloy is composed.

example, in a copper–zinc brass, the components are Cu and Zn. Solute and solvent, which
are also common terms.

• System:
Another term used in this context is system, which has two meanings. First, system may
refer to a specific body of material under consideration (e.g., a ladle of molten steel).

Or it may relate to the series of possible alloys consisting of the same components, but
without regard to alloy composition (e.g., the iron–carbon system).

By way of review, a solid solution consists of atoms of at least two different types; the
solute atoms occupy either substitutional or interstitial positions in the solvent lattice, and
the crystal structure of the solvent is maintained.

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• Solubility limit in metals:
For many alloy systems and at some specific temperature, there is a maximum
concentration of solute atoms that may dissolve in the solvent to form a solid solution; this
is called a solubility limit.

• Phase and main differences between phases:

A phase may be defined as a homogeneous portion of a system that has uniform physical
and chemical characteristics.

Every pure material is considered to be a phase; so also, is every solid, liquid, and gaseous
solution.

- For example, the sugar–water syrup solution just discussed is one phase, and solid sugar
is another. Each has different physical properties (one is a liquid, the other is a solid).

- Furthermore, each is different chemically (i.e., has a different chemical composition);

one is virtually pure sugar, the other is a solution of H2O and C12H22O11.

- If more than one phase is present in a given system, each will have its own distinct
properties, and a boundary separating the phases will exist across which there will be a
discontinuous and abrupt change in physical and/or chemical characteristics.

- When two phases are present in a system, it is not necessary that there be a difference
in both physical and chemical properties; a disparity in one or the other set of properties
is sufficient.

- When water and ice are present in a container, two separate phases exist; they are
physically dissimilar (one is a solid, the other is a liquid) but identical in chemical
makeup.

- Also, when a substance can exist in two or more polymorphic forms (e.g., having both
FCC and BCC structures), each of these structures is a separate phase because their
respective physical characteristics differ.

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 • Phase equilibrium:
Equilibrium is another essential concept that is best described in terms of a thermodynamic
quantity called the free energy.

phase equilibrium, often used in the context of this discussion, refers to equilibrium as it
applies to systems in which more than one phase may exist.

Phase equilibrium is reflected by a constancy with time in the phase characteristics of a

system.

• Metastable phase:
Nonequilibrium or metastable state: A metastable state or microstructure may persist
indefinitely, experiencing only extremely slight and almost imperceptible changes as time
progresses.

Often, metastable structures are of more practical significance than equilibrium ones. For
example, some steel and aluminum alloys rely for their strength on the development of
metastable microstructures during carefully designed heat treatments.

• Unary phase diagram:

In unary phase diagram composition is held constant (i.e., the phase diagram is for a pure
substance); this means that pressure and temperature are the variables.

As an example, the one for H2O, which is shown in Figure 1. Here it may be noted that regions
for three different phases—solid, liquid, and vapor—are delineated on the plot. Each of the
phases will exist under equilibrium conditions over the temperature–pressure ranges of its
corresponding area. Furthermore, the three curves shown on the plot (labeled aO, bO, and cO)
are phase boundaries; at any point on one of these curves, the two phases on either side of the
curve are in equilibrium (or coexist) with one another. That is, equilibrium between solid and
vapor.

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 Figure 1: Pressure–temperature phase diagram for H2O. Intersection of the dashed
horizontal line at 1 atm pressure with the solid–liquid phase boundary (point 2)
corresponds to the melting point at this pressure (T= 0C). Similarly, point 3, the
intersection with the liquid–vapor boundary, represents the boiling point (T= 100C).

• Binary phase diagram:

- Another type of extremely common phase diagram is one in which temperature and
composition are variable parameters, and pressure is held constant—normally 1 atm.
- Binary phase diagrams are maps that represent the relationships between temperature
and the compositions and quantities of phases at equilibrium, which influence the
microstructure of an alloy.
- Possibly the easiest type of binary phase diagram to understand and interpret is the
type that is characterized by the copper–nickel system (Figure 2 a). Temperature is
plotted along the ordinate, and the abscissa represents the composition of the alloy, in
weight percent (bottom) and atom percent (top) of nickel.

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 Figure 2: (a) The copper–nickel phase diagram. (b) A portion of the copper–nickel phase
diagram for which compositions and phase amounts are determined at point B. (Adapted
from Phase Diagrams of Binary Nickel Alloys, P. Nash, Editor, 1991. Reprinted by permission
of ASM International, Materials Park, OH.)

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• Isomorphous phase diagram:
Isomorphous: it is a homogeneous liquid solution composed of complete liquid and solid
solubility of the two components.

A couple of comments are in order regarding nomenclature. First, for metallic alloys, solid
solutions are commonly designated by lowercase Greek letters (alpha, beta, Gama, etc.).
Furthermore, with regard to phase boundaries, the line separating the L and (alpha +L)
phase fields is termed the liquidus line, as indicated in Figure 2a; the liquid phase is present
at all temperatures and compositions above this line. The

solidus line is located between the (alpha) and (alpha + L) regions, below which only the
solid(alpha) phase exists.

• Eutectic phase diagram:

(1) The eutectic reaction

Upon cooling copper–silver system, a liquid phase is transformed into the two solids and
phases at the temperature TE; the opposite reaction occurs upon heating. This is called a
eutectic reaction (eutectic means “easily melted”), and and represent the eutectic
composition and temperature, respectively; and are the respective

compositions of the and phases at . Thus, for the copper–silver system, the eutectic
reaction, Equation 1, may be written as follows:

Another common eutectic system is that for lead and tin; the phase diagram (Figure 3) has a
general shape similar to that for copper–silver.

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 Figure 3: The lead–tin phase diagram

• Solvus line, solidus line, liquidus line, invariant point:

Figure 4: The copper–silver phase diagram

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- Solvus line: The solid solubility limit line separating the and + phase regions is
termed a solvus line
- solidus line: The boundary AB between the and + L fields is the solidus line, as
indicated in Figure 4.
- liquidus line: As silver is added to copper, the temperature at which the alloys become
totally liquid decreases along the liquidus line, line AE; thus, the melting temperature of
copper is lowered by silver additions.
- invariant point: At the point E on the phase diagram, through which also passes the
horizontal isotherm line BEG. Point E is called an invariant point, which is designated by
the composition and temperature ; for the copper–silver system.

• Eutectoid and peritectic reaction:

- The reverse reaction occurs upon heating. It is called a eutectoid (or eutectic-like)
reaction.

(2) The eutectoid reaction

Upon cooling, a solid phase transforms into two other solid phases ( and ) according to
the reaction.

- The peritectic reaction is yet another invariant reaction involving three phases at
equilibrium. With this reaction, upon heating, one solid phase transforms into a liquid
phase and another solid phase.

(3) The peritectic reaction

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• Iron – Iron Carbide phase diagram:
- A portion of the iron–carbon phase diagram is presented in Figure 5. Pure iron, upon
heating, experiences two changes in crystal structure before it melts. At room
temperature the stable form, called Ferrite, or -iron, has a BCC crystal structure.

- Ferrite experiences a polymorphic transformation to FCC Austenite, or -iron, at 912C

(1674F). This austenite persists to 1394C (2541F), at which temperature the FCC
austenite reverts back to a BCC phase known as -ferrite, which finally melts at 1538C
(2800F). All these changes are apparent along the left vertical axis of the phase diagram.

Figure 5: The iron–iron carbide phase diagram

- The composition axis in Figure 5 extends only to 6.70 wt% C; at this concentration the
intermediate compound iron carbide, or Cementite (Fe3C), is formed, which is
represented by a vertical line on the phase diagram. Thus, the iron–carbon system may
be divided into two parts: an iron-rich portion, as in Figure 9.24, and the other (not
shown) for compositions between 6.70 and 100 wt% C (pure graphite).

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 - Eutectic and eutectoid reactions in the Iron – carbon phase diagram:

* It may be noted from Figure 5 that one eutectic exists for the iron–iron carbide system, at
4.30 wt% C and 1147C (2097F); for this eutectic reaction:

(4) Eutectic reaction for the iron–iron carbide system

* It may be noted that a eutectoid invariant point exists at a composition of 0.76 wt% C and a
temperature of 727C (1341F). This eutectoid reaction may be represented by:

(5) Eutectoid reaction for the iron–iron carbide system

- Magnetic properties of iron ……. Depending the temperature range:

This particular iron–carbon phase is relatively soft, may be made magnetic at temperatures
below 768C (1414F), and has a density of 7.88 g/cm^3. The austenite, or phase of iron,
when alloyed with carbon alone, is not stable below 727C (1341F), as indicated in Figure
9.24.

The maximum solubility of carbon in austenite, 2.14 wt%, occurs at 1147C (2097F).

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• Hardness, Brinell, Rockwell, Vickers:
- Hardness: which is a measure of a material’s resistance to localized plastic deformation
(e.g., a small dent or a scratch). Early hardness tests were based on natural minerals
with a scale constructed solely on the ability of one material to scratch another that was
softer.

* A qualitative and somewhat arbitrary hardness indexing scheme was devised, termed the
Mohs scale, which ranged from 1 on the soft end for talc to 10 for diamond.

* Hardness tests are performed more frequently than any other mechanical test for several
reasons:

1. They are simple and inexpensive—ordinarily no special specimen need be prepared, and
the testing apparatus is relatively inexpensive.

2. The test is nondestructive—the specimen is neither fractured nor excessively deformed; a

small indentation is the only deformation.

3. Other mechanical properties often may be estimated from hardness data, such as tensile
strength (see Figure 6).

Figure 6: Relationships between hardness and tensile strength for steel, brass, and cast
iron

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 - Brinell:

* In Brinell tests, a hard, spherical indenter is forced into the surface of the metal to be tested.

* The diameter of the hardened steel (or tungsten carbide) indenter is 10.00 mm (0.394 in.).

* Standard loads range between 500 and 3000 kg in 500-kg increments; during a test, the load
is maintained constant for a specified time (between 10 and 30 s).

* Harder materials require greater applied loads.

* The Brinell hardness number, HB, is a function of both the magnitude of the load and the
diameter of the resulting indentation.

* This diameter is measured with a special low-power microscope, utilizing a scale that is
etched on the eyepiece.

* The measured diameter is then converted to the appropriate HB number using a chart; only
one scale is employed with this technique.

- Rockwell:

* The Rockwell tests constitute the most common method used to measure hardness because
they are so simple to perform and require no special skills.

* Several different scales may be utilized from possible combinations of various indenters and
different loads, which permit the testing of virtually all metal alloys (as well as some polymers).

* With this system, a hardness number is determined by the difference in depth of penetration
resulting from the application of an initial minor load followed by a larger major load; utilization
of a minor load enhances test accuracy.

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 - Vickers:
* Vickers (sometimes also called diamond pyramid).

* For each test a very small diamond indenter having pyramidal geometry is forced into the
surface of the specimen.

* Applied loads are much smaller than for Rockwell and Brinell, ranging between 1 and 1000 g.

* The resulting impression is observed under a microscope and measured; measurement is

then converted into a hardness number.

• Reference:
Materials Science and Engineering an Introduction, Eighth Edition by William D. Callister Jr.,
David G. Rethwisch (z-lib)

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