2.

HARMONIC IMPEDANCE AT THE POINT

OF COMMON COUPLING (PCC)
__________________________________________________________________________________

2.1 Introduction

The analysis of a power system component such as generators, transmission lines and
transformers, rely on harmonic voltage and current distortion levels. The harmonic distortion
in voltage and current is usually calculated by means of load flow studies with an assumption
that power generation and transmission system is perfectly linear. In practice however, the
transformer magnetising current harmonics will cause the generator to produce harmonic
voltages and currents as harmonic interaction takes place between the rotor and stator circuit
of the generator. The process of harmonic conversion changes the waveform of the
transformer flux which produces distortion in the magnetising spectrum. This new
magnetising spectrum results in repetition of the harmonic conversion process at the
synchronous generator. Apart from this, any harmonic contribution from any other network
component like transmission line, triggers the harmonic interaction between these two
nonlinear power system components.

It is hard to analyse the effect of harmonic cross coupling within conventional frames of
references. However this is an important characteristic of harmonic formulation and its
relevance is evident from harmonic studies. The dynamic analysis of the power system
components often needs a detailed model for a certain part of the network, while the rest of
the network can be considered an equivalent circuit. In this way the computation efforts
required for simulation of the whole network is considerably reduced and simplified.

Short circuit impedance is probably the simplest equivalent model approach at the
fundamental frequency. For studies such as fault analysis, this approach is good enough.
However for studies where system response should be reproduced at harmonic frequencies,
this model can not approximate the system’s behaviour. Harmonic generating equipment,
coupled with system resonance condition effects are cumulative and can be severe on system
operations, if not mitigated. Capacitor banks for reactive power compensation, power
converters in variable speed controls of wind turbine generators, FACTS devices and other
 Harmonic Impedance at the Point of Common Coupling (PCC)

high power electronic devices used for power system control; are all major causes of
harmonic penetration in the system.

The level of harmonic penetration is determined with the help of harmonic measurements and
simulations. An option to achieve this is the programming of typical steady-state power flow
software to compute the system frequency response. Frequency response at some typical
operating conditions, parallel resonance situations and total harmonic distortion under these
conditions are discussed in rest of this chapter.

2.2 Measurement of system’s harmonic impedance

Modelling of systems under harmonic conditions involves the determination of the

impedance of the system at harmonic frequencies, as well as the representation of the
harmonic sources. The former is determined on the basis of the value of the different
elements at power frequency of 50 Hertz. The model depends upon a number of things, for
instance the accuracy of data and the range of frequency. It is hard to represent the complete
system in full in all harmonic studies. The dimensions of the system are therefore reduced to
minimum possible scale using the equivalent impedance representing the behaviour of the
component to harmonic disturbances. The impedance varies over time and from one point to
the other within the system. This variation depends upon the cable length, short circuit power
of the system, the VAR compensation and the load level in the system. The measurement of
the harmonic impedance of the system is quite difficult to implement. It necessitates the
presence of a powerful harmonic current source or a relatively high pre-existing harmonic
voltage at the node where the impedance is to be measured [1-2]

2.2.1 High pre-existing harmonic voltage

The pre-existing harmonic or inter-harmonic voltage Vh causes an inter-harmonic current to

flow in load Z, as shown in Fig. 2.1.

The harmonic impedance Zh is given by:

V h −V h
Z h= 1 2

ih

(2.1)

41
 Harmonic Impedance at the Point of Common Coupling (PCC)

Fig. 2.1: Thevenin harmonic equivalent of a system.

2.2.2 Powerful harmonic current source

If there is not any harmonic voltage in the system before the injection of harmonic currents
by equipment or by use of equipment; the injection will produce a harmonic voltage Vh.

Fig. 2.2: Determination of harmonic impedance Zh.

The harmonic impedance Zh of stream system viewed from injection point is:

Vh
Z h=
ih

(2.2)

2.3 System response characteristics

In power systems, the system response is equally as important as the source of harmonics.
Identification of a source of harmonics is only half the job in harmonic analysis. The response
of power system at each harmonic frequency determines the true impact of nonlinear loads on
harmonic voltage distortion.

42
 Harmonic Impedance at the Point of Common Coupling (PCC)

The impedance of the system can be determined by means of analytical computations as long
the size of the system is not too large. The impedance of a system is formed of succession of
resonances and any resonances which take place mainly due to the cable/transmission line
capacitance. If the capacitance is high, these resonances are there at low frequencies
(sometimes even at power frequencies). They are also present due to high installed load for
VAR compensation.

At the fundamental frequency the power systems are primarily inductive and equivalent
impedance is sometimes called simply the short-circuit reactance. The capacitive effects are
normally neglected on utility distribution systems and industrial power systems. The
inductive reactance of the system changes linearly with the frequency. In power systems,
generally do not change significantly with frequency before 9th harmonic.

For lines and cables the resistance varies by square root of the frequency once skin effect
becomes significant in the conductor at higher frequencies. At utilization voltages the
equivalent system reactance is normally dominated by the in service transformer impedance.
An approximation for XSC, based on transformer impedance only is [3]:

X SC ≅ X t (2.3)

( kV )2
where Xt= ×%Z (2.4)
MVA

The equivalent reactances of some of the ten percent transformers are given in the table. A
plot of impedance vs. frequency for an inductive system without any capacitors installed
would look like that shown in Fig. 2.3. However the real power systems rarely behave like
this. Here the capacitance is neglected which can not be done for the harmonic analysis.

100

90

80
Impedance (ohms)

70

60

50

40

30

20

10 Frequency (Hz)

0
0 500 1000 1500

Fig. 2.3: Frequency response of an assumed purely inductive system.

43
 Harmonic Impedance at the Point of Common Coupling (PCC)

Shunt capacitance either due to cable or due to capacitors at the customer locations for power
factor correction on the utility distribution system, dramatically vary the systems impedance
with frequency. A severe harmonic distortion can sometimes be endorsed due to their
presence. The capacitive reactance Xc is given by:

1
X c= (2.5)
2 πfC

Where C is the capacitance. The equivalent line-to-neutral capacitive reactance can be

determined by:

kV 2
X c= (2.6)
MVAR

2.3.1 Parallel resonance

One particular worry with harmonics is the resonance condition in the power system. The
existence of both inductive components and capacitive components in the system at certain
frequencies can cause resonance conditions at point of common coupling or any other bus. If
the resonance occurs at a bus where a harmonic current is injected into the system, an
overvoltage condition may be observed.

All the circuits containing both inductances and capacitances have one or more natural
frequencies. When one of these frequencies, is lined-up with a frequency that is being
produced on the power system, resonance can develop in which voltages and currents in the
system persist very high values. This is the root of many problems with harmonic distortion
in power systems.

At harmonic frequencies, from the perspective of harmonic sources, shunt capacitors appear
to be in parallel with equivalent system inductance as shown in Fig. 2.4. At frequencies other
than fundamental frequency, the power system generation appears to be as short circuit.
When Xc and total system reactance are equal (the difference between XL and Xc becomes
zero), the harmonic currents becomes extremely large. The resonant for a parallel
combination of an inductive and capacitive element is:

1
f Resonance = (2.7)
2 π √ LC

44
 Harmonic Impedance at the Point of Common Coupling (PCC)

Where L is the inductance and C is the capacitance of the network [4]. At high voltages the
resistance of a network is more often than not small compared with capacitance and
inductance. Therefore, the impedance can change radically. The situation becomes harsh
when the resonance frequency matches with the frequency of any harmonic current or
voltage. The harmonic current or voltage is amplified, which can cause damage of network
components. At this point it is essential to remark that very often resonant frequencies are
present between harmonic frequencies (inter harmonic resonance) [5].

Fig. 2.4: Cable capacitance in the inductive system and equivalent circuit.

Same system may have several resonance frequencies depending upon the grid configuration.
A relatively small distortion at a resonance frequency can lead to overwhelming
consequences, which emphasizes the importance of the advance analysis of harmonics. There

45
 Harmonic Impedance at the Point of Common Coupling (PCC)

are two different types of resonances which may occur in the network; parallel resonance and
series resonance [6-7], here the emphasis has been given on parallel resonance.
In parallel a resonance, the impedance of a circuit is usually high. In an ideal resonance (the
circuit does not have any resistance) impedance becomes infinitely high, which leads to
enormously high overvoltage. At parallel resonance frequency, the voltage obtains its
uppermost possible value at a given current [8].

Table 2.1: Data for different parameters in Fig. 2.4, used for plots

Case T1 T2 X1 X2 L1 L2
/Plot MVA MVA Ω Ω mH mH
V 2L V 2L
X=10% X=10% ( )
MVA
×10 % ( )
MVA
×10 % X 1 / 2 πf X 2 /2 πf

1 5 0.5 2.42 24.2 7.7 77

2 5 1 2.42 12.1 7.7 38.5

3 5 5 2.42 2.42 7.7 7.7

4 10 0.5 1.21 24.2 3.9 77

5 10 1 1.21 12.1 3.9 38.5

6 10 5 1.21 2.42 3.9 7.7

7 15 0.5 0.81 24.2 2.6 77

8 15 1 0.81 12.1 2.6 38.5

9 15 5 0.81 2.42 2.6 7.7

Parallel resonance can occur when a source of a harmonic current is connected to the
electrical circuit that can be simplified as a parallel connection of inductive and capacitive
component. In an extreme case, even a relatively small harmonic current can cause
destructively high voltage peaks at resonance frequency. Parallel resonance is common when
there are capacitor banks or long AC lines or cables are connected with large transformers. In
this case, large capacitances and inductances start to resonate with each other [4].

46
 Harmonic Impedance at the Point of Common Coupling (PCC)

Simulation is performed based on the data presented in Table 2.1 for two different cable
lengths. The cables are assumed of twenty five kilometres and fifty kilometres lengths at a
capacitance of 0.4 μF/km. Therefore, 10 μF and 20 μF capacitance corresponds to Xc = 320
Ohms and Xc = 160 Ohms respectively. The resistance R1 and R2 in the circuit of Fig. 2.4
are assumed small (0.01 Ohms) and correspondingly transferred to 400V. The transformer is
usually a very efficient machine and operates at an efficiency of about 98%; therefore its
winding resistance is usually small and so is the case assumed in this discussion.

Case 1

1000
C=20uF
Impedance Ohm

800 C=10uF
Without Capacitance
600

400

200

0
0 500 1000 1500
Frequency Hz

Case 2

1000
Without Capacitance
Impedance Ohms

800 C=10uF
C=20uF
600

400

200

0
0 500 1000 1500
Frequency Hz
Fig. 2.5: Frequency response of circuit shown in Fig. 2.4, Case 1 and 2, Table 2.1

47
 Harmonic Impedance at the Point of Common Coupling (PCC)

The parallel resonance in both the cases shown in Fig. 2.5 is occurring in the same region,
400 Hz and 575 Hz respectively for 50 km and 25 km cable lengths. This indicates that
transformer’s rating as well as it’s physical location are the important factors and have
significant effect in determining the resonance frequency.

Case 3, in the Table 2.1; is not considered as it can be seen from the transformer ratings that
the system with such an arrangement will be un-economical and un-necessary.

Fig. 2.6 shows the frequency response of circuit shown in Fig 2.4. The graphs correspond to
Case 4, Case 5 and Case 6 in the data Table 2.1. Unlike first three cases the transformer used
from 33 kV to 11 kV is a 10 MVA transformer, which indicates a smaller value of inductive
reactance.

Consequently the inductance in the circuit shown in Fig 2.4 has shifted to the new position
determined by the length of the cable. This is repeated for a 15MVA transformer in three
following cases.

The resonance frequency varies with cable capacitance. The longer is the length of cable,
lower is the resonance frequency. It is also important to notice that the deviation from blue
line in Fig. 2.6 as well as Fig. 2.7, starts quite earlier than actual peak occurs and continues
after the the peak has occurred.

This explains that the real interval for which harmonic distortion is produced in the system
can not be specified only by the spike due to parallel resonance. For instance in Case 9 of
Fig. 2.7, the resonance curve starts moving away from the reference line at about 500 Hz and
difference is present even beyond 1.5 kHz, which can cause severe impact on the quality of
the supply voltage.

48
 Harmonic Impedance at the Point of Common Coupling (PCC)

Case 4

1000

Impedance O hms 800

Without Capacitance
C=10uF
C=20uF
600

400

200

0
0 500 1000 1500
Frequency Hz

Case 5

1000
Impedance O hms

Without Capacitance
800
C=10uF
C=20uF
600

400

200

0
0 500 1000 1500
Frequency Hz

Case 6

1000

Without Capacitance
Impedance Ohms

800
C=10uF
C=20uF
600

400

200

0
0 500 1000 1500
Frequency Hz

Fig. 2.6: Frequency response of circuit in Fig. 2.4, Case 4, 5 and 6, Table 2.1

49
 Harmonic Impedance at the Point of Common Coupling (PCC)

Case 7

Im p e d a n ce O h m s 1000
Without Capacitance
800
C=10uF
C=20uF
600

400

200

0
0 500 1000 1500
Frequency Hz

Case 8

1000
Impedance O hms

800
Without Capacitance
C=10uF
600 C=20uF

400

200

0
0 500 1000 1500
Frequency Hz

Case 9

1000
Impedance O hms

800 Without Capacitance

C=10uF
600 C=20uF

400

200

0
0 500 1000 1500
Frequency Hz

Fig. 2.7: Frequency response of circuit in Fig. 2.4, Case 7, 8 and 9, Table 2.1

50
 Harmonic Impedance at the Point of Common Coupling (PCC)

For a certain known resonant condition, given the value of either inductive reactance or
capacitive reactance, the value of unknown component can be evaluated. For example, if the
resonant frequency is assumed at 500 Hz for Parallel combination of L1 and C;

1 1
C= × (2.8)
(2 π × 500) L1
2

C=13.16uF in Case 1
Im pedance O hm s

1000

800

600

400

200

0
0 500 1000 1500
Frequency Hz

C=26uF in Case 5
Im pedance O hm s

1000

800

600

400

200

0
0 500 1000 1500
Frequency Hz

C=39uF in Case 9

1000
Impedance Ohms

800

600

400

200

Fig. 2.8: Frequency

0
response of circuit shown in Fig. 2.4, case 1, 5 and 9, Table 2.1;
0 500 1000 1500
with pre-calculated fixed values ofcy
Frequen capacitances.
Hz

51
 Harmonic Impedance at the Point of Common Coupling (PCC)

For three values of L1 ; 7.7mH, 3.9mH and 2.6mH corresponding to for 5, 10 and 15 MVA
transformers and an assumed resonance frequency of 500 Hz, the relevant capacitances are:

1 1
C 5 MVA = 2
× −3
=13.16 uF
(2 π ×500) 7.7 ×10

1 1
C 10 MVA = 2
× =26 uF
(2 π ×500) 3.9 ×10−3

1 1
C 15 MVA = 2
× −3
=39uF
(2 π ×500) 2.6 ×10

All three plots in Fig. 2.8, demonstrate good agreement with afore calculated respective
values of resonant frequencies which substantiate the correctness of simulation process.

2.3.2 Effect of parallel resistive load

Determining that the resonant harmonic aligns with a common harmonic source is not always
cause of alarm. The damping provided by the resistance in the system is often sufficient to
prevent disastrous voltages and currents.

Case 5, C=20uF, Xc=160 Ohm

350
300
Impedance Ohms

250 R=2Xc

200
R=1.5Xc
150
R=Xc
100
R=0.5Xc
50
0
0 500 1000 1500
Frequency Hz
Fig. 2.9: Effect of parallel load resistance on the frequency response characteristics

52
 Harmonic Impedance at the Point of Common Coupling (PCC)

Fig. 2.9 depicts the impact of three different parallel resistances in the same case of parallel
resonance in system response characteristics. As little as ten percent resister loading can have
a noteworthy and valuable impact on peak impedance. The most troublesome resonant
conditions evolve when capacitors are installed on substation buses where the transformer
dominates the system impedance and has a high X/R ratio. The relative resistance is low and
corresponding parallel resonant impedance peak is very sharp and high. This is a common
cause of capacitor failure, transformer failure or the failure of other load equipment. It is a
misunderstanding that resistive load damp harmonics as in the absence of resonance, load
will have little impact on the harmonic currents and the resulting voltage distortion. Most of
the current will flow back in the power source. Nevertheless it is appropriate to say the
resistive loads damp the resonance hence considerably reducing the harmonic distortion.
Motor loads are primarily inductive and provide little damping, rather they may cause an
increase in the problem by shifting the resonant frequency closer to a significant harmonic.
However some small fractional horsepower motors may help in damping because their X/R
ratio is lower than large three phase motors

2.3.3 System response referred to LV side (400V)

At the receiving end or from consumer’s point of view, the affect of parallel resonance
discussed in section 2.3.2 can be better understood. When referred to low voltage side (400
V), the inductance representing transformers is given as:

L11 kv 11 kV 2
=( ) (2.9)
L400V 400 V

L1
L1 new = 2
or 11 kV
[ ]
400 V

Similarly the cable capacitance affcet can be transferred to low voltage side. When referred to
400 V, the equivalent to cable capacitance becomes:

11 2
For 25 km long cable C=10 μF × ( )
0.4
=0.0076 F

And for 50 km cable length

53
 Harmonic Impedance at the Point of Common Coupling (PCC)

11 2
C=20 μF × ( )
0.4
=0.0151 F

Table 2.2: Data for curves in Fig. 2.10

Case T1 T2 X1 X2 L111kV L1400V L211kV L2400V

/Plot MVA MVA Ω Ω mH H mH H
V 2L V 2L Base 400V
X=10% X=10% ( )
MVA
×10 %
MVA ( )
×10 %X 1 / 2 πf
400V
X 2 /2 πf
Base
1 5 0.5 2.42 24.2 7.7 1.02e-5 77 1.02e-4

2 5 1 2.42 12.1 7.7 1.02e-5 38.5 5.1e-5

6 10 5 1.21 2.42 3.9 5.16e-6 7.7 1.02e-5

9 15 5 0.81 2.42 2.6 3.4e-6 7.7 1.02e-5

More practical cases from Table 2.1 have been picked and set again in Table 2.2 with values
of L1 and L2 referred to 400 V base correspondingly. The response of the circuit with these
inductances and above calculated values of capacitances at a base voltage of 400 V is shown
in Fig 2.10. If we compare results from this figure to those shown in Fig 2.5, we observe a
vital difference; since the peak of the resonance is controlled by the resistive elements in the
circuit, the curve is widened out. The percentage of harmonic distortion however remains the
same. The parallel resonance in case 1, Table 2.2 occurs at:

1 1
f Resonance = ={ }
2 π √ LC ( 2 × π ) × √ ( ( 1.02 e−5 ) × ( 0.0076 ) )

= 571 Hz

And for a cable length of 50 km

1 1
f Resonance = ={ }
2 π √ LC ( 2 × π ) × √ ( ( 1.02 e−5 ) × ( 0.0151 ) )

= 405 Hz

54
 Harmonic Impedance at the Point of Common Coupling (PCC)

This is matching with both the graphs shown in Fig 2.10 and Fig 2.5. Same is the case with
rest of the contents of Fig. 2.10 and Table 2.2 which signify exactness of the analysis.

Case 1, 400V side

4.5
C=0.0151F
4
C=0.0076F
Impedance (ohms)

3.5 Pure inductive

2.5

1.5

0.5

0
0 500 1000 1500
Frequency (Hz)

Case 6, 400V side

0.9
Im p e d a n ce (o h m s )

C=0.0151F
0.8
C=0.0076F
0.7 Pure inductive

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 500 1000 1500
Frequency (Hz)

Case 9, 400V side

0.9
Im p e d a n ce (o h m s )

0.8 C=0.0151F
C=0.0076F
0.7 Pure inductive

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

Fig. 2.10: 0
0
Frequency response of circuit shown in Fig. 2.4 with reference
500 1000 1500
Frequency (Hz)

to low voltage side, Case 1, 6 and 9, Table 2.2

55
 Harmonic Impedance at the Point of Common Coupling (PCC)

2.4 Harmonic resonance due to wind power plants

Wind power plants introduce a great number of non-linear power electronic devices like full
scale frequency converters into the grid. The switching operations of the pulse width
modulation (PWM) controlled converters are the main sources of both harmonic and inter
harmonic currents. Generally speaking, converters create harmonics in the range of a few
kilohertz. [16] Measuring and controlling these harmonics is one of the greatest challenges of
the power quality in wind power plants [17]. A large number of non-linear power electronic
devices can have significant effect on the harmonic emissions. These harmonics can form a
serious threat for power quality. That is why harmonic analysis has to be developed and taken
as an integrated part of wind power plant design. Because every power network is unique and
has different characteristics, the effect of the harmonics on every power system varies.
Nevertheless, some common features can be found. Even if the percentage of the harmonics
seems small, the harmonic emission becomes a significant issue when the capacity of a wind
power plant is hundreds of megawatts.

The wind power plants have their own resonance frequencies that are dependent on the grid
topology, associated generators and reactive power apparatus used [9]. Furthermore the
impedance and the resonance points of a wind park change all the time when the number of
turbines and capacitor banks in operations changes or when there are changes in the
connections of collector cables [10]. The more turbines the wind park has, the more the
impedance can vary. The topic is especially important in large off shore wind parks, where
the number of turbines in function can vary from a few to many hundreds. Moreover, off
shore wind farms are connected with long cables that have large capacitance [11].
Summarised below are some of the most important components due to impedance changes.

2.4.1 Collector and transmission cables

An internal collector cable system of a wind power plant is one that connects the turbines of
the wind park with each other and a transmission cable is one that connects the wind park to
substation, many times located on shore. The total length of the collector cable system varies
in different kinds of off shore wind power plants from a few kilometres to tens of kilometres.
The widespread submarine collector cable network can bring a large capacitance in the
system. Underwater cables have to be resistant, and consequently well armoured [12]. The

56
 Harmonic Impedance at the Point of Common Coupling (PCC)

armouring affects a lot the impedance and the frequency response of underwater cables. The
connection cable is another large capacitance that can magnify harmonic currents or voltages
that are near the resonance frequency. The connection may be an AC or a DC cable
depending on transferred distance. Naturally, these two options have different effect on
resonance frequencies. The DC connection cable can also have tens of kilometres long
distances. Harmonic resonance is one of the main technical challenges in the design and
operation of off shore distribution system [13].

2.4.2 Reactors and capacitor banks

Capacitor banks are commonly used to compensate reactive power and to help improving the
power factor in the power system network. Many times, there is a capacitor bank at each
turbine as well as at the point of common coupling (PCC) [14]. The capacitor banks in the
individual turbines are used also to support the voltage in sudden dips that may occur in harsh
wind conditions. Starting capacitors are also in use in induction generators driven by wind
turbines. Large wind power plants with even hundreds of turbines have a great number of
different switching options for the capacitor banks.

There can also be shunt reactors connected to transmission cable terminations to compensate
the high capacitance of the cables. These reactors are inductive components that may be
adjustable and equipped with a tap changer. The reactors can be connected to the same switch
together with the cable connection [15].

2.5 System response with an induction generator added

The induction generator is most widely used machine in wind-based power plants. Depending
upon the size and location of wind power station, many times they are connected to 11kV bus
bar in the main network. Therefore the system’s response has been investigated with the
addition of an induction generator and it’s effect on parallel resonance is analysed.

The generator is assumed to be a, 500 kVA, 440V, 50Hz and Xper-phase = 0.8 Ohm. It is also
assumed that the machine is not a self start one and uses a capacitor bank to start i.e.
Cstarting= 200uF. The generator is connected to 11kV bust through a cable of relatively
small length and a transformer with rating similar to transformer T2 in data Table 2.3. The

57
 Harmonic Impedance at the Point of Common Coupling (PCC)

whole arrangement and its equivalent circuit diagram are shown in Fig. 2.11. As the effect of
starting capacitor when transferred to the secondary side of the transformer is small; the
corresponding capacitance in the circuit is rounded of to a small value of 0.5 uF together with
cable capacitance feeding generator power to the grid.

Fig. 2.11: A wind based induction generator connected to the system of Fig 2.4 and it its
per-phase equivalent electrical circuit

Two different situations arise when the generator in connected. First the wind-generator side
of the Fig. 2.10 is referred to 11 kV bus as a whole; and second is that the already-existing
equivalent part is referred to low voltage (400 V) side. The response of the circuit in both the
situations under 4 different circumstances of Table 2.3 is given in Fig. 2.12-15.

58
 Harmonic Impedance at the Point of Common Coupling (PCC)

Notice that cable capacitances represented by C1 and C2 are referred to 11kV; when referred
to low voltage side these values increase according to following relation:

( 11kV )2
C 400V =C 11kV × 2
( 400 V )

Also the 2.5mH inductance for the representation of generator when referred to 11kV is given
by:

( 11 kV )2
LGen =LGen × 2
=1.89 H
11kV 400V
( 400 V )

The resistances R1, R2 and R3 in the circuit are assumed to be small and when transferred to
low voltage side are further dropped off, that is why, the skin effect has been ignored here.
The generator resistance however when transferred to 11kV, increases significantly i.e.

( 11kV )2
RGen =RGen × 2
11kV 400V
( 400V )

Table 2.3: Data for components in Fig. 2.11.

Case T1 T2 X1 X2 L1 L1400V L2 L2400V

/Plot MVA MVA Ω Ω mH H mH H
V 2L V 2L Base 400V
X=10% X=10% ( )
MVA
×10 % ( )
MVA
×10 % X 1 /2 πf
400V
X 2 /2 πf
Base

2 5 1 2.42 12.1 7.7 1.02e-5 38.5 5.1e-5

3 10 1 1.21 12.1 3.9 5.16e-6 38.5 5.1e-5

5 15 5 0.81 2.42 2.6 3.4e-6 7.7 1.02e-5

6 10 5 1.21 2.42 3.9 5.16e-6 7.7 1.02e-5

59
 Harmonic Impedance at the Point of Common Coupling (PCC)

Case 2: L3 =L2, R3=R2, Xgen = 0.8 ohm, Lgen=2.5mH, Rgen=0.1 ohm, C1=20uF, C2=0.5uF

2000

1800 With C1 and C2

With C1 but not C2
1600
With C2 but not C1
1400 Without C1 and C2

1200
Impedance(ohms)

1000

800

600

400

200

0
0 500 1000 1500
Frequency (Hz)

Case 2 referred to 400V Side

10

9 With C1 and C2
With C1 but not C2
8 With C2 but not C1
Without C1 and C2
7

6
Impedance(ohms)

0
0 500 1000 1500
Frequency (Hz)

Fig. 2.12: Response of the circuit shown in Fig 2.11, Case 2, data from Table 2.3

60
 Harmonic Impedance at the Point of Common Coupling (PCC)

Case 3: L3 =L2, R3=R2, Xgen = 0.8 ohm, Lgen=2.5mH, Rgen=0.1 ohm, C1=20uF, C2=0.5uF

2000

1800 With C1 and C2

With C1 but not C2
1600
With C2 but not C1
Without C1 and C2
1400

1200
Impedance(ohms)

1000

800

600

400

200

0
0 500 1000 1500
Frequency (Hz)

Case 3 referred to 400V Side

20

18 With C1 and C2
With C1 but not C2
16 With C2 but not C1
Without C1 and C2
14

12
Impedance(ohms)

10

0
0 500 1000 1500
Frequency (Hz)

Fig. 2.13: Response of the circuit shown in Fig. 2.11, Case 3, data from Table 2.3

61
 Harmonic Impedance at the Point of Common Coupling (PCC)

Case 5: L3 =L2, R3=R2, Xgen = 0.8 ohm, Lgen=2.5mH, Rgen=0.1 ohm, C1=20uF, C2=0.5uF

2000

1800 With C1 and C2

With C1 but not C2
1600 With C2 but not C1
Without C1 and C2
1400

1200
Impedance(ohms)

1000

800

600

400

200

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Frequency (Hz)

Case 5 referred 400V Side

3.5 With C1 and C2

With C1 but not C2
With C2 but not C1
3
Without C1 and C2

2.5
Impedance(ohms)

1.5

0.5

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Frequency (Hz)

Fig. 2.14: Response of the circuit shown in Fig. 2.11, Case 5, data from Table 2.3

62
 Harmonic Impedance at the Point of Common Coupling (PCC)

Case 6: L3 =L2, R3=R2, Xgen = 0.8 ohm, Lgen=2.5mH, Rgen=0.1 ohm, C1=20uF, C2=0.5uF

2000

1800 With C1 and C2

With C1 but not C2
1600 With C2 but not C1
Without C1 and C2
1400
Impedance (ohms)

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Frequency (Hz)

Case 6 referred 400V Side

3.5 With C1 and C2

With C1 but not C2
With C2 but not C1
3
Without C1 and C2
Impedance (ohms)

2.5

1.5

0.5

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Frequency (Hz)
Fig. 2.15: Response of the circuit shown in Fig. 2.11, Case 6, data from Table 2.3

A comparison of waveshapes of all the cases shown in Fig. 2.12-15 with the corresponding
case given in Fig. 2.5-6 shows that there is a huge distortion in waveform beyond about
600Hz. This is an indication of the impact of connecting a wind generator with main system
due to parallel resonance because of the presence of collector cable and feeding step up
transformer.

63
 Harmonic Impedance at the Point of Common Coupling (PCC)

2.5.1 Impact of VAR compensation, power factor correction

apparatus and starting capacitor on frequency response

The power factor correction and VAR compensation instruments usually consist of the
capacitor banks, installed on substations and other locations in electrical power network. Fig.
2.16 shows such a capacitor installed with or near the induction generator unit and the
frequency response of the circuit demonstrating the impact of a power factor correction or
VAR compensation on the system when analysed with reference to 11kV bus. The values of
different components are referred to case 1 of the Table 2.2. Notice that the peaks of
resonance curves are being controlled by the small resistances present in the circuit. These
resistances widen up the waveshape and do not allow the impedance value go beyond a
certain magnitude depending upon their size.

In many cases wind power plants use induction generators which are not self start and use a
large capacitor bank installed with them for the start up. These starting capacitor depend upon
the size of the induction generator and can be up to 300 uF or even larger. Fig. 2.16 also
shows the frequency response of the circuit demonstrating the impact of a 150 uF capacitor
on the system when analysed with reference to 11kV bus. The values of different components
are referred to case 1 of the Table 2.2. Again please notice that the peaks of resonance curves
are being controlled by the small resistances present in the circuit. An equivalent capacitance
of 151 uF is assumed to present instead of only 1 uF capacitor in circuit of Fig. 2.16.

Fig. 2.16 not only indicates that resonance occurs at very low frequencies but also shows that
the starting capacitors and other such equipment can cause a significant shift in the resonance
frequency. Although the starting capacitor may not continuously remain in the circuit and
should be disconnected from the circuit as soon as the generator starts but even then the shift
in resonance frequency is a matter of concern.

The response of the circuit with both the cable capacitance and pf correction arrangements
show that the deviation of red curve from the reference line unmistakably displays how
power factor correction and VAR compensation equipment can cause harmonics and of what
order these harmonics can be.

64
 Harmonic Impedance at the Point of Common Coupling (PCC)

2000

1800
With C1 and C2

1600 With C1 but not C2

With C2 but not C1

1400
Without C1 and C2
Impedance (ohms)

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
Frequency (Hz)

Fig. 2.16: Impact of power factor correction and VAR compensation

on system response, data from Table 2.3, Case 1.

2.6 Calculation of total harmonic distortion (THD)

The transformer used (T3 in Table 2.4) is a 60MVA one, depending upon voltage
transformation level. 132kV to 66kV transformation is rarely practiced. The value of X has
been calculated on 11kV base. Since skin effect has a significant effect on AC resistance and
as in practice the skin effect may not be avoidable and should be a part of calculations, here it

65
 Harmonic Impedance at the Point of Common Coupling (PCC)

is not ignored and value of the resistance is considered increased ten times the original value.
Considered here is only the left hand side resonance area in the Fig. 2.18 to calculate THD.

Fig. 2.17: A typical distribution system and its equivalent circuit diagram

For a cable length of an equivalent to 10 uF capacitance on 33 kV, when referred to 11 kV

side the equivalent capacitance will be:

C 33 kV
C 11kV = =90 uF
11 2
( )
33

And the parallel resonance occurs at:

1 1
f Resonance = ={ }
2 π √ LC √
( 2 × π ) × ( ( 0.93 ×10−3 ) × ( 90 ×10−6 ) )

66
 Harmonic Impedance at the Point of Common Coupling (PCC)

= 550.12 Hz

The above calculated value of resonance frequency is in good approximation with simulation
results as demonstrated by Fig. 2.18.

Table 2.4: Data for different components of the system shown in Fig. 2.17

T1 = 8 MVA T2 = 5 MVA T3 = 60 MVA Gen = 0.5 MW

Z=8% ; X/R=9 Z=7.15% ; X/R=8.5 Z = 14.5% ; X/R = 25 X per-phase = 0.8

V 2L V 2L V 2L
X 1= ( )
MVA
×8 % X 2= ( )
MVA
×7 . 15 % X 3= ( )
MVA
×14.5 %
Lgen= X /2 πf
=1.21Ω =1.73Ω =0.29 Ω
R1 = X/9 = 0.1344Ω R3 = X/25 = 0.0117Ω
Including skin effect R2 = X/8.5 = 0.204Ω Including skin effect Rgen = 0.01 Ω
R1= 1.344Ω R3= 0.12 Ω
L1 = X /2 πf = 3.9 mH L2 = X /2 πf = 5.5 mH L3 = X /2 πf = 0.93 mH Lgen = 2.5 mH

Fig. 2.18 shows the frequency response of the system shown in Fig 2.17 and a zoomed view
for the calculation of total harmonic distortion. As mentioned earlier the emphasis is given
only on non-tripline odd harmonics and studies has been limited to 5 th, 7th and 11th harmonic
terms. For star-delta configuration the tripline harmonics ( 3rd , 9th, 15th and 21st ) are
circulated inside the delta connected winding and do not propagate to the system. With the
assumption that there will be no even harmonics present, rest of the analysis is performed for
only 5th , 7th and 11th harmonic terms. Assuming that our 500 kVA, 440V, 50Hz induction
generators is operating at a power factor of 0.85; total active power of the individual machine
is given by

P=0.85× kVA

¿ 0.85 ×500

¿ 425 kW

425
¿ P per− p h ase = ≅140 kW
3

67
 Harmonic Impedance at the Point of Common Coupling (PCC)

1200

1000

800
Impedance (ohms)

600

400

200

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Frequency (Hz)

100

85
80
Impedance (ohms)

60

40

20
12
8
0
0 150 250 350 550 600
Frequency (Hz)

Fig. 2.18: Frequency response of the system shown in Fig 2.17

On the assumption that the machine is operating at unity power factor and rounding the
induction generator power to 0.5 MW

PGen=0.5 MW

0.5
¿ PGen per− p h ase = ≅ 166 kW
3

At a phase voltage of 11kV, the fundamental current is

166 kW
I= ≅ 26 A
11 kV / √ 3

68
 Harmonic Impedance at the Point of Common Coupling (PCC)

For 50Hz fundamental frequency

5t h=¿ 50 ×5=250 Hz

7t h=¿ 50 ×7=350 Hz

11t h=¿ 50 ×11=550 Hz

The impedance values are 8Ω, 12Ω and 85Ω for corresponding 5th , 7th and 11th harmonic
frequencies, obtained from the frequency response of the circuit and shown in the graphs with
arrows.

With 5th harmonic @ 60% ¿> I 5=26 × 0.6=15.6 A

7th harmonic @ 45% ¿> I 7=26 × 0.45=11.7 A

11th harmonic @ 40% ¿> I 11 =26 ×0.4=10.4 A

2 2 2
I THD=
√ ( 15.6 ) +( 11.7 ) + ( 10.4 ) ×100=85 %
26

For harmonic voltage distortion

V 5=I 5 × X 5 =15.6× 8=124.8V

V 7=I 7 × X 5 =11.7 ×12=140.4 V

V 11 =I 11 × X 5=10.4 × 85=884 V

2 2 2
V THD =
√( 124.8 ) +( 140.4 ) + ( 884 ) ×100=14.23 %
11kV
[ ] √3

Which is way beyond the tolerable limit. In order to reduce THD to a permissible range and
to add more wind based units, the transformer used should be a larger one with low value of
%X. For example, instead using 60MVA if we install an 80MVA transformer in the system
shown in Fig. 2.16, total harmonic distortion in voltage is lowered to about 5%. Another way
to maintain total harmonic distortion within acceptable range is that filters have to be

69
 Harmonic Impedance at the Point of Common Coupling (PCC)

arranged so that 11th harmonic in particular does not penetrate more than ten percent in the
system. If we assume a lower rate of 11th harmonic in above system, say 10%; then:

I 11=26 × 0.1=2.6 A

And total harmonic distortion in current becomes

2 2 2
I THD=
√ ( 15.6 ) +( 11.7 ) +( 2.6 ) ×100=75 %
26

Similarly

V 11 =I 11 × X 5=2.6 × 85=221 V

So total harmonic distortion in voltage will be

2 2 2
V THD =
√( 124.8 ) +( 140.4 ) + (221 ) × 100=4.57 %
11kV
[ √3 ]

2.7 Harmonics out of an inverter

If the WT operates at variable rotational speed, the electric frequency of the generator varies
and must therefore be decoupled from the frequency of the grid. This can be achieved by an
inverter system. There are two different types of inverter systems:

1. Grid-commutated inverter systems

2. Self-commutated inverter systems

The grid-commutated inverters are mainly thyristor inverters, e. g. 6 or 12 pulse. This type of
inverter produces integer harmonics like the 5th, 7th, 11th and 13th order etc (frequencies of
250, 350, 550, 650 Hz), which may be reduced by harmonic filters. On the other hand
thyristor inverters are not able to control the reactive power. Their behaviour concerning
reactive power is similar to the behaviour of an induction generator they consume inductive
reactive power.

70
 Harmonic Impedance at the Point of Common Coupling (PCC)

Fig. 2.19: Harmonic currents out of 6-pulse thyristor inverter [18]

Self-commutated inverter systems are mainly pulse width modulated (PWM) inverter, where
IGBTs (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors) are used. This type of inverter gives the
advantage that in addition to the control of the active power the reactive power is also
controllable. That means the reactive power demand of the generator can be delivered by the
PWM-inverter. One disadvantage is the production of interharmonics. In general these
interharmonics are generated by the inverter in the range of some kHz. Thus filters are
necessary to reduce the interharmonics. But due to the high frequencies, in general the
construction of the filters is easier.

Highly distorting loads are older un-filtered frequency converters based on thyristor
technology and similar types of equipment. It is characteristic for this type that it switches
one time in each half period and it may generate large amounts of the lower harmonic orders,
i.e. up to N=40. Newer transistor based designs are used in most variable speed WT today.
The method is referred to as Pulse Width Modulation (PWM). It switches many times in each
period and typically starts producing harmonics where the older types stop, that is around 2
kHz. Their magnitude is smaller and they are easier to remove by filtering than the harmonics
of lower order. IEC 1000-3-6 put forward guidelines on compatibility and planning levels for
MV and HV networks and presents methods for assessing the contribution from individual
installations to the overall disturbance level.

71
 Harmonic Impedance at the Point of Common Coupling (PCC)

Fig. 2.20: Harmonic currents out of 6-pulse PWM drive [19]

In modern wind power plants a number of different power electronic apparatus is installed,
which is the core reason for harmonics in the wind power plants. The switching operations of
the pulse width modulation (PWM) controlled converters are the main sources of harmonic
and inter harmonic currents, but not the only ones. Generally speaking, converters create
harmonics in the range of a few kilohertz. Measuring and controlling these harmonics is one
of the greatest challenges of the power quality in wind power plants.

Wind turbine and induction generator set using power electronic equipment when connected
to the electrical system has to be checked concerning harmonics. The harmonic current
emission of such wind turbine with power electronics are usually given in the power quality
data sheet. Limits for harmonic emissions are often given only for harmonic voltages, not for
harmonic currents. Thus harmonic voltages must be calculated from the harmonic current
emission of the wind turbine. But the grid impedances vary with frequency, where the
utilities often can not give the frequency dependency of the grid impedances, which makes
calculations difficult [18].

Nowadays new wind turbines are variable speed wind turbines that are connected either
partly or totally to the internal medium voltage network of a wind power plant through a
power electronic converter [20]. In the both types, the power converter actually has two parts,

72
 Harmonic Impedance at the Point of Common Coupling (PCC)

the rotor side converter and the grid side converter that are jointed together by parallel
capacitance. This kind of converter is called back-to-back converter [21].

Most common types of wind turbines are:

a) Doubly fed induction generator (DFIG). It offers the flexibility to operate at the
maximum power output over a wide range of wind speed without the necessity of having a
full rated converter [22]. The main idea of a doubly fed induction generator turbine is shown
in Fig. 2.20. The rotor side converter handles the active and reactive power control of the
generator and the grid side converter keeps the voltage of the DC link constant [23].

b) The second type of wind turbines is the full scale converter, where all the power from
the generator and flows through the converter. The generator can be either an induction
generator or a synchronous generator. In the latter case the generator is usually a permanent
magnet synchronous generator that is the most widely used type of synchronous generators.

Fig. 2.21: DFIG with a rotor, a gear box and a converter [24].

Permanent magnet synchronous generator becomes more and more feasible option along the
development of the technology [25-26]. The arrangement of using a synchronous generator
with a full scale converter provides a lot of flexibility in the operation as it can support the
network offering reactive power even if there was not wind at all [27]. An arrangement of a
synchronous generator with a full scale converter is shown in Fig. 2.22. The harmonic

73
 Harmonic Impedance at the Point of Common Coupling (PCC)

emissions of wind turbines can be classified as characteristic and noncharacteristic

harmonics.

Fig. 2.22: A full scale converter configuration with a turbine rotor,

a gear box, a generator (G) and a back-to-back converter [28].

The characteristic harmonics depend on the converter topology and switching strategy used
during an ideal operation (with no disturbances). For a six-pulse converter, the characteristic
harmonics are the harmonics of the harmonic order 6n ±1, where n is a positive integer [29].
Similarly for a twelve-pulse converter the characteristic harmonics are of the order 12 n ±1.
The non-characteristic harmonics are not dependant upon the converter topology, but the
operating point of the converter [30]. This type of harmonics can be as large and as
significant as the characteristic harmonics [31].

2.7.1 Calculation of THD based on an inverter out put

For harmonic current out of a 6-pulse thyristor invertor as shown in Fig. 2.18 and based on
previously determined THD in section 2.6, for a fundamental frequency of 50Hz:
With 5th harmonic @ 30% ¿> I 5=26 × 0.3=7.8 A

7th harmonic @ 10¿> I 7=26 × 0.1=2.6 A

11th harmonic @ 0% ¿> I 11 =26 ×0.0=0.0 A

THD in voltage is given as:

V 5=I 5 × X 5 =7.8× 8=62.4 V

74
 Harmonic Impedance at the Point of Common Coupling (PCC)

V 7=I 7 × X 5 =2.6 ×12=31.2 V

V 11 =I 11 × X 5=10.4 × 0=0.0V

2 2 2
V THD =
√( 62.4 ) + ( 31.2 ) +( 0.0 ) ×100=1.1%
11kV
[ ] √3

Notice that 11th and 13th harmonic are not present in the inverter current and higher harmonic
terms are neglected in these calculations. Nevertheless, including 17th , 19th , 29th and 31st
harmonic term, has an impact on the calculated THD value but the value is still well within
the permisible limit.

2.8 Summary

The importances of the measurement of harmonic impedance and the methods to measure
harmonic impedance at the PCC have been brought to light. Attention has been drawn to
different aspects of the system response characteristic and parallel resonance is emphasised.
A representative study system was devised and cases have been studied for the frequency
response characteristics. Important factors affecting parallel resonance are underlined.

Electrical resonance in a power network can be a complex phenomenon, where several

components participate. However, it is clear that shunt capacitance of an underground cable
system is the dominating element in the resonances of a wind power plant. A change in the
length of the collector cables moves the resonance frequencies. As a general rule, the greater
the capacitance of a capacitive element is, the lower are the resonance frequencies. What
must be considered is that the cables do not resonate alone since they need an interaction with
an inductive element to create a resonance. Typically this element is a (electrically) local
transformer due to its large inductance. The number of resonances is likely equal to the
number of physical and equivalent capacitors (cables, capacitor banks etc). The effect of
capacitive elements on resonance appears to be decoupled. Each capacitive element
contributes to a resonance. There are no “joint” resonances.

75
 Harmonic Impedance at the Point of Common Coupling (PCC)

In the end, the effect of adding wind based units at the PCC is surveyed and ways to lessen
THD are ascertained. Presently, most variable speed wind turbines are connected to the PCC
through power electronic converters which act as a source of harmonic injection. Fixed speed
wind units on the other hand, use power factor correction capacitors which can shift
previously calculated resonance frequency values, hence causing severe distortion in current
as well as voltage waveforms.

2.9 References

[1] A. Robert; “Guide for assessing the network harmonic impedance”, Working group
CC02, Cigre 36.05/Cired 2, 1992.

[2] M. Lemoine; “Methods of measuring harmonic impedances”, IEE, International

Conference on Electricity Distribution, 1977.

[3] Roger Dugan, "Electric power system harmonic design guide" report for the US
department of energy.

[4] H. K. Lukasz, J. Hjerrild and C. L. Bak, "Harmonic Models of a Back-to-Back

Converter in Large Offshore Wind Farms Compared with Measurement Data", Nordic
Wind Power Conference, 2009.

[5] E. W. Gunther, "Interharmonics in Power Systems", IEEE Power Engineering Society

Summer Meeting, pp. 813–817 vol. 2, 2001.

[6] D. Patel, "Impact of Wind Turbine Generators on Network Resonance and Harmonic
Distortion," Electrical and Computer Engineering, Canada, 2010.

[7] G. J. Wakileh, "Power System Harmonics - Fundamentals, Analysis and Filter

Design", Springer, 2001.

[8] H. D. Young and R.A. Freedman, "Sears and Zemansky's University Physics with
Modern Physics", San Francisco: Addison-Wesley, 2011.

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 Harmonic Impedance at the Point of Common Coupling (PCC)

[9] Fox. B, Flynn. D, Malley.O. M, Bryans .L and Watson. R; "Wind Power Integration
Connection and System Operational Aspects", Stevenage: Institution on Engineering
and Technology, 2007.

[10] H. K. Lukasz, J. Hjerrild and C. L. Bak, "Harmonic Analysis of Offshore Wind Farms
with Full Converter Wind Turbines", 8th International Conference on Large- Scale
Integration of Wind Power into Power Systems, Bremen, Germany, 2009.

[11] H. K. Lukasz, J. Hjerrild and C. L. Bak, "Wind Farm Structures, Impact on Harmonic
Emission and Grid Interaction", European Wind Energy Conference, Warsaw, Poland,
2010.

[12] C. H. Chien and R. Bucknall, "Harmonic Calculations of Proximity Effect on

Impedance Characteristics in Subsea Power Transmission Cables", IEEE Transactions
on Power Delivery, vol. 24, pp. 2150–2158, 2009.

[13] L. Xiaodong and W. M. Jackson, "Influence of Subsea Cables on Offshore Power

Distribution Systems", IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, vol. 45, pp.
2136-2144, 2009.

[14] S. Heier, "Grid Integration of Wind Energy Conversion Systems", Chichester, Wiley,
2006.

[15] F. Shewarega, I. Erlich and J. L. Rueda, "Impact of Large Offshore Wind Farms on
Power System Transient Stability" IEEE/PES, Power Systems Conference and
Exposition, pp. 1–8, 2009.

[16] S. Tentzerakis, S. Papathanassiou, P. Papadopoulos, D. Foussekis and P. Vionis,

"Evaluation of Wind Farm Harmonic Current Emissions", European Wind Energy
Conference, Milan, Italy, 2007.

[17] T. Ackermann, "Wind Power in Power Systems", England, John Wiley, 2005.

77
 Harmonic Impedance at the Point of Common Coupling (PCC)

[18] Richard H. Osman; “Medium voltage variable frequency drives for induction and
synchronous otors”, ASIRobicon. www.asirobicon.com , 2002.

[19] Control of harmonics in electrical power system; www.eagle.org , ABS, 2006.

[20] Jun Li, N. Samaan and S. Williams, "Modeling of Large Wind Farm Systems for
Dynamic and Harmonics Analysis", Transmission and Distribution Conference and
Exposition, T&D, IEEE/PES , pp. 1–7, 2008.

[21] M. Chaves, E. Margato, J. F. Silva, S. F. Pinto and J. Santana, "Fast Optimum-

Predictive Control and Capacitor Voltage Balancing Strategy for Bipolar Back-to-
Back NPC Converters in High-Voltage Direct Current Transmission Systems",
Generation, Transmission & Distribution, The Institution of Engineering and
Technology (IET), vol. 5, pp. 368–375, 2011.

[22] S. Liang, Q. Hu and W. Lee, "A Survey of Harmonic Emissions of a Commercial

Operated Wind Farm", Industrial and Commercial Power Systems Technical
Conference (I&CPS), IEEE, pp. 1–8. 2010.

[23] B. Babypriya, A. Chilambuchelvan. "Modelling and Analysis of DFIG Wind Turbine

Harmonics Generated in Grids", International Journal of Engineering and Technology
(IJET), ISSN: 0975-4024, 2(3), pp. 185–189, 2010.

[24] J. Hu, H. Nian, H. Xu and Y. He, "Dynamic Modeling and Improved Control of DFIG
Under Distorted Grid Voltage Conditions", Energy Conversion, IEEE Transactions
on, vol. 26, pp. 163–175, 2011.

[25] D. D. Banham-Hall, G. A. Taylor, C. A. Smith and M. R. Irving, "Towards Large-

Scale Direct Drive Wind Turbines with Permanent Magnet Generators and Full
Converters", Power and Energy Society General Meeting, 2010 IEEE, ISSN: 1944-
9925, Minneapolis, USA, pp. 1–8, 2010.

[26] A. T. Alexandridis and G. E. Marmidis, "Modeling Wind Generators with Full- Scale
Frequency Converters: Stability and Passivity Properties", Power Generation,

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 Harmonic Impedance at the Point of Common Coupling (PCC)

Transmission, Distribution and Energy Conversion (MedPower 2010), 7th

Mediterranean Conference and Exhibition on, Agia Napa, Cyprus , pp. 1–5, 2010

[27] L. Kocewiak, L. Bak and J. Hjerrild, "Harmonic Aspects of Offshore Wind Farms",
PhD Seminar on Detailed Modelling and Validation of Electrical Components and
Systems 2010, Fredericia, Denmark, p. 40–45, 2010.

[28] H. K. Lukasz, J. Hjerrild and C. L. Bak, "Harmonic Analysis of Offshore Wind Farms
with Full Converter Wind Turbines", 8th International Conference on Large-Scale
Integration of Wind Power into Power Systems, Bremen, Germany, 2009.

[29] M. H. J. Bollen, S. Cundeva, S. K. Rönnberg, M. Wahlberg, Kai Yang and

Liangzhong Yao, "A Wind Park Emitting Characteristic and Non-Characteristic
Harmonics", Power Electronics and Motion Control Conference (EPE/PEMC) 14th
International, pp. S14–22–S14–26 , 2010.

[30] L. Kocewiak, J. Hjerrild and L. Bak., "The Impact of Harmonics Calculation Methods
on Power Quality Assessment in Wind Farms", ISBN: 978-1-4244-7244-4, Bergamo,
Italy, pp. 1–9, 2010.

[31] S. Tentzerakis, N. Paraskevopoulou, S. Papathanassiou and P. Papadopoulos,

"Measurement of Wind Farm Harmonic Emissions", IEEE Power Electronics
Specialists Conference (PESC 2008), Rhodes, Greece, pp. 1769-1775, 2008.

79