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Psychological Well-Being in Awaiting-Trial Inmates: The Roles of Loneliness

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DOI: 10.11648/j.ss.20160505.11

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Social Sciences
2016; 5(5): 64-69
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/j/ss
doi: 10.11648/j.ss.20160505.11
ISSN: 2326-9863 (Print); ISSN: 2326-988X (Online)

Psychological Well-Being in Awaiting-Trial Inmates:

The Roles of Loneliness and Social Support
Philip Chukwuemeka Mefoh1, Victor Okechukwu Odo1, Michael Arinze Ezeh2,
Linda Ekwutosi Ezeah1
1
Department of Psychology, Faculty of the Social Sciences, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria
2
Department of Psychology, Faculty of Management and Social Sciences, Renaissance University, Enugu, Nigeria

Email address:
[email protected] (P. C. Mefoh)

To cite this article:

Philip Chukwuemeka Mefoh, Victor Okechukwu Odo, Michael Arinze Ezeh, Linda Ekwutosi Ezeah. Psychological Well-Being in Awaiting-
Trial Inmates: The Roles of Loneliness and Social Support. Social Sciences. Vol. 5, No. 5, 2016, pp. 64-69. doi: 10.11648/j.ss.20160505.11

Received: August 6, 2016; Accepted: August 18, 2016; Published: September 12, 2016

Abstract: This research examined the roles of loneliness and social support as predictors of psychological well-being in
awaiting-trial inmates. Participants were 300 awaiting-trial inmates of Enugu Prison Command. There were 200 (73.33%)
male inmates and 80 (26.66%) female inmates in the sample. Their ages ranged between 18 years and 69 years (Mean age =
43.50 years; Standard Deviation = 5.21). Purposive sampling method was adopted in the sample selection; and participation in
the study was anonymous. Three instruments – the short-form University of California, Los Angeles loneliness scale (ULS-8),
the multidimensional scale of perceived social support (MSPSS), and the psychological well-being scale (PWB-S), were used
for data collection. Analysis of data was conducted with multiple regressions and correlations (MRC). Results showed that
loneliness and social support were significant predictors of psychological well-being. The findings failed to confirm the first
hypothesis, but confirmed the second hypothesis. Discussion highlighted the need to establish vocational training facilities and
other social services in prisons to constructively engage prison inmates in meaningful tasks.
Keywords: Awaiting-Trial Inmates, Enugu Prison Command, Loneliness, Psychological Well-Being, Social Support

terrorism, and insurgency in the North to communal conflicts,

1. Introduction kidnappings and broad day robbery in the south, Nigerian
The present day Nigeria presents some of the worst socio- Prisons have acute overcrowding problems. As [35] points
economic challenges of all times. Today’s youths are out, “within the last ten years, more Nigerians have probably
frustrated for lack of employment opportunities, low lost their lives to the frequent conflicts and other violent
educational attainment, little participation in decision making crimes around the country than to motor accidents and
and low social mobility. These legitimate grievances and infectious diseases put together” (p. 8). With such high level
many more lure many young people (especially) to develop of criminality, it is not surprising that prisons in Nigeria have
criminal tendencies. Every society has its rules and there are a teeming population.
individuals that conform to these rules as well as those that There are four principal reasons why people who
deviate from them. The later persons are sanctioned and contravene the law are put in prison. These are: to punish the
incarcerated in prisons [1, 16]. The Prison institution is a offenders; to protect society; to prevent future crimes; and to
penitentiary institution for re-socializing offenders to reform or rehabilitate the offenders. The prisons may take
conform to society’s values and to learn how to be good criminals off the streets for a while, but the prison does not
citizens. In Nigeria, prison inmates consist of two main guarantee that the prisoner comes out of prison being a better
categories: convicted persons serving out jail terms, and individual. Thus, the present study is an attempt to draw
many others who are awaiting trial, but are remanded in stakeholders’ attention to the psychosocial needs of the
prison custody. With the high incidence of criminality in the inmate who is first and foremost a human person. The idea of
present day Nigeria, ranging from religious fundamentalism, reforming an offender should not just be focused only on
65 Philip Chukwuemeka Mefoh et al.: Psychological Well-Being in Awaiting-Trial Inmates:
The Roles of Loneliness and Social Support

building more prisons, improving the living conditions and/or as a result of complex set of feelings encompassing reactions
medical needs of prisoners, but it should also look in terms of to the absence of intimate and social needs. It is an emotional
understanding the psychological variables that might lead to state in which a person experiences strong feelings of
social progress and improvement in the quality of life of emptiness and social isolation [26, 36]. Loneliness is
prisoners. In this context, the present study examines the detrimental to psychological well-being and has a deleterious
roles of loneliness and social support on psychological well- effect on various aspects of health [14, 23].
being of awaiting-trial inmates in Enugu Prison Command. Loneliness is composed of negative emotions; a lonely
Psychological well-being is a potential parameter of individual feels socially frustrated, feelings of nobody to
measuring overall health and good life of a person [31, 7]. It count on for support, absence of social network and lack of
has been observed that poor psychological well-being is sense of social belongingness. Studies [12, 4, 22] show that
associated with deficiency in problem-solving, higher levels loneliness has detrimental effects on the physical and mental
of stress and depression, lack of success and the existence of health of the individual. Loneliness places individuals at risk
emotional problems [25, 34] excessive alcohol and drug of physical ailments, such as poor cardiovascular health and
usage [37]. This could be an indication that absence of impaired immune responses [12]. Loneliness is also
psychological well-being among prisoners may reflect in associated with mental health issues such as, psychosis,
inmates’ expression of anger, depression and frustrations, personality disorders, impaired cognitive functioning, low
which may cause a decrease in the levels of their happiness self-esteem and depression [2-3]. Particular concern is the
and satisfaction. correlation between loneliness and suicide or suicidal
Loneliness and Social Support on Psychological Well- ideation. Stravynski and Boyer [33] found that people who
Being is conceptualized as a condition of existence reported feeling distress about being alone were more likely
characterized by optimum health. It is a state in which an to have suicidal thoughts and attempts suicide. Generally,
individual experiences a sense of autonomy, competence, self research seems to show that loneliness is associated with
acceptance, belongingness, purpose and personal growth [10, poor psychological well-being. In a study consisting of
28]. Studies [18] indicate three aspects of psychological well- American adolescents, [22] found that depressed loneliness
being, evaluative well-being - involving global assessments was associated with global dissatisfaction not only in social
of how people evaluate their satisfaction in life; affective or relations, but also in school, work and many facets of life. In
hedonic well-being - involving measures of feelings such as school, loneliness was associated with poor grade, expulsion
happiness, sadness and enjoyment; and eudemonic well- from school, running away from home, and engaging in
being - which focuses on judgments about the meaning or delinquent acts such as theft and vandalism. Unlike
purpose of one’s life and appraisals of constructs such as loneliness, many form of social bonds or integration maintain
fulfillment [18]. Psychological well-being contributes most a sense of connectedness to one’s social group resulting in
to a well lived life. It is the positive social relationships, feelings of well-being. Studies [4] have reported that social
ability to cope in stressful environment, wisdom, sense of support/relationship is an essential ingredient for emotional
meaning and purpose in life [9, 24]. Psychological well-being and physical health and/or well-being.
is also seen as a contentment and satisfaction (in the past), Social support refers to a complex transactional process in
flow of happiness (in the present) and hope, optimism (for which there is an active interplay between a person and his or
the future) [5]. The role of individual’s adaptability, social her support network. Social support has been conceptualized
support networks and connections are fundamental factors to as a ‘social fund’ from which individuals can draw when they
achieving a prisoner’s health and psychological well-being. If are experiencing a crisis. Social support is seen as support
prisoners are not able to maintain their psychological health, available to an individual through social ties to other
they experience diminished motivation and decline in well- individuals, groups, and the larger community [20]. Social
being [8]. support may come from family, friends, teachers, healthcare
Social relationship is essential to psychological well-being; workers community or any social group or network. These
that is, personal health and happiness. An individual’s ability supportive resources include empathy, care, love, trust
to enjoy close relationship with others is one of the most (emotional support) actual aid in time, money (instrumental
important features of healthy personality [9, 31]. A lack in support) and information, advice, suggestions (informational
connection to others may lead to feelings of loneliness and support) [41]. Social support plays a key role in how an
poor psychological well-being. Loneliness is a complex and individual adjusts to a life crisis. It can function as both a
usually unpleasant emotion which typically includes anxious problem-focused and emotion-focused coping strategies.
feelings about a lack of connectedness or communality with Social support helps to promote psychological adjustments.
others. Loneliness is a common human experience that can In stressful times, social support helps people to reduce
affect a wide range of people although some people are at a psychological distress such as anxiety, frustrations or other
greater risk of it than others. Loneliness, feeling lonely or negative feelings. It is a factor that determines people’s level
being alone had often been used interchangeably [19], but of psychological and physical health. People with low social
these terms are not exactly the same. For instance, it is support tend to have poorer psychological health, they suffer
possible to feel lonely in the midst of people or in a crowd or from social phobia, depressive symptoms, suicidal ideation
to feel socially connected when alone [38-39]. Loneliness is and they may take plenty alcohol or they indulge in other
 Social Sciences 2016; 5(5): 64-69 66

forms of substance abuse. Studies [15, 21] show that inmates in Nsukka Prisons Command. The results indicated a
wherever there is poor or lack of social support, there is often reliability coefficient (Cronbach’s alpha) of .81 for the scale.
a tendency for poor emotional issues, such as low self-esteem Also, the scale showed a construct validity index of .73.
or diminished psychological health. The scale for measuring social support – the
The present study investigates the roles of loneliness and multidimensional scale of perceived social support (MSPSS)
social support on the psychological well-being of awaiting- [42], comprised of 12 items. The response options followed a
trial inmates in Enugu Prison Command. Two hypotheses 7-point Likert-type scale, ranging from very strongly
were tested in the study. The first hypothesis proposed that disagree (1) to very strongly agree (7). Items were divided
high level of loneliness would lead to poorer psychological into three sub-groups, consisting of four items each that
well-being. That is, loneliness would negatively predict relate to the sources of the social support; family, friends and
psychological well-being. The proposal is based on the significant others. Items 3, 4, 8 and 11 measures family
burgeoning research [3, 12], which demonstrate that support; items 6, 7, 9 and 12 measures friend support while
loneliness is associated with poor psychological well-being. items 1, 2, 5 and 10 measures significant other support.Some
Because many awaiting-trial inmates are in social isolation, samples of the items on the MSPSS are: “Tried to step back
where the inmate have no social network and really do not from situation and be more objective” (family support),
have anyone or set of friends, the individual’s psychological “Talked with spouse or other relative about the problem”
well-being of that individual would most likely be poor. The (friend support), “Discussed feelings with others” (other
second hypothesis examined in this study is that high level of support), etc. The scale has good reliability indexes: full
social support would lead to a healthy psychological well- scale is .85; family sub-scales is .87; friends sub-scale is .85
being. That is, the hypothesis proposes that social support and significant other sub-scale is .91. The pilot study
would positively predict psychological well-being. The conducted as described above; show Cronbach alpha as
present proposal is based on the stress buffering hypothesis; follows: full scale .70; sub scales: family .62, significant
the proposal states that in the event of a stressful experience, others .91 and friends .70.
those who have social support will suffer less from the Psychological well-being scale (PWB-S) [28], is a
potentially harmful effects of that particular occurrence, thus structured, self-report instrument based on the six dimensions
facilitating adaptation [6]. Awaiting-trial inmates with of psychological well-being: Autonomy, environmental
supportive relationships often have social support act as mastery, personal growth, positive relationships with others,
buffer against the stress of incarceration. purpose in life and self-acceptance. The scale is 18-item scale.
Each item is responded using a 5-point Likert scale format.
2. Method For example, (1) strongly disagree to (5) strongly agree. The
psychometric properties of the six dimension of PWB-S
2.1. Participants range from .86 to .93 [28]. Some items on the scale are: “I
tend to be influenced by people with strong opinion”, “I am
The participants for the study consist of three hundred quite good at managing the many responsibilities of my daily
(300) awaiting-trial inmates of Enugu Prison Command, life”, “I sometimes feel as if I have done all there is to do in
Enugu State, drawn from the awaiting trial section. The life”, etc. Some of the items are reversely scored: 1, 5, 9, 10,
participants were 220 (73.33%) male and 80 female (26.66%) 12, 13, 15, 18. The scale was revalidated by the researcher
prisons inmates. The ages of the participants ranged between using 71 prisoners from Nigerian prison Nsukka. The
18 years to 69 years with mean age of 43.5 years, and reliability analysis of the pilot study show Cronbach’s alpha
standard deviations (SD) of 5.21. of self acceptance .72, positive relations .50, autonomy .46,
2.2. Instruments environmental mastery .60, purpose in life .62 and personal
growth .57. Also, the reliability coefficient of the composite
Three instruments were used for the study. They are the variables is .87.
Short-form University of California, Los Angeles Loneliness
Scale ((ULS-8)[13], the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived 2.3. Procedure
Social Support (MSPSS)[42] and the Psychological Well- Permission for the research was obtained from the
being Scale (PWB-S)[28].The University of Los Angeles Comptroller of Enugu Prison Command, who gave
loneliness scale(UCL-8)[13] is a revised short-form measure permission for the study to go on. Three prison staffs (Prison
of loneliness. It was designed to measure one’s subjective Wardens) were instructed by the Comptroller to superintend
feelings of loneliness and feelings of social isolation. Some the exercise and assist the researchers to talk to the awaiting-
items on the scale include: “I lack companionship”, “I am an trial prisoners. At the venue of the study, the researchers
outgoing person”, “People are around me but not with me”, explained the purpose of the study and assured the inmates
etc. The scale consists of 8 statements about loneliness. The that their responses would be confidential and anonymous.
response options were on a 4-point Likert scale: 1 (never) to When reasonable rapport was established between the parties,
4 (always).Hays and DiMatteo (1987) stated that the measure which are between the researchers and the respondents, the
has internal consistency coefficient a ranging from .89 to .94. researchers gave out the questionnaires to those respondents
The UCL-8 was validated in a pilot study with 71 prisons who indicated interest to participate. Many prisoners
67 Philip Chukwuemeka Mefoh et al.: Psychological Well-Being in Awaiting-Trial Inmates:
The Roles of Loneliness and Social Support

volunteered to participate in the study and they were all 4. Discussion

giving the scales to complete. Completed questionnaires were
collected from 351 prison inmates, but during the analysis, The present study investigates the roles of loneliness and
only 300 questionnaires were analyzed. The rest were social support on the psychological well-being of awaiting-
disregarded due to multiple responses on a single item and/or trial inmates in Enugu Prison Command. Two hypotheses
other anomalies. were proposed. The first hypothesis stated that loneliness
would negatively predict psychological well-being of
2.4. Design/Statistics inmates. The results of data analyses show that loneliness
predicted psychological well-being. However, the result did
The research employed a cross sectional design. The not support the hypothesis because the nature of the
multiple regression and correlation (MRC) analysis was used prediction was positive, instead of the negative prediction
to analyse the data. that was predicted. This finding seems to be inconsistent
with previous literature on loneliness [12, 22, 36, 39]. The
3. Results previous literature on loneliness argue that social isolation
leads to negative emotions which seem to have deleterious
Table 1. Multiple regression table showing Beta (β) coefficient and effect on an individual’s psychological well-being.
significant levels of loneliness and social support as predictors of
psychological well-being among awaiting-prisons inmates.
Although the present finding looks more like a
contradiction to past finding, it is not. The finding should
Variables B Std. Error Beta (β) t rather be interpreted as a contrast to previous findings
1. Loneliness .262 .064 .234 4.07** instead of a contradiction to them. The point is that contrary
2. Social support .634 .245 .149 2.59* to public opinion that prison inmates are lonely because
they are isolated from the society; the truth is that they are
Key: ** P <.001; * P <.05 not in solitary isolation, they make friends with fellow
inmates and they bond together. The reality of the matter is
The descriptive statistics for the study variable show that that many awaiting-trial inmates are recidivists, who come
loneliness was positively associated with psychological well- out from prison and do the same thing all over again, and
being (r =.20, p <0.01), as well as with social support (r =.22, then return back to prison. This ‘revolving door’ explains
p <0.01). Social support was not associated with the criterion why fifty percent of all serious crimes are committed by
variable – psychological well-being. Table 1 show the about five percent of the criminals. Prison inmates have no
multiple regression model of the roles of loneliness and constructive way to spend their time, so they form network
social support on psychological well-being. First, the results of friends inside the prison, which was why the prison has
show that loneliness significantly (and positively) predicted been described as ‘school for criminals’. That is, prison
psychological well-being in awaiting-trial inmates of Enugu inmates who started off with petty crime frequently
Prison Command (β =.23, t = 4.07, p <0.001). This result graduate into hardened criminals.
failed to support the stated hypothesis that loneliness would The second hypothesis examined in this study is that social
negatively predict psychological well-being. Similarly, the support would positively predict psychological well-being.
result also show that social support significantly (and The results of data analyses showed this hypothesis to be true.
positively) predicted psychological well-being in awaiting- The finding is consistent with previous literature [11, 15, 21,
trial inmates of Enugu Prison Command (β = 15, t =2.59, p 32], which observed that high levels of social support tends to
<0.05). The results suggest that that the more social support lead to high psychological well-being. Although the present
the better the psychological well-being of awaiting-trial finding is consistent with the stated hypothesis, one would
inmates. This result supports the second hypothesis that have expected awaiting-trial inmates to score low on the
social support would positively predict psychological well- multidimensional scale of perceived social support (MSPSS)
being in awaiting-trial inmates. because of their travails. However, because of some the
In summary, the above results show that the two predictor circumstances mentioned above, awaiting-trial inmates bond
variables – loneliness and social support, were both positive together and support each other. Prison inmates often view
predictors of the criterion variable – psychological well- imprisonment as initiation rite; the prison (school of criminals)
being. The positive prediction of loneliness on psychological trains inmates to graduate into very menacing, mean and
well-being led to the rejection of the first hypothesis, which violent criminals. As with regular schools, inmates do not
proposed that loneliness would negatively predict ordinarily feel lonely or alone, neither do they lack supportive
psychological well-being of awaiting-trial inmates. Again, resources from their fellow inmates, who offer them emotional,
the positive prediction of social support on psychological instrumental, appraisal and informational supports.
well-being supported the second hypothesis. The hypothesis One important implication of the present study is in the
maintains that social support would positively predict renewed interest people have expressed about the
psychological well-being of awaiting-trial inmates. These effectiveness of the prison to influence a prisoner’s behaviour.
results were re-stated and interpreted in the discussion The four principal reasons for establishing the prison
section below. institution are not been met and the government should be
 Social Sciences 2016; 5(5): 64-69 68

bothered that prison inmates, rather than turning into new

leaf in prison graduates into the worst kind of criminal. This
study points to the importance of looking at some of the
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