Building Envelope

4. Building Envelope
4.1 General
Overview

T he building envelope refers to the exterior façade, and is comprised of opaque components and
fenestration systems. Opaque components include walls, roofs, slabs on grade (in touch with ground),
basement walls, and opaque doors. Fenestration systems include windows, skylights, ventilators, and
doors that are more than one-half glazed. The envelope protects the building’s interior and occupants
from the weather conditions and shields them from other external factors e.g. noise, air pollution, etc.

The building envelope

depicted here by the green
line, which separates the
conditioned space from the
unconditioned space.

Figure 4.1: Building Envelope

Envelope design strongly affects the visual and thermal comfort of the occupants, as well as energy consumption
in the building. Box 4-A discusses the there modes of heat transfer (Conduction, Convection and Radiation) in
the building.
Conductive heat transfer across the envelope also depends upon the conductivity of the building material
used. Different materials offer different thermal resistance to the conduction process. Individually, walls and
roofs are comprised of a number of layers composed of different building materials. Thus, it is important to
establish overall thermal resistance and heat transfer coefficient (U-factor), also termed thermal transmittance.
The concepts of thermal resistance and U- factor are discussed in Box 4-B for better understanding.

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Box 4-A: How Heat Transfer Takes Place in a Building

Heat transfer takes place through walls, windows, and roofs in buildings from higher temperature to lower
temperature in three ways-conduction, convection, and radiation. Conduction is the transfer of heat by direct
contact of particles of matter within a material or materials in physical contact. Convection is the transfer
of heat by the movement of a fluid (air or gas or liquid). Radiation is the movement of energy/heat through
space without relying on conduction through the air or by the movement of air.
The surface of the sun, estimated to be at a temperature of about 5500°C, emits electromagnetic waves.
These waves are also known as solar radiation or short-wave radiation with wave length in the range of 0.3 to
2.5 microns or 300 nm to 2500 nm, and has three components: Ultra Violet (UV), Visible (the sun light which
is visible to human eye) and “Solar (or Near) Infrared” as depicted in the Figure 4.2:

Figure 4.2: The Solar and Blackbody Spectrum

When the ‘Solar Infrared’ component of the waves comes in contact with the earth or any object or a building,
it transfers its energy to the object/building in the form of heat. The phenomenon is known as solar radiation
heat transfer. Radiation heat transfer, in fact, can be between any two bodies having different temperatures
with heat transfer taking place from the body at higher temperature to the body at the lower temperature.
The Figure 4.3 shows all three modes of heat transfer across a building wall facing the external environment.

Figure 4.3: Schematic Showing Three Modes of Heat Transfer

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Box 4-B: Conduction and Resistance

Conduction
Conduction is heat transfer through a solid medium as a result of a temperature gradient. The heat flow
direction is, in accordance with the second law of thermodynamics, from a region of higher temperature to
that of lower temperature. The Conductivity is the property of material. The rate of heat transfer (q) through
a homogeneous medium is given by Fourier’s Law of Conduction:
dT
q = kA dx [ W ]
q : Rate of heat transfer [W]
k : Thermal conductivity of the material [Wm2·K-1]
A : Area [m2]
T : Temperature [K]
x : Distance in the direction of heat flow [m]
Resistance
Thermal Resistance is proportional to the thickness of material of construction and inversely proportional to
its conductivity. This, a lower value of conductivity means less heat flow and so does the greater thickness of
material. Together these parameters form the ‘Thermal Resistance’ to the process of heat conduction.
d
R = k [ m2 ·K· W- 1 ]

Description of Surface Resistance

The total thermal resistance RT of a plane element consisting of thermally homogeneous layers
perpendicular to the heat flow is calculated by the following formula:
RT : Rsi + Rt + Rse
Where Rt is the sum of thermal resistance of each layer in the wall/roof.
Rt : R1 + R2+ …+ Rn
Where R1, R2, …, Rn are the thermal resistance of each layer.
For the calculation of the thermal transmittance (U-factor) under ordinary building conditions, the seasonal
mean values of the exterior surface thermal resistance (Rse) and the interior surface thermal resistance (Rsi) can
be obtained from Table 4.1. These values are the result of empirical studies and merely represent magnitudes
of order. They consider both convection and radiation influences.
Table 4.1: Values of Surface Film Resistance Based on Direction of Heat Flow
Rsi Rse
Direction of Heat Flow Direction of Heat Flow
Horizontal Up Down Horizontal Up Down
0.13 0.10 0.17 0.04 0.04 0.04

Thermal Resistance of an Element Consisting of Homogenous Layers

A building element is usually composed of a number of different materials. When materials are placed in
series, their thermal resistances are added so that the same area conducts lesser heat for a given temperature
difference. Formation of air film at the surface of wall or roof, due to convection movements of air, also
provides resistance to the heat flow, similar to the construction material. The total resistance of the wall or
roof includes all of the resistances of the individual materials that make it up as well as both the internal and
external air-film resistance.
U-factor = 1/RT

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Thermal Resistance of Unventilated Air Layers

Table 4.2 gives the thermal resistances of unventilated air layers (valid for emittance of the bounding surfaces
> 0.8). The values under "horizontal" should be used for heat flow directions ± 30° from the horizontal
plane; for other heat flow directions, the values under "up" or "down" should be used.
Table 4.2: Thermal Resistances of Unventilated Air Layers Between Surfaces with High
Emittance

Thickness of Air Layer Thermal Resistance (m2·K·W-1)

(mm) Direction of Heat Flow
Horizontal Up Down
5 0.12 0.10 0.10
7 0.12 0.12 0.12
10 0.14 0.14 0.14
15 0.16 0.16 0.16
25 0.18 0.17 0.18
50 0.18 0.17 0.20
100 0.18 0.17 0.20
300 0.18 0.17 0.21

Example 4.1: R -Value and U-factor Calculations for Cavity Wall Construction

Figure 4.4: Typical Cavity Wall Construction

R1: Resistance for Layer 1 (13 mm Gypsum Plaster) = 0.079 K·m2/W (from ECBC Table 11.4)
R2: Resistance of Layer 2 (230 mm brick wall, density=1920kg/m3) = d2/k2 = 0.230/0.81 =0.284 K·m2/W
(from ECBC Table 11.4)
R3: Resistance of Layer 3 (115 mm air gap) = 0.18 Km2/W (from Table 4.2)
R4: Resistance of Layer 4 (115 mm brick wall, density=1920kg/m3) = d4/k4 = 0.115/0.81 =0.142 K·m2/W
(from ECBC Table 11.4)
Rt: R-value for the composite wall = R1+ R2+ R3 + R4 = 0.079+ 0.284
+ 0.18 + 0.142 = 0.685 K·m2/W
RT: Rsi+ Rt+R se = 0.13+ 0.685 +0.04= 0.855
(from Table 4.1)
U-factor for the composite wall = 1/RT = 1/0.855 = 1.169 W/m 2·K

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The design of the building envelope is generally the responsibility of an architect. The building designer is
responsible for making sure that the building envelope is energy-efficient and complies with the mandatory and
prescriptive requirements of the Code. ECBC also provides ‘trade-off option’ which allows flexibility to the
designer to ‘trade-off ’ prescriptive requirements of building components, while meeting the minimum energy
performance requirements of the envelope.

4.2 Mandatory Requirements

4.2.1 Fenestration
Heat transfer across glazing products or fenestration (windows, door, and skylights) is similar to the heat transfer
that takes place across walls and roofs through conduction and convection. So, U-factor of glazing is analogous
to the U-factor of wall assembly. In addition, direct solar radiation contributes to the solar heat gain through the
fenestration system. Box 4-C discusses the concept of Solar Heat Gain Coefficient (SHGC).
Fenestration and doors must be rated using procedures and methods specified in the ECBC. Three fenestration
performance characteristics are significant in the ECBC: U-factor, SHGC, and Visible Light Transmittance
(VLT). These are reviewed below:
The U-factor of fenestration is very important to the energy efficiency of buildings, especially in cold climates.
The U-factor must account for the entire fenestration product, including the effects of the frame, the spacers in
double glazed assemblies, and the glazing. There are a wide variety of materials, systems, and techniques used to
manufacture fenestration products, and accurately accounting for these factors is of utmost importance when
calculating the U-factor.
According to ECBC, Fenestration U-factors must be determined in accordance with ISO-15099.

Box 4-C: Solar Heat Gain Coefficient and U-Factor

Conduction heat flow through the fenestration (e.g. glass windows) is similar to the process discussed for
walls and roofs. However regardless of outside temperature, heat gain through the fenestration is also
dependent on direct and indirect solar radiation. The ability to control this heat gain is characterized in
terms of SHGC. SHGC is the ratio of the solar heat gain that passes through the fenestration to the total
incident solar radiation that falls on the fenestration. The solar heat gain includes directly transmitted solar
heat and absorbed solar radiation, which is then re-radiated, convected, or conducted into the interior
space. SHGC indicates how well the glazing/glass and fenestration products insulate heat caused by sun
falling directly on the glass.

Figure 4.5: Direct and Indirect Solar Radiation

In hot climates, SHGC is more important than the U-factor of the glazing. A lower SHGC means that lesser
heat can pass through the glazing. The SHGC is based on the properties of the glazing material, whether the
window has single, double, or triple glazing, and the window operation (either operable or fixed). Glazing
units with a low SHGC will help reduce the air conditioning energy use during the cooling season.

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Figure 4.6: Heat Transfer (Conduction, Convection, & Radiation) and Infiltration Across a Window

4.2.1.1 U-factors
Clear glass, which is the most common type of glass used today, has no significant thermal resistance (R-value)
from the pane itself. It has a value of R-0.9 to R-1.0 due to the thin films of air on the interior and exterior
surfaces of the glass. The U-factor (thermal conductance), must account for the entire fenestration system
including the effects of the frame, the spacers in double glazed assemblies, and the glazing. There are a wide
variety of materials, systems, and techniques used to manufacture fenestration products, and accurately
accounting for these factors is of utmost importance when meeting the fenestration requirements. The Code
also specifies U-factor for sloped glazing and skylights, and minimum U-factors for unrated products.
ECBC has used W/m2·C as the unit for U-factor. Since differences in temperature are always denoted in K in
physics literature, ECBC User Guide has used W/m2·K as the unit of U-factor. Wherever, °C was being used
for differences in temperature, it has been replaced with K in the Guide.
U-factors for fenestration systems (including the sash and frame) are required to be determined in accordance
with ISO-15099 (as specified in ECBC §11: Appendix C) by an accredited independently laboratory and labeled
and certified by the manufacturer or other responsible party. Box 4-D briefly explains how these issues are
addressed in US.
Box 4-D: How Fenestration Products are Tested, Certified, and Labeled in the U.S.
In the U.S, the fenestration U-factors are determined in accordance with the National Fenestration Rating
Council (NFRC) Standard 100. NFRC is a membership organization of window manufacturers, researchers,
and others that develops, supports, and maintains fenestration rating and labeling procedures. Most fenestration
manufacturers have their products rated and labeled through the NFRC program. Certified products receive
an 8 ½ by 11 inch NFRC label that lists the U-factor, SHGC, and the visible transmittance.

4.2.1.2 Solar Heat Gain Coefficient

The ECBC requires that SHGC be determined in accordance with ISO-15099 by an accredited independent
laboratory, and labeled and certified by the manufacturer or other responsible party. SHGC has replaced Shading
Coefficient (SC) as the preferred specification for solar heat gain through fenestration products.
Designers should insist on getting SHGC data from the manufacturers. However, it should be kept in mind that
only SHGC data that is certified by an accredited independent testing laboratory can be used to show ECBC
compliance.

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4.2.1.3 Air Leakage

As per the Code:
Air leakage for glazed swinging entrance doors and revolving doors shall not exceed 5.0 l/s·m2. Air leakage for
other fenestration and doors shall not exceed 2.0 l/s·m2.
The first set of air leakage requirements deals with inadvertent leaks at joints in the building envelope. In particular,
the standard states that exterior joints, cracks, and holes in the building envelope shall be caulked, gasketed, weather
stripped, or otherwise sealed. The construction drawings should specify sealing, but special attention is needed in the
construction administration phase to assure proper workmanship. A tightly constructed building envelope is largely
achieved through careful construction practices and attention to detail. Poorly sealed buildings can cause problems for
maintaining comfort conditions when additional infiltration loads exceed the HVAC design assumptions. This can be
a significant problem in high-rise buildings due to stack effect and exposure to stronger winds.

4.2.2 Opaque Construction

As per the Code:
U-factors shall be determined from the default tables in Appendix C §11 or determined from data or procedures
contained in the ASHRAE Fundamentals, 2005.

4.2.3 Building Envelope Sealing

Air leakage can also occur through opaque construction. Apart from adding cooling or heating load in the
building, air leakage can cause condensation within walls and roof can damage insulation material and degrade
other building materials. Box 4-E discusses these aspects in more detail.
It must be noted that building sealing is more important in air-conditioned buildings. In naturally ventilated
buildings, the concept of building ceiling and tight envelope runs counter to conventional and traditional wisdom.

Box 4-E: Building Envelope Sealing and Air Leakage

Air leakage is the passage of air through a building envelope, wall, window, joint, etc. Leakage to the
interior is referred to as infiltration and leakage to the exterior is referred to as ex-filtration. Excessive air
movement significantly reduces the thermal integrity and performance of the envelope and is, therefore, a
major contributor to energy consumption in a building.
A tightly constructed building envelope is largely achieved through careful construction practices and attention
to detail. Building envelopes should be carefully designed to limit the uncontrolled entry of outdoor air into
the building. Air leakage introduces sensible heat into conditioned spaces. In climates with moist outdoor
conditions, it is also a major source of latent heat. Latent heat must be removed by the air-conditioning
system at considerable expense.
In addition to causing energy loss, excessive air leakage can cause condensation to form within and on walls.
This can create many problems including reducing insulation R-value, permanently damaging insulation, and
seriously degrading materials.
It can rot wood, corrode metals, stain brick or concrete surfaces, and in extreme cases cause concrete
to break, bricks to separate, mortar to crumble and sections of a wall to fall jeopardizing the safety of
occupants. It can corrode structural steel, re-bar, and metal hangars and bolts with very serious safety and
maintenance consequences. Moisture accumulation in building materials can lead to the formation of mold
that may require extensive remedying the situation.
Virtually anywhere in the building envelope where there is a joint, junction or opening, there is potential for
air leakage. Air leakage will cause the HVAC system to run more often and longer at one time, and still leave
the building uncomfortable for its occupants.
All openings in the building envelope, including joints and other openings that are potential sources of air
leakage, should be to be sealed to minimize air leakage. It means that all gaps between wall panels, around doors,
and other construction joints must be well sealed. Ceiling joints, lighting fixtures, plumbing openings, doors, and
windows should all be considered as potential sources of unnecessary energy loss due to air infiltration.

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ECBC identifies several areas in the building envelope where attention should be paid to infiltration control.
These include:
a. Joints around fenestration and doorframes.
b. Openings at penetrations of utility services through roofs, walls, and floors.
c. Site-built fenestration and doors.
d. Building assemblies used as ducts or plenums.
e. Joints, seams, and penetrations of vapor retarders.
f. All other openings in the building envelope.
It is also recommended that junctions between walls and foundations, between walls at building corners, between
walls and structural floors or roofs, and between walls and roof or wall panels.
Fenestration products, including doors, can also significantly contribute to infiltration. Although not included in
the Code, it is recommended that fenestration products should have infiltration less than 0.4 cfm/ft² (2.0 l/s·m²).
For glazed entrance doors that open with a swinging mechanism and for revolving doors, it is recommended
that infiltration be limited to 1.0 cfm/ft² (5.0 l/s·m²).

4.3 Prescriptive Requirements

For envelope component-based compliance approach, ECBC sets requirements for:
• Exterior roofs and ceilings
• Cool roofs
• Opaque walls
• Vertical fenestration
• Skylights
4.3.1 Roofs
In roofs, the U-factor for the overall assemblies or minimum R-values for the insulation must be complied with
the provisions of the Code. ECBC Appendix C provides values for typical constructions.
In real practice, the heat gains through the walls, roof, and fenestration depends upon the climate zone in which
the building is located. The National Building Code of India, 2005 has divided the country in five climate zones
(Hot-Dry; Warm-Humid; Composite; Temperate/Moderate; and Cold), and the air temperature and humidity
variations that exist need to be considered while designing the building envelope.
Box 4-F: Role of Climate Zone
The ECBC building envelope requirements are based on the climate zone in which the building is located.
ECBC defines five climate zones (hot-dry; warm-humid; composite; temperate; cold), which are distinctly
unique in their weather profiles. Appendix E of the Guide provides additional information on the five
climatic zones. Based on the characteristics of climate, the thermal comfort requirements in buildings and
their physical manifestation in architectural form are also different for each climate zone (See Table 4.3).
These physical manifestations, in turn, dictates the ECBC requirements for the envelope, as well as other
building components that are applicable to the building.
Table 4.3: Comfort Requirements and Physical Manifestations in Buildings
HOT AND DRY CLIMATE ZONE
Thermal Requirements Physical Manifestation
Reduce Heat Gain
Decrease exposed surface area Orientation and shape of building
Increase thermal resistance Insulation of building envelope
Increase thermal capacity (Time lag) Massive structure
Increase buffer spaces Air locks/lobbies/balconies/verandahs
Decrease air exchange rate (ventilation during day-time) Smaller windows openings, night ventilation

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Increase shading External surfaces protected by overhangs, fins and trees

Increase surface reflectivity Pale colour, glazed china mosaic tiles etc.
Reduce solar heat gain Use glazing with lower SHGC and provide shading for windows.
Minimize glazing in East and West
Promote Heat Loss
Increase air exchange rate (Ventilation during night-time) Courtyards/wind towers/arrangement of openings
Increase humidity levels Trees, water ponds, evaporative cooling
WARM AND HUMID CLIMATE ZONE
Thermal Requirements Physical Manifestation
Reduce Heat Gain
Decrease exposed surface area Orientation and shape of building
Increase thermal resistance Roof insulation and wall insulation
Reflective surface of roof
Increase buffer spaces Balconies and verandas
Increase shading Walls, glass surfaces protected by overhangs, fins and trees
Increase surface reflectivity Pale color, glazed china mosaic tiles, etc.
Reduce solar heat gain Use glazing with lower SHGC and provide shading for windows.
Minimize glazing in East and West
Promote Heat Loss
Increase air exchange rate (Ventilation throughout the day) Ventilated roof construction. Courtyards, wind towers and
arrangement of openings
Decrease humidity levels Dehumidifiers/desiccant cooling
MODERATE CLIMATE ZONE
Thermal Requirements Physical Manifestation
Reduce Heat Gain
Decrease exposed surface area Orientation and shape of building
Increase thermal resistance Roof insulation and east and west wall insulation
Increase shading East and west walls, glass surfaces protected by overhangs, fins and
trees
Increase surface reflectivity Pale colour, glazed china mosaic tiles, etc.
Promote Heat Loss
Increase air exchange rate (Ventilation) Courtyards and arrangement of openings
COLD (Cloudy/Sunny) CLIMATE ZONE
Thermal Requirements Physical Manifestation
Reduce Heat Loss
Decrease exposed surface area Orientation and shape of building. Use of trees as wind barriers
Increase thermal resistance Roof insulation, wall insulation and double glazing
Increase thermal capacity (Time lag) Thicker walls
Increase buffer spaces Air locks/Lobbies
Decrease air exchange rate Weather stripping and reducing air leakage
Increase surface absorptive Darker colours
Promote Heat Gain
Reduce shading Walls and glass surfaces
Trapping heat Sun spaces/green houses/Trombe walls etc.
COMPOSITE CLIMATE ZONE
Thermal Requirements Physical Manifestation
Reduce Heat Gain in Summer and Reduce Heat Loss in Winter
Decrease exposed surface area Orientation and shape of building. Use of trees as wind barriers
Increase thermal resistance Roof insulation and wall insulation
Increase thermal capacity (Time lag) Thicker walls

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Increase buffer spaces Air locks/Balconies

Decrease air exchange rate Weather stripping
Increase shading Walls, glass surfaces protected by overhangs, fins and trees
Increase surface reflectivity Pale color, glazed china mosaic tiles, etc.
Reduce solar heat gain Use glazing with lower SHGC and provide shading for windows.
Minimize glazing in East and West
Promote Heat Loss in Summer/Monsoon
Increase air exchange rate (Ventilation) Courtyards/wind towers/arrangement of openings
Increase humidity levels in dry summer Trees and water ponds for evaporative cooling
Decrease humidity in monsoon Dehumidifiers/desiccant cooling

Source: Nayak and Prajapati (2006). Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings

Exterior roofs can meet the prescriptive requirements in one of two ways:
• Use the required R-value of the insulation (this R-value does not apply to building materials or air film.
It should be referred exclusively for insulation), or
• Use a roof assembly U-factor that meets the maximum U-factor criterion for thermal performance (see
ECBC Table 4.3.1). The U-factor takes into account all elements or layers in the construction assembly,
including the sheathing, interior finishes, and air gaps, as well as exterior and interior air films.
As per the Code:
The roof insulation shall not be located on a suspended ceiling with removable ceiling panels.
The Code requirements for the U-factor and R-values for 24 hours use buildings and daytime use buildings for
five climate zones as shown in Table 4.4 below.
Table 4.4: Roof Assembly U-Factor and Insulation R-value Requirements (ECBC Table 4.1)
Climate Zone 24-Hour use buildings Hospitals, Daytime use buildings Other Building
Hotels, Call Centers etc. Types
Maximum U-factor of Minimum R-value Maximum U-factor of Minimum R-value
the overall assembly of insulation alone the overall assembly of insulation alone
(W/m2·K) (m2·K/W) (W/m2·K) (m2·K/W)
Composite U-0.261 R-3.5 U-0.409 R-2.1
Hot and Dry U-0.261 R-3.5 U-0.409 R-2.1
Warm and Humid U-0.261 R-3.5 U-0.409 R-2.1
Moderate U-0.409 R-2.1 U-0.409 R-2.1
Cold U-0.261 R-3.5 U-0.409 R-2.1
Some recommended practices for proper installation and protection of insulation are provided below:
Insulation
The first set of mandatory requirements addresses the proper installation and protection of insulation materials.
It is recommended that insulation materials be installed according to the manufacturer’s recommendations and
in a manner that will achieve the rated insulation R-value. Compressing the insulation reduces the effective
R-value and the thermal performance of the construction assembly.
Substantial Contact
It is recommended that insulation be installed in a permanent manner and in substantial contact with the inside
surface of the construction assembly. If the insulation does not entirely fill the cavity, the air gap should be
on the outside surface. Maintaining substantial contact is particularly important (and problematic) for batt
insulation installed between floor joists. Without proper support, gravity will cause the insulation to fall away
from the floor surface, leaving an air gap above the insulation. Air currents will ultimately find their way to the
gap, and when they do, the effectiveness of the insulation will be substantially reduced.

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Insulation Above Suspended Ceilings

It is not good practice to install insulation directly over suspended ceilings with removable ceiling panels.
This is because the insulation’s continuity is likely to be disturbed by maintenance workers. Also, suspended
ceilings may not meet the ECBC’s infiltration requirements unless they are properly sealed. Compliance with
this requirement could have a significant impact in some parts of the country, as it is common practice to install
insulation over suspended ceilings. Many building codes will consider the space above the ceiling to be an attic
and require that it be ventilated to the exterior. If vented to the exterior, air in the attic could be quite cold (or
hot) and the impact of the leaky suspended ceiling would be made worse.
Insulation Protection
It is strongly recommended that insulation be protected from sunlight, moisture, landscaping equipment, wind,
and other physical damage. Rigid insulation used at the slab perimeter of the building should be covered to
prevent damage from gardening or landscaping equipment. Rigid insulation used on the exterior of walls and
roofs should be protected by a permanent waterproof membrane or exterior finish. In general, a prudent
designer should pay attention to moisture migration in all building construction. Vapor retarders prevent
moisture from condensing within walls, roofs, or floors but care should be taken to install them on the correct
side (warmer or cooler side) of the walls and roofs to prevent water damage. Water condensation can damage
the building structure and can seriously degrade the performance of building insulation and create many
other problems such as mold and mildew. The designer should evaluate the thermal and moisture conditions
that might contribute to condensation and make sure that vapor retarders are correctly installed to prevent
condensation. In addition to correctly installing a vapor retarder, it is important to provide adequate ventilation
of spaces where moisture can build up.
Figure 4.7 shows some common techniques to insulate different types of roofing systems.

Pre-Fabricated Metal Roofs Showing Thermal Blocking of Purlins

Steel Joist Roof with Insulated Cavities

Metal Framed Ceiling Insulation

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Insulation entirely above deck: Insulation is installed above

(a) concrete, (b) wood or (c) metal deck in a continuous manner. (a), (b), and (c) are shown sequentially right to left.

Steel Joist Roof with Continuous Insulation

Figure 4.7: Building Roofs

A. RCC Slab Insulated with Vermiculite

B. RCC Slab Insulated with Earthen Pots

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Figure 4.8: Typical Insulation Technique for RCC Roof Construction

4.3.1.1 Cool Roofs

Depending on the material and construction, a roof will have different properties that determine how it
conducts heat to the inside of the building. “Cool roofs” are roofs covered with a reflective coating that has a
high emissivity property that is very effective in reflecting the sun’s energy away from the roof surface. These
“cool roofs” are known to stay 10°C to 16°C cooler than a normal roof under a hot summer sun; this quality
greatly reduces heat gain inside the building and the cooling load that needs to be met by the HVAC system. Box
4-G discusses how solar heat radiation is reflected, absorbed and emitted from the roof and how these concepts
are used in developing cool roofs.
Box 4-G: Reflectance, Absorptance, and Emissivity
The heat transfer process involved in the roof, is similar to the heat transfer that takes in a wall. Heat transfer
across the roof is more prominent compared to the wall because of higher incidence of solar radiation.
Depending on the properties of the roof material and construction, the roof reflects part of the solar
radiation back to the environment, and absorbs the other part of the heat in the roof (See Figure 4.9). Finally,
portion of the absorbed heat in the roof is emitted as long-wave radiation back to the environment and
the remaining part of the absorbed heat is conducted inside of the building. This heat transfer process is
governed by the Solar Reflectance and Emissivity (Thermal Emittance) properties of the roof material, apart
from the thermal conductivity of the materials used in the roof.

Figure 4.9: Heat Transfer Through Roof

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Solar Reflectance and Absorptance

The solar reflectance is the fraction of solar radiation reflected by roof. The complement of reflectance is
absorptance; whatever radiant energy incident on a surface that is not reflected is absorbed in the roof. The
reflectance and absorptance of building materials are usually measured across the solar spectrum, since these
are exposed to that range of wavelength.
Reflectance is measured on a scale of 0 to 1, with 0 being a perfect absorber and 1 being a perfect reflector.
Absorptance is also rated from 0 to 1, and can be calculated from the relation: Reflectance + Absorptance = 1.
Emissivity or Thermal Emittance
Emissivity (or thermal emittance) of a material (usually written ε or e) is the ratio of energy radiated by a
particular material to energy radiated by a black body at the same temperature. It is a measure of a material’s
ability to radiate the absorbed energy. A true black body would have an e =1 while any real object would have
e <1. Emissivity is a dimensionless quantity (does not have units). In general, the duller and blacker a material
is, the closer it’s emissivity is to 1. The more reflective a material is, the lower its emissivity.
The emissivity of building material, unlike reflectance, is usually measured in the far infrared part of the
spectrum.
Ideal Exterior Surface
An ideal exterior surface coating of a building in hot climate and under indoor cooling would have reflectance
near 1, and absorptance near zero, and Emissivity near 1 to radiate absorbed heat back to the sky.

If designing a cool roof, requirements for minimum solar reflectance and initial emittance levels are specified
[ECBC 4.3.1.1].
Roofs with slopes less than 20° shall have an initial solar reflectance of no less than 0.70 and an initial emittance
no less than 0.75. Solar reflectance shall be determined in accordance with ASTM E903-96 and emittance shall
be determined in accordance with ASTM E408-71 (RA 1996).

Box 4-H: Cool Roofs

In hot climates, cool roofs (or high emissivity or thermal emittance roof surfaces) are an effective way to
reduce solar gains and cut building owners’ energy costs. Because cool roofs gain less heat than normal
roofs, they reduce the need for air conditioning and make buildings more comfortable to the people
inside. The light color reflects sunlight and heat away from the building, and the high emissivity or thermal
emittance allows heat to escape to the atmosphere when the surface becomes heated. Although some
surfaces, such as galvanized metal, have a high reflectance, they have a low emittance. These surfaces
reflect heat, but heat that is absorbed cannot escape. Other surfaces, such as dark paint, have a high
emittance but a low reflectance. These surfaces allow heat to escape, but do a poor job of reflecting heat
that strikes the surface.
Most cool roof materials for low-sloped roofs are white or another light color. For steep-sloped roofs that
are often visible from the ground, roofing material manufacturers have developed popular roof colors
other than white that will still reflect solar radiation or emit the sun’s energy away from the building.
Cool roofs have other benefits in addition to reducing operating absorbed heat costs. For building owners,
they can cut maintenance costs and increase the life expectancy of the roof. For society in general, cool
roofs can even help to reduce the urban heat island effect and slow down global warming that makes our
cities hotter and produces unhealthy air.
What is meant by Urban Heat Island effect?
An Urban Heat Island is a metropolitan urban area, which is significantly warmer than its surroundings.
As population centers grow in size, they tend to have a corresponding increase in average temperature.
Scientists refer to this phenomenon as the “Urban Heat Island Effect”. The two main causes of the urban
heat island is modification of the land surface by urban development and waste heat generated by energy
usage. One consequence of urban heat islands is the increased energy required for air conditioning and
refrigeration in cities that are in comparatively hot climates.

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What types of roofing products are available?

Products for low-slope roofs, found on commercial and industrial buildings fall into two categories: single-
ply materials and coatings. Single-ply materials are large sheets of pre-made roofing that are mechanically
fastened over the existing roof and sealed at the seams. Coatings are applied using rollers, sprays, or brushes,
over an existing clean, leak-free roof surface. Products for sloped roofs are currently available in clay, or
concrete tiles. These products stay cooler by the use of special pigments that reflect the sun’s infrared heat. In
India, lime coats, white tiles grouted with white cement, special paints, etc. are used as cool roofing materials.

4.3.2 Opaque Walls

Opaque walls can meet the prescriptive requirements by either using a construction that has an assembly
U-factor lower than the specified value as shown in ECBC Table 4.2 (reproduced in Table 4.5), or by using
insulation with R-value more than the prescribed value. R-value is for the insulation alone and does not include
building materials or air films.
Table 4.5: Opaque Wall Assembly U-Factor and Insulation R-value Requirements (ECBC Table 4.2)

Climate Zone Hospitals, Hotels, Call Centers Other Building Types (Daytime)
(24-Hour)
Maximum U-factor of Minimum R-value Maximum U-factor Minimum R-value
the overall assembly of insulation alone of the overall of insulation alone
(W/m2·K) (m2·K/W) assembly (W/m2·K) (m2·K/W)
Composite U-0.440 R-2.10 U-0.440 R-2.10
Hot and Dry U-0.440 R-2.10 U-0.440 R-2.10
Warm and Humid U-0.440 R-2.10 U-0.440 R-2.10
Moderate U-0.440 R-2.10 U-0.440 R-2.10
Cold U-0.369 R-2.20 U-0.352 R-2.35

4.3.3 Vertical Fenestration

ECBC limits the area of vertical fenestration, under the prescriptive approach, to a maximum of 60% of the
gross wall area.
The ECBC addresses energy losses through fenestration by specifying the following requirements: maximum
U-factor (or thermal transmittance) and maximum SHGC, for the following window to wall ratio (WWR):
• WWR up to 40% and
• WWR in the range of more then 40% and up to 60%
Vertical fenestration should meet the requirements for maximum area weighted U-factor and maximum area
weighted SHGC.
The U-factor and SHGC requirements of the rated (labeled) fenestration for two WWR ranges for Code
compliance are given in Table 4.3 of ECBC (reproduced in Table 4.6.)
Table 4.6: Vertical Fenestration U-factor (W/m2·K) and SHGC Requirements (ECBC Table 4.3)
WWR≤40% 40% <WWR≤60%
Climate Maximum U-factor Maximum SHGC Maximum SHGC
Composite 3.30 0.25 0.20
Hot and Dry 3.30 0.25 0.20
Warm and Humid 3.30 0.25 0.20
Moderate 6.90 0.40 0.30
Cold 3.30 0.51 0.51

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For unrated windows, follow the values given in Table 4.7 (Table 11.1 of Appendix C of ECBC).
Table 4.7: Defaults for Unrated Vertical Fenestration (Overall Assembly including Sash and
Frame) - Table 11.1 of ECBC
Frame Type Glazing Type Clear Glass Tinted Glass
U-factor SHGC VLT U-Factor SHGC VLT
(W/m2· K) (W/m2· K)
All frame types Single Glazing 7.1 0.82 0.76 7.1 0.70 0.58

Wood, vinyl, or fiberglass frame Double Glazing 3.3 0.59 0.64 3.4 0.42 0.39

Metal and other frame type Double Glazing 5.1 0.68 0.66 5.1 0.50 0.40

Box 4-I: Energy-Efficient Fenestration Products/Assemblies

Windows are affected by many factors, which in turn affect the comfort and energy performance of buildings.
Understanding these factors is critical in designing buildings that meet the needs of building owners and users.
Once these factors are identified, a designer can then apply the appropriate technology to address them.
A fenestration product is comprised of three areas: the vision area, the glazing, and the opaque area or the
frame. In a window, glazing is generally 90-95% of the total area and therefore the most important part
to address for achieving energy efficiency. However, the frame becomes important to optimize the overall
energy efficiency of the window.
The energy efficiency of a fenestration product is affected by:
• Films which are applied to improve energy efficiency
• Low emissivity (low-e) coatings for energy-efficient windows
• Gas fill used in insulating glass units for energy-efficient windows
• Insulating glass units for energy-efficient windows
• Frame designs for energy-efficient windows
• Reducing the air leakage of windows to improve energy efficiency
• Number of layers of glass in the fenestration product.
The technology for producing energy-efficient windows relies heavily on the development of coatings for glass.
A low-e coating allows the visible light to pass through relatively unaffected whole rejecting invisible infrared
heat. For example, an emissivity of 0.10 means that 90% of the long heat radiation is reflected back.
There are a large number of glazing products that are available from different manufacturers complying with
the ECBC requirements for fenestrations.

Exception to ECBC §4.3.3: The SHGC requirement of a fenestration can be affected by overhangs on a
building, which reduce solar gains. ECBC uses a term called a projection factor to determine how well an
overhang shades the building’s glazing. The projection factor is calculated by measuring the distance from the
window to the farthest edge of the overhang and dividing that by the distance from the bottom of the window
to the lowest point of the overhang demonstrates how to calculate a projection factor.
Projection Factor = H (horizontal)/V (vertical)
ECBC provides a modified SHGC requirement where there are overhangs and/or side fins, which are a
permanent part of the building. This may be applied in determining the SHGC for the Proposed Design. An
adjusted SHGC, accounting for overhangs and/or sidefins, is calculated by multiplying the SHGC of the
unshaded fenestration product by a multiplication (M) factor. If this exception is applied, a separate M Factor
shall be determined for each orientation and unique shading condition.

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• PF= Ratio of overhang projection divided by height from window sill to bottom
of overhang (must be permanent)

• Solar Heat Gain Coefficient

• Requirements dependent on:
• Overhang projection factor
• M- Factor from Table 4.8
• Orientation
• Climate Zone
• Without Overhang: SHGC range 0.25-0.51 based on climate zone.

Figure 4.10: Projection Factor Calculation

ECBC Table 4.4 provides the values of M-factor for various projection factors.
Table 4.8: SHGC “M” Factor Adjustments for Overhangs and Fins (ECBC Table 4.4)
Overhang “M” Vertical Fin “M” Overhang +Fin
Factors for 4 Factors for 4 “M” Factors for 4
Projection Factors Projection Factors Projection Factors
Project Location Orientation 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00
- - - + - - - + - - - +
0.49 0.74 0.99 0.49 0.74 0.99 0.49 0.74 0.99
North latitude 15° N .88 .80 .76 .73 .74 .67 .58 .52 .64 .51 .39 .31
or greater E/W .79 .65 .56 .50 .80 .72 .65 .60 .60 .39 .24 .16
S .79 .64 .52 .43 .79 .69 .60 .56 .60 .33 .10 .02
Less than 15° N .83 .74 .69 .66 .73 .65 .57 .50 .59 .44 .32 .23
North latitude E/W .80 .67 .59 .53 .80 .72 .63 .58 .61 .41 .26 .16
S .78 .62 .55 .50 .74 .65 .57 .50 .53 .30 .12 .04

Example 4.2: Prescriptive Requirements for Fenestration

Location : Chandigarh
Climate Zone : Composite (Lat: 30° 42’ N; Long: 76° 54’ E)
Building Type : Daytime Use Building
Roof Area : 568 m2
Roof Insulation : Rigid Board 25 mm with R = 2.1 m2·K/W
Wall Area : 1130 m2
Wall Insulation : Rigid Board 25 mm with R = 1.41 m2·K/W
Total Fenestration Area: 508 m2
Window to Wall ratio : 508/1130 = 45%
East/West and South facing windows are all 1.82880m × 0.91440m with a 0.45720 m overhang and
represent 75% of the glazing on the building.
Projection Factor : H/V = 0.45720/1.82880 = 0.25
“M” factor : 0.79
(From ECBC Table 4.4, Projection Factor=0.25, E/W and S orientation for north latitude 15° or greater)
East/West and South facing glazing : 508 × 0.75 = 381 m2
East/West and South facing Fenestration : SHGC 0.20; U – factor 3.30
East/West and South Facing Fenestration: Skylight Area 10.8 m2

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Q: Does my building envelope comply Prescriptively with the ECBC?

A: To utilize the prescriptive requirements of ECBC, vertical fenestration is limited to 60% of the gross
wall area, so this building is allowed under this method.
ECBC Table 4.3 limits the SHGC value to a maximum of 0.20 for composite climate zone, however
an exception exists by use of an overhang. ECBC §4.3.3 allows for an “M” Factor, or multiplier. In
this case the M is 0.79.
Multiplying “M” times the SHGC [0.7900 × 0.20=0.1580] and thus complies with ECBC Table 4.3.
Exception to SHGC Requirements in §4.3.3: Vertical Fenestration areas located more than 2.2 m (7 ft) above the
level of the floor are exempt from the SHGC requirement in Table 4.3 if the following conditions are complied with:
a. Total Effective Aperture: The total Effective Aperture for the elevation is less than 0.25, including all
fenestration areas greater than 1.0 m (3 ft) above the floor level
b. An interior light shelf is provided at the bottom of this fenestration area, with an interior projection
factor not less than:
i. 1.0 for E-W, SE, SW, NE, and NW orientations
ii. 0.5 for S orientation, and
iii. 0.35 for N orientation when latitude is < 23
4.3.3.1 Minimum Visible Transmission of Glazing for Vertical Fenestration.
ECBC encourages the use of daylighting features in buildings. Box 4-J discusses how glazing affect the
daylighting. It also explains the concept of Visual Light Transmittance (VLT) and Effective Aperture (EA) of
Glazing.
As per the Code:
Vertical fenestration product shall have the minimum Visual Light Transmittance (VLT), defined as function
of Window Wall Ratio (WWR), where Effective Aperture > 0.1, equal to or greater than the Minimum VLT
requirements of Table 4.5 (of ECBC).

Table 4.9: Minimum VLT Requirements (ECBC Table 4.5)

Window Wall Ratio Minimum VLT

0 - 0.3 0.27
0.31-0.4 0.20
0.41-0.5 0.16
0.51-0.6 0.13

Box 4-J: Daylighting, Visual Light Transmittance and Effective Aperture

Visual Light Transmittance (also known as Visual Transmittance VT) is defined as the ratio of light that passes
through the glazing to the light passing through perfectly transmitting glazing. In other words it also refers
to the fraction of visible light transmitted through the glazing. VLT is concerned with the visible portion of
the solar spectrum (See Figure 4.11) as opposed to SHGC, which takes into account the entire solar radiation.
VLT affects energy consumption in building by providing daylight that creates the opportunity to reduce
electric lighting and its associated cooling loads. Glazing with low SHGC generally has a low VLT; however,
if the VLT is too low, the outside view from inside the building will be impaired. With lower VLT, the
daylighting in the interior may also reduce to a level that may require supplemental electrical lighting for some
occupants’ functions, or to make the environment productive and enjoyable to the occupants. Thus buildings
with lower window to wall ratios (WWR), may need higher VLT.

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Figure 4.11: Illustration to show U-factor, SHGC, and VLT

Effective Aperture of Glazing
In simple terms, as the area of an aperture/opening in the building envelope increases, the amount of daylight
received in the building space also increases. However the glazing material within that aperture can effectively
reduce the amount of visible light that enters the space. Therefore, aperture size alone is not an effective
determinant to measure illumination levels. If the glazing in an opening is a perfectly transparent material the
effective aperture size would be equal to the area of the opening (because the visible transmittance of the
glazing would be one). If however, the glazing has a VLT of 0.5, the opening will transmit only half of the
light striking it, and the effective aperture will be half of the actual size of the opening.
The Effective Aperture (EA) or light admitting potential of a glazing system is determined by multiplying the
Visible Light Transmittance of the glazing by the window-to-wall ratio of the building. The window to wall
ratio is the ratio of the net window area to the exterior wall area.
Effective Aperture: Visible Light Transmittance × Window-to-Wall Ratio (WWR). = VLT × WWR.
Example: Two cases with WWR =0.4, and WWR = 0.6 are discussed below.
Case 1 Case 2
WWR = 0.4 WWR = 0.6
VLT = 0.26 VLT = 0.15
EA = 0.104 (EA > 0.1) EA = 0.09 (EA < 0.1)
Glazing complies with ECBC Glazing does not comply with ECBC

4.3.4 Skylights
A skylight is a fenestration surface having a slope of less than 60 degrees from the horizontal plane. Other
fenestration, even if mounted on the roof of a building, is considered vertical fenestration.
Skylights can be installed into a roof system either flush-mounted or curb-mounted (including site built). In
order to create a positive water flow around them, skylights are often mounted on “curbs” set above the roof
plane. However, these curbs, rising 6 to 12 inches (15 to 30 centimeters) above the roof, create additional heat
loss surfaces right where the warmest air of the building tends to collect. Portions of roof that serve as curbs
that mount the skylight above the level of the roof (See below) are part of the opaque building envelope.

Figure 4.12: Skylight Installations

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As per the Code:

Skylights shall comply with the maximum U-factor and maximum SHGC requirements of Table 4.6. Skylight
area is limited to a maximum of 5% of the gross roof area for the prescriptive requirement.
Table 4.10: Skylight U-Factor and SHGC Requirements (ECBC Table 4.6)

Maximum U-factor Maximum SHGC

Climate With Curb w/o Curb 0-2% SRR 2.1-5% SRR
Composite 11.24 7.71 0.40 0.25
Hot and Dry 11.24 7.71 0.40 0.25
Warm and Humid 11.24 7.71 0.40 0.25
Moderate 11.24 7.71 0.61 0.4
Cold 11.24 7.71 0.61 0.4

SRR: Skylight roof ratio which is the ratio of the total skylight area of the roof, measured to the outside of
the frame, to the gross exterior roof. See §11.2.2 for typical complying skylight constructions.

Example 4.3: Prescriptive Requirements for Skylights

Location : Chennai
Climate Zone : Warm-Humid
Building Type : Daytime Use Building
Roof Area : 1,863 m2
Roof Insulation : Rigid Board 25 mm with R= 2.1 m2·°K/W
Wall Area : 3,706 m 2
Wall Insulation : Rigid Board 25 mm with R= 1.41 m 2·°K/W
Fenestration Area : 487 m2
Window to Wall ratio : 487/3706 = 13%
SHGC : 0.20
U–factor : 3.30
Skylight Area : 112 m2
Skylight to Roof Area : 112/1863= 6%
Q: Does my building envelope comply with the ECBC using the prescriptive path?
A: No, this building does not comply because the prescriptive approach limits skylights area to a
maximum of 5% of the roof area. This building would need to comply under the envelope trade off
option or the Whole Building Approach.
As with windows, the skylight-roof ratio must be calculated separately for each space category. The criteria for each
space category are determined from its own skylight-roof ratio, not the skylight-roof ratio for the whole building.
Box 4-K: Glazing Selection for ECBC Compliance
What is the most important feature that a building professional should look for regarding windows,
doors, and skylights?
The SHGC and U-factor ratings are the most important items to verify during inspections. Building
professionals should verify that the ratings of the installed windows, doors, and skylights meet or exceed the
ratings specified on the plans. It is also important to verify that the same window area has been installed as the
area shown on the plans and that the glass orientation on the plans and building are consistent.
What is Solar Heat Gain Coefficient?
The Solar Heat Gain Coefficient is a measure of the percentage of heat from the sun that gets through a
window or other fenestration product. The SHGC is expressed as a number between 0 and 1. The lower a
window’s SHGC, the less solar heat it transmits to the interior of the building. SHGC can also refer to shading
so the lower the SHGC the more effective the product is at shading the heat gain from entering the interior.

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What is low-e glass?

Low-e stands for low-emissivity and refers to a special coating that reduces the heat transfer of a window
assembly. Low-e coated products that reduce solar heat gain can be produced by adding a metallic coating
either while the glass is in a molten state or by applying to the glass after it has cooled to a solid state. Low-e
glass is readily available from all the glass and window manufacturers. The coatings typically add about 10%
to the cost of a window but costs vary by product type, by manufacturer, by retailer and by location.
What is spectrally selective glass?
The sun emits visible solar radiation in the form of light and infrared radiation that cannot be seen, but
causes heat. Spectrally selective glass transmits a high proportion of the visible solar radiation, but screens
out radiant heat from the sun – significantly reducing the need to cool a building’s interior. Spectrally selective
glass is used to describe low-e coated glass that lowers the SHGC.
How can I be sure I have spectrally selective glass?
The SHGC rating for the product is the key to determining whether you have glass with a spectrally selective
coating. In general, windows with a spectrally selective low-e coating will have SHGC ratings of 0.40 or lower.

4.4 Building Envelope Trade-Off Option

This is a systems-based approach, where the thermal performance of individual envelope components can be
reduced if compensated by higher efficiency in other building components (i.e., using higher wall insulation
could allow for a less stringent U-factor requirement for windows, or vice versa.) These trade-offs typically
occur within major building systems – roofs, walls, fenestration, overhangs etc.
This method offers the designer more flexibility than strictly following the prescribed values for individual
elements. The thermal performance of one envelope component such as the roof can fail to meet the
prescriptive requirements as long as other components perform better than what is required. Trade-offs
are permitted only between building envelope components. It is not possible, for instance, to make
trade-offs against improvements in the lighting or HVAC systems. However, this makes using the envelope
trade-off option more complicated than the prescriptive method. It is necessary to calculate the surface area
of each exterior and semi-exterior surface; all areas must also be calculated separately for each orientation.
The equations used for calculating envelope performance factor under envelope trade-offs are documented
in ECBC §12 Appendix D.

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