Power System Security:

Definitions and Analysis

 Power System Security
• Security is a term used to reflect a power system’s ability to meet
its load demand without unduly stressing its apparatus or
allowing network variables to stray from prescribed range.
Security is referred with respect to certain credible pre-specified
contingencies.
• Contingencies
– Power outages
– Network outages
• Types of Power System Security
– Line security or MW security
– Voltage security
Alternatively it is classified as ‘Static Security’ and ‘Dynamic Security’.
Dynamic security includes Stability as additional operating constraint.
 SYSTEM CONSTRAINTS :
• LOAD CONSTRAINTS (L)
- Real and Reactive power balance

• OPERATING CONSTRAINTS (O)

- Operating voltage limits, line loading limits, etc.

SYSTEM STATES :
( i ) THREE-STATE MODEL*
 NORMAL (L,O)
 EMERGENCY (L,Ō)
 RESTORATIVE (L,O)
*T.E. DyLiacco, “The Adaptive Reliability Control System”, IEEE Trans. On PAS, May 1967, pp.517-531.
( ii ) FIVE-STATE MODEL
by Fink & Carlsen (IEEE Spectrum 1978 ‘Operating Under Stress and Strain’)

Normal : Secure state

Alert : Insecure state (following any contingency)

Preventative controls ---- (Alert → Normal)

Emergency controls ---- (Emergency → Alert/Normal)
Restorative controls ---- (Restorative → Normal/Alert)
( Normal Controls : Load management, Voltage control,
Economic operation, etc. )

Contingencies: N-1, N-2 …..

 Figure : Power System Operating States

L,O
 Power System Security- Definition

A Power System Network, presently operating in

‘Normal State’ is said to be ‘Secure’ , if following
any credible contingency out of the next-
contingency list, it remains in normal state
satisfying all load and operating constraints.
If following any of the contingencies, the operating
limits are not completely satisfied ( system enters
into emergency state), the system is said to be
‘Insecure’.
Ref.: S.N. Talukdar and F.F. Wu, "Computer-aided
Dispatch f o r E l e c t r i c Power Systems," Proc.
o f the IEEE, Oct. 1981, pp. 1212-1231.
•The concept of security can be delineated into
 Security Monitoring that starts with the
measurement of real time system data to provide up-
to-date information of current state of the system.

 Security Assessment is the process whereby any

violation of operating limits are detected.
 Detection of actual operating state
 Contingency analysis

Security Control or Security Optimization is

concerned with selection of control action to prevent
violation or to minimize impact of contingencies.
 Security / Contingency Analysis
• It is performed into three(3) distinct stages:
– Contingency Definition: gives the list of contingencies
to be processed whose probability of occurrence is
high.
– Contingency Selection : employ an adaptive scheme to
select a set of important and critical contingencies. It
involves fast outage analyses for all the contingencies
and a ranking method.
– Contingency Evaluation/Analysis: AC power flows
are performed for the contingency cases in decreasing
order of severity.
 Contingency Selection

– It is carried out for quickly identifying those

contingencies, which may cause out of limit violations
so as to reduce the number of contingencies to be
analyzed with AC load flow.
– Two popularly used methods
• Ranking Methods or Indirect Methods
• Screening Methods or Direct methods
• Ranking Methods
– It involves the ranking of contingencies in approximate
order of severity.
 Ranking Method (contd.)
– Contingencies are ranked on the value of a scalar
performance index (PI).
– PIs are explicitly expressed in terms of network
variables and are not directly evaluated.
– It doesn’t require computation of post-outage
quantities.

PI = ∑ [ f i ( Z )]
Wi 2n

i 2n
where, Wi is the weight factor, 2n is exponent and f(z)
is linear function.
 Contingency Selection
• Screening Methods
– It uses approximate network solution and network
monitored quantities are calculated for each of the
outage cases, using the following methods.
• DC load flow ( For line security )
• Distribution factors method (For line & voltage security)
• Linearized AC load flow (For line & voltage security)
• One iteration of AC load flow (For line & voltage security)
• Local solution method, etc.
 Performance Indices
– Real Power Flow Performance Index

2n
Nl
wm  Plm 
PI = ∑  max 
m =1 2n  Plm 
where, Plm is the real power flow and Plmmax is the rated
capacity of line-m, n is the exponent and wm a real non-
negative weighting coefficient which may be used to
reflect the importance of the lines. Nl is the total
number of lines in the network.
– Voltage Performance Index
2n
wvi  Vi − Vsp 
Nb
PI = ∑ 
v

lim 
i =1 2n  ∆Vi 
where, Vi and Visp are the post-outage voltage
magnitude and rated voltage magnitude, respectively, at
bus-i. Nb is the total number of buses in the system and

Vi max − Vi min
∆Vi lim =
2
– Reactive Power Performance Index
2n
Nq
wqi  QGi − Q sp

PI = ∑
q
 Gi

i =1 2 n  ∆ Q lim
Gi 
where, QGi is the reactive power output of the source-i.
Nq is the total number of reactive power sources and

QGimax − QGimin
∆QGilim =
2

Q max
+ Q min
QGisp = Gi Gi
2
 D.C. Load Flow Method
Assumptions:
1. Line resistances and all shunts are neglected.
2. Transformer taps set at unity (nominal value).
3. Voltage magnitude at all the buses are 1 p.u..
4. Voltage angle difference between two buses connected directly is very small.
If a line between buses-i and j , having series reactance xij, carries real power Pij.

Pij = (1/ xij) . (δi- δj) … (1)

Where, δi & δj are the voltage angles at buses i & j, respectively.
The D.C. load flow solves the following equation to compute the angle vector [δ] for given
value of real power injection vector [P].
[δ] = [ XB] . [P] … (2)
Where, [ XB] = [BX]-1. The diagonal elements of [BX] matrix (BX)ii = ∑j (1/xij), and its off-
diagonal elements (BX)ij = -(1/xij).
Matrices [BX] & [ XB] are formed for all the buses except slack ( slack bus voltage angle
is assumed to be zero). The solution of DC load flow is non iterative and hence is
quite fast.
 Network Sensitivity or Distribution Factors Method
i) GENERATION SHIFT FACTORS:
Consider outage of a Gen.-i having pre-outage output as PGi0 and change in real
power flow of a line-l as ∆Fl. Assuming that the loss of generation is met by
the slack generator, the generation shift factors can be defined as,
ali = (∆Fl/ ∆Pi) where, ∆Pi = - PGi0 …. (3)
These factors are pre-calculated at a base case using DC load flow relations
and are used to find new line flows following generator outages as,
Flnew = Flold + ali . ∆Pi …. (4)

ii) LINE OUTAGE DISTRIBUTION FACTORS (LODF):

Consider outage of a line-k having pre-outage real power flow as Fk0 and
change in real power flow of a line-l as ∆Fl. The LODF can be defined as,
dlk = (∆Fl/ Fk0 i) …. (5)
These factors are also pre-calculated at a base case using DC load flow
relations and are used to find new line flows following line outages as,
Flnew = Flold + dlk . Fk0 …. (6)
A 3-BUS EXAMPLE OF CONTINGENCY SELECTION

(Ref. Book on ‘Power Generation, operation & Control” by Wood & Wollenberg)

1
65MW 2
Line-1, x12=0.2,Pmax=100MW
G 100 MW
δ1 P12
P13 δ2
Line-2, x32=0.25,Pmax=50MW
P32
Line-3, x13=0.4,Pmax=50MW

1/x12 = 5 p.u. G
1/x32 = 4 p.u.
1/x13 = 2.5 p.u. 3 Slack bus δ3=0
 Base Case Solution using D.C. load flow

7.5 -5 0.2118 0.1176

[BX] = [XB] = [BX]-1 =
-5 9 0.1176 0.1765

δ1 0.2118 0.1176 0.65 0.02

= . = rad.
δ2 0.1176 0.1765 -1.0 -0.1

Line flows
P12 = 5.(0.02 + 0.1) = 0.6 p.u. = 60 MW
P32 = 4.(0.02 - 0.0) = 0.4 p.u. = 40 MW
P13 =2.5.(0.0 + 0.1) = 0.05 p.u. = 5 MW
 OUTAGE CASES ( Outage Analysis & P.I. Calculation)
Generator-1 Outage

δ1 0.2118 0.1176 0.0 -0.1176

= . = rad.
δ2 0.1176 0.1765 -1.0 -0.1765

Line flows
P12 = - P13 = 0.294 p.u. = 29.4 MW & P32 = 0.7064 p.u. = 70.6 MW
Assuming that the weighing factors for all the lines are same and are unity.
(P.I.)G-1 = ½ [ (29.4/100)2 + (70.6/50)2 + (-29.4/50)2 ] ≈ 1.66 p.u.

Line-1 Outage

Line flows ( one can calculate using DCLF with new BX & XB matrices )
P12 = 0 MW P32 = 100 MW & P13 = 65 MW
(P.I.) L-1 = ½ [ (0.0/100)2 + (100/50)2 + (65/50)2 ] ≈ 2.85 p.u.
Line-2 Outage

Line flows : P12 = 100 MW P32 = 0 MW & P13 = -35 MW

(P.I.) L-2 = ½ [ (100/100)2 + (0.0/50)2 + (-35/50)2 ] ≈ 0.745 p.u.

Line-3 Outage

Line flows : P12 = 65 MW P32 = 35 MW & P13 = 0 MW

(P.I.) L-2 = ½ [ (65/100)2 + (35/50)2 + (0/50)2 ] ≈ 0.406 p.u.

RANKING TABLE:

Contingency cases in descending order of severity

Line-1 outage is the most severe and Line-
Line-1 Outage 3 outage is the least severe. The Conti-
Generator-1 outage ngency analysis using full AC load Flow
will be carried out starting from line-1
Line-2 Outage outage and will stop when a contingency
Line-3 Outage does not cause any violation.