CODE OF PRACTICE FOR THE PREVENTION AND REDUCTION OF

MYCOTOXIN CONTAMINATION IN CEREALS

CXC 51-2003

Adopted in 2003.
Amended in 2014, 2017. Revised in 2016.
 CXC 51-2003 2

INTRODUCTION
1. Toxigenic fungi are prevalent in regions in climatic zones which allow for small and large scale cereal grain
production. Although the species and strains may differ among grain-producing regions, these fungi are
present in soils, in wild host plant species, in the residues of cultivated crops and stored grains and in the dust
in drying and/or storage facilities. The fungi are associated with both pre-harvest and postharvest mycotoxin
contamination in cereals.
2. The severity of pre-harvest fungal propagation is highly dependent upon weather conditions varying greatly
from year to year in grain-producing regions. The severity of pre-harvest infection and propagation of toxigenic
fungi can also vary with the degree of damage caused by insects and other non-toxigenic fungi. Because of
these factors, mycotoxin concentrations observed in grains at harvest vary widely from year to year. Reliable
prevention of pre-harvest fungal infection has been proven to be elusive, even with application of good
agricultural practices (GAP) and commercially available fungicides. Cereal breeding has resulted in only
modest gains in genetic resistance to the Fusarium ear blight (Fusarium head blight) of cereals in cultivars
with acceptable quality, yield and tolerance to other important cereal diseases.
3. The severity of post-harvest fungal infection and propagation during prolonged periods of grain storage can
be managed more predictably through GAP and good manufacturing practices (GMP) that ensure that
moisture levels in stored grain remain below levels that are conducive to germination of spores of common
post-harvest fungal species specific to the environmental conditions present in the region. However, research
has confirmed that spores of such species are ubiquitous in soils, equipment, and storage structures despite
diligent cleaning. Consequently, germination of the spores of the mycotoxigenic species can occur within
certain temperature ranges if even a small amount of stored grain develops elevated moisture levels from
exposure to precipitation or insect infestation. The size and design of large grain storage structures and the
limited access to technology often make precise monitoring of moisture and temperature in stored grain
extremely difficult or otherwise impractical.
4. Risk of post-harvest fungal infection and production of mycotoxins in stored grain increases with the duration
of storage. However, long term storage, generally throughout an entire crop year or for even longer periods,
may be required depending on the grain needs of the specific production region where the commodity is being
stored. This may be due to reasons of food security and the continuous input into storage of necessary cereal
grains for direct consumption, processing and/or animal feed.
5. The complete prevention of dissemination by pre-harvest and post-harvest toxigenic fungal species is not
practically achievable, even when GAP and GMP are followed. Therefore, the intermittent presence of certain
mycotoxins in cereal grains destined for human food and animal feed use is to be expected. Thus diligent
monitoring of cereal grains in the field and during storage for indications of the various conditions that promote
fungal contamination and mycotoxin accumulation is imperative to determine disposition of the commodity.
6. This Code of Practice provides current and relevant information for all countries to consider in their efforts to
prevent and reduce mycotoxin contamination in cereal grains, grain-derived foods and animal feeds. In order
for this Code of Practice to be effective, it will be necessary for national authorities, producers, marketers, and
processors in each country to consider the general principles and examples of GAP and GMP provided in the
Code, taking into account their local crops, climate, and agronomic practices to enable and facilitate adoption
of these practices where relevant and feasible. This Code of Practice is expected to apply to all cereal grains
and cereal products relevant to human dietary intake and health as well as international trade.
7. It is important for grain producers to realise that GAP, including postharvest, storage, handling procedures,
represent the primary line of defence against contamination of cereals with mycotoxins, followed by the
implementation of GMP during the handling, storage, processing and distribution of cereals for food and animal
feed. Processing industries also have a role to implement GMP where required, mainly during grain sorting,
cleaning and processing.
8. Cereal grain producers should be trained to follow GAP and maintain a close relationship with agricultural
advisors, extension services and national authorities to obtain information and advice regarding the choice of
appropriate cereal grain cultivars and plant protection products suitable for use in their respective production
regions so as to reduce incidence and levels of mycotoxins.
9. This Code of Practice contains general principles for the reduction of various mycotoxins in cereals. For the
education of producers, handlers and processors, and providing information on testing to relevant parties, the
following should be observed:
 CXC 51-2003 3

(a) National authorities and/or other organisations should educate producers regarding the environmental
factors that favour infection and growth of toxigenic fungi, and mycotoxin production in cereal crops at
the farm level. Emphasis should be placed on the fact that the planting, pre-harvest and postharvest
strategies for a particular crop will depend on the climatic conditions of that particular region and year,
taking into account the local crops, and traditional production methods for that particular country or
region. National authorities should support scientific research on methods and techniques to prevent
fungal growth in the field and during harvest and storage.
(b) In order to avoid undue disruption of grain shipment operations, validated analytical methods and
associated sampling plans should be utilised by producers/handlers/processors to quickly determine
mycotoxin levels. The proper implementation of sampling plans and use of any such analytical
methods or tools are critical to their provision of accurate information and data. This will require
adequate resources and training to ensure that sampling plans are followed and test procedures can
be properly performed. Procedures should be in place to properly handle, through segregation,
reconditioning, recall or diversion, cereal crops that may pose a threat to human and/or animal health.
10. This Code for the prevention and reduction of mycotoxins in cereal grains and grain-derived foods and feeds
recommends practices based on GAP and GMP and are generally consistent with Hazard Analysis Critical
Control Points (HACCP) principles which are incorporated into current food safety practices and certification
schemes now in global use in production, storage, handling, transportation, processing, distribution and trade.
The implementation of HACCP principles will minimise mycotoxin contamination through applications of
preventive control measures to the extent feasible, mainly during storage and processing of cereals.
I. RECOMMENDED PRACTICES BASED ON GOOD AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES (GAP) AND GOOD
MANUFACTURING PRACTICES (GMP)
PLANTING AND CROP ROTATION
11. Consider developing and maintaining an appropriate crop rotation/sequence schedule to avoid planting the
same crop in the same field, for two consecutive seasons. This can help to reduce the inoculum in the field
which may originate from debris remaining after harvest that harbours toxigenic fungal spores. Some crops
have been found to be particularly susceptible to certain species of toxigenic fungi and the use in rotation with
each other should be evaluated. Table 1 shows the most susceptible crops to toxigenic fungi and the
mycotoxins that can be produced. Some of these crops are infected after harvest and the resulting seeds can
carry toxigenic fungal spores. Crops of low susceptibility to toxigenic fungi such as clover, alfalfa and other
legumes can be used in rotation to reduce the inocula in the field. Wheat and maize have been found to be
particularly susceptible to Fusarium species and they should not be used at very close positions in rotation
with each other, if possible. When used in the same rotation, inclusion of soybeans, oilseeds, pulses and
forage crops may reduce the incidence and severity of pre-harvest infection.
Table 1. Susceptible rotation crops to toxigenic fungi associated with production of mycotoxins
(not exhaustive)

Crops Fungi Potential of Mycotoxins

Aspergillus flavus
A. parasiticus
Peanuts Aflatoxins
A. nomius
And other related species
A. flavus
A. parasiticus Aflatoxins
and other related species
Fusarium graminearum
deoxynivalenol,nivalenol, zearalenone
Maize F. culmorum
F.verticillioides
F. proliferatum
fumonisins

Fusarium graminearum deoxynivalenol,nivalenol, zearalenone and

Fusarium spp. diacetoxyscirpenol
Sorghum
alternariol, alternariol methyl ether,
Alternaria spp.
tenuazonic acid and altenuene
 CXC 51-2003 4

Crops Fungi Potential of Mycotoxins

F. verticillioides
fumonisins
F. proliferatum
A. flavus
A. parasiticus Aflatoxins
A. section Flavi
P. verrucosum
A. ochraceus and related species
ochratoxin A
A. carbonarius
A. niger
Claviceps purpurea
C. Africana ergot alkaloids
C. sorghi and related species
A. versicolor sterigmatocystin
alternariol, alternariol methyl ether,
Alternaria spp.
tenuazonic acid
Wheat F. graminearum
F. culmorum deoxynivalenol,nivalenol, zearalenone
F. asiaticum
F. graminearum
Barley F. culmorum deoxynivalenol,nivalenol, zearalenone
F. asiaticum
F. graminearum
deoxynivalenol,nivalenol, zearalenone, T-2
Oats F. culmorum
and HT-2 toxin
F. langsethii
F. graminearum
Rye deoxynivalenol, ergot alkaloids
Claviceps purpurea
A. flavus
Cotton Aflatoxins
A. parasticus
Millet F. graminearum Deoxynivalenol
Triticale F. graminearum Deoxynivalenol
TILLAGE AND PREPARATION FOR SEEDING (PLANTING)
12. When possible and practical, use toxigenic fungi free certified seeds and prepare the seed bed for each new
crop by plowing under or by destroying or removing old seed heads, stalks, and other debris that may have
served, or may potentially serve as substrates for the growth of mycotoxin producing fungi. However, tilling
may not be appropriate with respect to other economic and environmental benefits, such as moisture
conservation, maintenance of soil organic matter, reduced erosion, and lower fuel and water use, hence its
costs and benefits should be considered prior to application.
13. Utilise the results of soil tests to determine if there is a need to apply fertilizer and/or soil conditioners to assure
adequate soil pH and plant nutrition to avoid plant stress, especially during seed development stage of crop
growth.
14. When available, grow varieties (cultivars) that were developed and selected for their traits of providing at least
partial resistance to both non-toxigenic and toxigenic fungi and insect pests and for lower mycotoxin
accumulation. It is important to plant only those varieties recommended for use in a particular area of a country
by virtue of their specific physiological and agronomic traits.
15. As far as practical, crop planting should be timed to avoid high temperature and drought stress during the
period of seed development and maturation. Predictive models, when available, could be used as a tool to
plan for the best planting period.
16. Ensure appropriate density of planting by maintaining the recommended row and intra- plant spacing for the
species/varieties grown. Information concerning plant- spacing may be provided by seed companies, national
authorities or extension services.
 CXC 51-2003 5

PRE-HARVEST
17. Where possible, minimise insect damage and fungal infection in the vicinity of the crop by proper use of
approved pesticides and other appropriate practices within an integrated pest management programme.
Predictive weather models could be used to plan the best application timing and mode of pesticide application.
18. As certain weed species can act as hosts for toxigenic fungi that can increase plant stress due to competition
of weed species during crop development, it is important to control weeds in the crop by using mechanical
methods, registered herbicides or other safe and suitable weed eradication practices utilising an integrated
pest management programme.
19. Minimise mechanical damage to plants during cultivation, irrigation and pest management practices. Minimise
lodging of plants to prevent contact of the aerial parts of the plants with soil, particularly at the flowering stage
of the crop. Soil and soil water are sources of inoculum (spores) of toxigenic fungal species.
20. If irrigation is used, ensure that it is applied evenly and that all plants in the field have an adequate supply of
water. Irrigation is a valuable method of reducing plant stress in some growing situations. Excess precipitation
during anthesis (flowering) makes conditions favourable for dissemination and infection by Fusarium spp.; thus
irrigation during anthesis and during the ripening of the crops, specifically wheat, barley, and rye, should be
avoided.
21. Plan to harvest grain at low moisture content and full maturity, unless allowing the crop to continue to full
maturity would subject it to extreme heat, rainfall or drought conditions. Delayed harvest of grain already
infected by Fusarium species may cause an increase in the mycotoxin content of the crop. Models could be
used to predict the mycotoxin production based on environmental conditions, such as climate conditions and
agricultural production conditions, being a guide to timely monitoring and surveying of mycotoxin levels.
22. If mechanical drying equipment is available, earlier harvest may be helpful in limiting mycotoxin production
during the final stages of crop maturation. It is important to use proper drying techniques in order to avoid
contamination by contaminants generated by improper drying techniques such as polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAH)1 and dioxins2.
23. Before harvest ensure that all equipment, to be used for harvesting, drying, cleaning and storage of crops, is
in a good working order and cleaned of crop residues, grain and dust as much as possible. A breakdown of
equipment during this critical period may cause grain quality losses and enhance mycotoxin formation. Keep
important spare parts available on the farm to minimise time loss from repairs. Make sure that the equipment
needed for moisture content measurements is available and calibrated.
HARVEST
24. Containers and conveyances (e.g. wagons, trucks) to be used for collecting and transporting the harvested
grain from the field to drying facilities, and to storage facilities after drying, should be clean, dry and free of
crop residues, old grain, grain dust, insects and visible fungal growth before use and re-use.
25. Methods of harvest and equipment used vary widely among grain-producing countries. Cutting of grain into
swaths prior to combining or threshing by other means can contribute to contact with the soil and exposure to
fungal spores. As far as possible, avoid mechanical damage to the grain and avoid contact with soil during the
harvesting operation. Steps should be taken to minimise the spread of infected seed heads, chaff, stalks, and
debris (crop residues) onto the ground where spores and other fungal structures may survive and serve as
inocula for future crops. Mechanised harvest methods such as the use of combines result in large amounts of
the crop residue being left in the field. Where crop rotation/ sequence and related tillage practices permit, it is
preferable to incorporate this crop residue into the soil by ploughing or cultivation by other means.
26. During harvesting operation, the moisture content should be determined in several spots of each load of the
harvested grain since the moisture content may vary considerably within the same field. As far as possible,
avoid harvesting grain with high moisture content due to precipitation or morning dew or during late afternoon
as it takes a longer time to dry. If possible, when pre-harvest monitoring or surveying of grain shows a field as
having a higher Fusarium infection rate, harvest and store grain from such field(s) separately from those fields
with a lower infection rate.
27. Harvested grain that has not been dried to a safe storage moisture level should not be stored or transported
in bins, wagons or trucks for prolonged periods of time. Transit time for movement from field to drying facility
should be minimised unless the grain is already at acceptable storage moisture levels before harvest. When

1 Code of Practice for the Reduction of Contamination of Food with Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH) from
Smoking and Direct Drying Processes (CXC 68-2009)
2 Code of Practice for the Prevention and Reduction of Dioxin and Dioxin-like PCB Contamination in Food and Feeds
(CXC 62-2006)
 CXC 51-2003 6

necessary it is recommended that the trucks and containers be opened, to increase aeration and minimise the
condensation effects.
DRYING AND CLEANING BEFORE STORAGE
28. Avoid piling, heaping, or bin storage of high-moisture, freshly harvested commodities for more than a few hours
prior to drying or threshing to lessen the risk of fungal growth. If it is not possible to dry the commodities
immediately, aerate them by forced air circulation.
29. When necessary pre-cleaning before drying can be carried out to remove large amounts of straw or other plant
material that can carry mould or mould spores. Winnowing and sorting methods can be utilised to clean the
grain. If cleaning equipment is available, it is advantageous to mechanically clean grain to remove foreign
material, seeds of other plant species, and crop residues prior to transfer to storage structures. However it is
important that the grain is not damaged during the procedure.
30. It is very important to ensure that moisture levels in harvested grains are low enough to permit safe storage
for even relatively short periods of time ranging from a few days to a few months. A maximum level of 15%
moisture is generally considered to be low enough to prevent further growth of pre-harvest toxigenic fungi and
germination of spores of fungi that typically infect grain and produce mycotoxins during storage, such as
Penicillium.
31. Freshly harvested cereals should be dried immediately in such a manner that damage to the grain is minimised
and moisture levels are lower than those needed for fungal growth during storage. It is preferable to reduce
grain moisture content to an acceptable level prior to transfer to storage bins and other storage structures. If it
is not possible to dry the commodities immediately, aerate them by forced air circulation and keep the period
before drying as short as possible. Mechanical drying is preferred. Flat bed and re-circulating batch driers are
adequate for small scale operations while using a continuous flow-dryer is preferred for large scale drying prior
to long storage periods. Grains should not be excessively dried or subjected to excessively high drying
temperatures in order to preserve nutritional quality and suitability for milling or other processing. The use of
good drying practices is essential to avoid contaminants generated by the process. Avoid accumulating too
much grain in the pre-drier storage or “wet tank”, especially when field conditions are warm. Store grains only
enough that can be easily dried in a suitable time period.
32. If mechanical means of drying are not available, sun and open air drying should be done on clean surfaces; to
the extent possible. Grains should be protected from rain, dew, soil, pests, bird droppings and other sources
of contamination during this process. For more even and faster drying, mix or stir grains frequently in thin
layers.
33. After drying, cereal grain should be cleaned to remove damaged and immature kernels and other foreign
matter. Kernels containing symptomless infections cannot be removed by standard cleaning methods. Seed
cleaning procedures, such as gravity tables and optical sorting, may remove broken kernels that are
susceptible to infection.
STORAGE AFTER DRYING AND CLEANING
34. It is important that bins, silos, sheds and other buildings intended for grain storage are dry, well-vented
structures that provide protection from rain, snow, ground water, moisture condensation, and the entry of
rodents, birds and insects that cannot only contaminate grain, but damage grain kernels to render them more
susceptible to mould infection. Ideally, storage structures should be designed so as to minimise wide
fluctuations in the temperature of the stored grain.
35. Storage facilities should be cleaned prior to receiving grain to remove dust, fungal spores, grain, crop residues,
animal and insect excreta, soil, insects, foreign material such as stones, metal and broken glass, and other
source of contamination.
36. For bagged commodities, ensure that bags are clean, dry and stacked on pallets or incorporate a water
impermeable layer between the bags and the floor. The bags should facilitate aeration and be made of non-
toxic food-grade materials that do not attract insects or rodents and are sufficiently strong to resist storage for
longer periods.
 CXC 51-2003 7

37. Determine moisture content of the lot, and if necessary, dry the crop to the moisture content recommended for
storage. Fungal growth in grain is closely related with water activity (aw), commonly defined in foods as the
water that is not bound to food molecules (such as milled grain products) that can support the growth of
bacteria, yeasts, and fungi. Although the appropriate moisture content for fungal growth on various grains is
different, the maximum aw to avoid fungal growth is basically the same. It is recognised that fungal growth is
inhibited at aw of less than 0.70. The appropriate level of moisture content of grain should be determined
based on cereal variety, kernel size, grain quality, storage period and storage condition (e.g. temperature). In
addition, safe storage guidance may be provided to reflect the environmental situation in each region. Table 2
shows values of moisture content in relation to different water activities at 25ºC for some cereals.
Table 2. Values of grain moisture content in relation to water activities at 25ºC for some cereals.

Cereal Moisture content (%) at various water activities

0.60 0.65 0.70 0.75
Rice 13.2 13.8 14.2 15.0
Oat 11.2 12.2 13.0 14.0
Rye 12.2 12.8 13.6 14.6
Barley 12.2 13.0 14.0 15.0
Maize 12.8 13.4 14.2 15.2
Sorghum 12.0 13.0 13.8 14.8
Wheat 13.0 13.6 14.6 15.8

38. Ongoing monitoring of the condition of stored grain is essential to ensure the grain is kept at acceptable
temperature and moisture levels and substantially free of rodents, and stored product pests such as grain
beetles, weevils and mites. Significant fluctuations in grain temperature and increases in grain moisture can
provide favourable conditions for mould growth and production of mycotoxins. Physical damage to grain
kernels during storage caused by rodents and pests, such as insects and mites, can also contribute to
increases in mould growth. The mycotoxin level in inbound and outbound grain should also be measured when
relevant, using adequate sampling and testing programs that is appropriate to the mycotoxin monitoring
system.
39. To more effectively monitor the condition of stored grain, it is advisable, if possible, to measure the temperature
and humidity of the storage facilities and the stored grain at regular time intervals during storage. A grain
temperature rise of 2-3°C may indicate microbial growth and/or insect infestation. If the temperature or
moisture becomes unacceptably high, where possible, aerate the grain by circulation of air through the storage
area to maintain proper and uniform temperature levels. Aeration should be conducted, if possible, during
periods of low ambient relative humidity of air being forced through the mass of stored grain. Aeration during
periods of high relative humidity can actually increase condensation and aw in stored grain whose temperature
is below ambient air temperature. Grain can also be transferred from one storage container to another to
promote aeration and disruption of potential hot spots during storage. If grain spoilage or mould growth in grain
is observed, separate the apparently infected portions of the grain and collect samples for mycotoxin analyses,
using appropriate sampling plans. When spoiled grain is removed, it is extremely important to minimise the
mixing of the spoiled grain with the remaining portion of grain that appears to be in good condition. Small
quantities of highly contaminated grain can greatly increase mycotoxin levels in grain that is otherwise in good
condition. After spoiled grain has been removed, it may be necessary to aerate the remaining grain to lower
the temperature and the moisture to acceptable levels.
40. For cold climate countries, it is important to note that reduction of grain temperature below 15o C that can
occur during colder months of temperate grain-producing regions will contribute to safe storage and prevention
of mould growth and mycotoxin production. Extremely cold temperatures will also inhibit insect growth and
reproduction, reducing the risk of insect damage, which can facilitate mould growth.
41. Use good housekeeping procedures to minimise the levels of rodent pests, insects and fungi in storage
facilities. This may include the use of suitable, registered insecticides and fungicides or appropriate alternative
methods within an integrated pest management programme. Care should be taken to select and use only
those pest control products that will not create a safety concern based on the intended end use of the grains
and the maximum levels of pesticide residue dictated by regulation or buyer specifications. Since rodent pests
can damage the crop during storage, the storage facility must be kept free of rodents such as rats and mice to
the extent possible.
 CXC 51-2003 8

42. The use of a suitable, approved preservative (e.g. organic acids such as propionic acid) may be beneficial.
These acids are effective in killing various fungi and thus prevent the production of mycotoxins in grains
intended only for animal feed. The salts of the acids are usually more effective for long-term storage. Care
must be taken because these compounds can negatively affect the taste and odour of the grain.
43. Document the harvesting, drying, cleaning and storage procedures implemented each season by making notes
of measurements (e.g. temperature, moisture, and humidity) and any deviation or changes from traditional
practices. This information may be very useful for explaining the cause(s) of fungal growth and mycotoxin
formation during a particular crop year and help to avoid similar occurrences in the future. Management
measures taken by making use of validated predictive models, when available, could be used to control fungal
growth and mycotoxin production during these procedures.
TRANSPORT FROM STORAGE
44. Transport containers, vehicles such as trucks and railway cars and vessels (boats and ships) should be dry
and free of old grain, grain dust, visible fungal growth, musty odour, insects and any contaminated material
that could contribute to mycotoxin levels in lots and cargoes of grain. As necessary, transport containers should
be cleaned and disinfected with appropriate substances (which should not cause off-odours, flavour or
contaminate the grain) before use and re-use and be suitable for the intended cargo. The use of registered
fumigants or insecticides may be useful. At unloading, the transport container should be emptied of all cargo
and cleaned as appropriate.
45. Shipments of grain should be protected from additional moisture by using covered or airtight containers or
tarpaulins. Minimise temperature fluctuations and measures that may cause condensation to form on the grain,
which could lead to local moisture build-up and consequent fungal growth and mycotoxin formation.
46. Avoid insect, bird and rodent infestation during transport by the use of insect-and rodent proof containers or
insect and rodent repellent chemical treatments if they are approved for the intended end use of the grain.
PROCESSING AND CLEANING AFTER STORAGE
47. Sorting and cleaning are effective processes to remove contaminated grains and reduce mycotoxin content in
cereals. Visibly mouldy infected and/or damaged kernels should be discarded in order to prevent their entry
into the food and livestock feed supply chains. This is particularly important if the grain is intended for direct
human consumption rather than industrial processing.
48. Analytical testing can be used as a tool to monitor mycotoxin concentrations throughout the cereal grain supply
chain. It is important that sampling plans and analytical testing are properly implemented in order to provide
accurate and representative results. In some cases, simple screening tests are commercially available for
certain mycotoxins, such as DON; however, the proper implementation of sampling plans and use of any such
tests or tools is critical to their provision of accurate information and data. This will require commitment of
adequate resources and training so that sampling plans and test procedures can be properly performed. It is
important that the cereal grains removed from storage for transport are tested at loading or unloading for
mycotoxin concentrations before going into storage at grain processing facilities, especially when the risk of
mycotoxin contamination is high as a consequence of unfavourable conditions during grain production and
harvest. Lots containing higher levels of mycotoxins should undergo extensive cleaning and processing that
significantly decreases mycotoxins to acceptable levels in order to guarantee a safe product to consumers.
49. Brushing, scouring and peeling to remove hulls and bran layers of the grain can significantly reduce mycotoxin
content in milling fractions derived from the endosperm (i.e. flour) as the outer parts of the kernel of most cereal
grains typically contains higher mycotoxin levels or adhering contaminated dust. Such redistribution of the
mycotoxins present in unprocessed grains can result in unacceptably high levels of mycotoxins in other
fractions (e.g. bran) and products that contain such fractions. Where these fractions are to be used for food
use rather than being discarded, it is also important to monitor mycotoxin levels to ensure food safety in the
products as consumed. Caution and proper procedures should be followed when using such removed fractions
as animal feed.
50. Industrial dry milling of grain to produce whole grain products containing all portions of the unprocessed kernels
in their naturally occurring relative proportions will not reduce mycotoxin levels from those observed in the
unprocessed grain. Dry milling processes that segregate some or all of the hull and bran layers of the grain
can significantly reduce the mycotoxin content of milled products derived from grain endosperm (inner portions
of kernels) used as food ingredients to levels below those present in the unprocessed grain. Wet milling of
maize grain isolates most mycotoxins from the starch fraction used as food ingredients.
 CXC 51-2003 9

51. Milled grain products that are stored for long periods of time are also susceptible to mould growth and
increased mycotoxin levels imparted by the mould species Therefore, it is important to avoid storing flour and
other milled grain products for long periods of time, but if it is unavoidable, then the products should be stored
in proper storage containers and safe moisture levels should be maintained with minimum temperature
changes. Such containers must deter insect and rodent infestation and should be subject to integrated pest
control measures.
52. For grain products and grain-derived foods that pass through a fermentation step, poorly preserved starter
cultures can be significant sources of mycotoxin contamination. The starter cultures should be maintained
pure, viable and sealed to prevent water access and other contamination.
53. The beer steeping process (soaking and germination phases) raises the seed moisture level to about 45%
which is favourable for fungal growth and mycotoxin production. The situation is problematic if the process is
done under open, poor sanitary conditions. Therefore, steeping should be carried out in weatherproof
containers under controlled atmosphere.
54. All grain processing activities should follow good hygiene practices and HACCP-based GMP.
 CXC 51-2003 10

ANNEX 1
PREVENTION AND REDUCTION OF CONTAMINATION BY ZEARALENONE IN CEREAL GRAINS
RECOMMENDED PRACTICES BASED ON GOOD AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES (GAP)
AND GOOD MANUFACTURING PRACTICES (GMP)
1. Good Agricultural Practices and Good Manufacturing Practices include methods to reduce Fusarium infection
(mainly F. graminearum and F. culmorum) and zearalenone (ZEN) production in cereals during the crop growth
and development, harvest, storage, transport and processing. However, ZEN occurs primarily due to pre-
harvest infection of maize, wheat and barley with the relevant Fusarium spp.
PLANTING AND CROP ROTATION
2. Refer to paragraph 11 in the general Code of Practice.
TILLAGE AND PREPARATION FOR SEEDING (PLANTING)
3. Refer to paragraphs 12-16 in the general Code of Practice.
PRE-HARVEST
4. Refer to paragraphs 17-23 in the general Code of Practice.
5. The establishment of toxigenic Fusarium infection in cereal heads during flowering may need to be monitored
before harvest by inspection, sampling and determination of infection by standard microbiological methods.
Also, mycotoxin content in representative pre-harvest samples may need to be determined. Utilisation of the
crop should be based on prevalence of infection and mycotoxin content of the grain.
6. ZEN risk in wheat increases with pre-harvest rainfall especially if harvest is then delayed. Predictive modelling
for risk of Fusarium infection may be useful to plan to harvest grain before wet weather conditions prevailIn
parallel with predictive modelling for risk of Fusarium infection weather forecast may be used for planning the
harvest.
HARVEST
7. Refer to paragraphs 24-27 in the general Code of Practice.
DRYING AND CLEANING BEFORE STORAGE
8. Refer to paragraphs 28-33 in the general Code of Practice.
STORAGE AFTER DRYING AND CLEANING
9. Refer to paragraphs 34-43 in the general Code of Practice.
TRANSPORT FROM STORAGE
10. Refer to paragraphs 44-46 in the general Code of Practice.
PROCESSING AND CLEANING AFTER STORAGE
11. Refer to paragraphs 47-54 in the general Code of Practice.
12. Wet milling of wheat and maize can result in significant reduction of ZEN levels in starch fractions intended for
food use. However, ZEN is in effect redistributed to the by-products of starch, gluten and sweetener production
that are typically used for animal feed.
 CXC 51-2003 11

ANNEX 2
PREVENTION AND REDUCTION OF CONTAMINATION BY FUMONISINS IN CEREAL GRAINS
RECOMMENDED PRACTICES BASED ON GOOD AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES (GAP)
AND GOOD MANUFACTURING PRACTICES (GMP)
1. Good Agricultural Practices and Good Manufacturing Practices include methods to reduce Fusarium infection
(mainly F. verticillioides and F. proliferatum) and fumonisin contamination of cereals during the crop growth
and development, harvest, storage, transport and processing.
PLANTING AND CROP ROTATION
2. Refer to paragraph 11 in the general Code of Practice.
TILLAGE AND PREPARATION FOR SEEDING (PLANTING)
3. Refer to paragraphs 12-16 in the general Code of Practice.
PRE-HARVEST
4. Refer to paragraphs 17-23 in the general Code of Practice.
HARVEST
5. Refer to paragraphs 24-27 in the general Code of Practice.
6. The time of harvest for maize should be carefully planned. It has been shown that maize grown and harvested
during warm months may have fumonisin levels significantly higher than maize grown and harvested during
cooler months of the year. Predictive models developed for the risk of Fusarium infection may be used for
planning the best harvest time.
DRYING AND CLEANING BEFORE STORAGE
7. Refer to paragraphs 28-33 in the general Code of Practice.
STORAGE AFTER DRYING AND CLEANING
8. Refer to paragraphs 34-43 in the general Code of Practice.
TRANSPORT FROM STORAGE
9. Refer to paragraphs 44-46 in the general Code of Practice.
PROCESSING AND CLEANING AFTER STORAGE
10. Refer to paragraphs 47-54 in the general Code of Practice.
11. Nixtamalization is a process that involves boiling and soaking maize in a solution of calcium hydroxide to
remove the hull. This process may reduce fumonisin levels in the treated maize as well as in the masa flour
used in making corn tortillas, tamales, pupusas and other masa derived products.
12. Extrusion of maize may decrease fumonisin levels, however part of it is bound to proteins, sugars or other
compounds in food matrices.
 CXC 51-2003 12

ANNEX 3
PREVENTION AND REDUCTION OF CONTAMINATION BY OCHRATOXIN A IN CEREAL GRAINS
RECOMMENDED PRACTICES BASED ON GOOD AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES (GAP)
AND GOOD MANUFACTURING PRACTICES (GMP)
1. Good Agricultural Practices and Good Manufacturing Practices include methods to reduce Aspergillus (mainly
A. ochraceus and related species, A. carbonarius and A. niger) and Penicillium (mainly P. verrucosum)
infection and ochratoxin A (OTA) contamination of cereals during crop growth and development, harvest,
storage, transport and processing.
PLANTING AND CROP ROTATION
2. Refer to paragraph 11 in the general Code of Practice.
3. Do not grow cereals close to cocoa trees, coffee bean plants or grape vines as these crops are highly
susceptible to ochratoxigenic fungi and OTA contamination and can represent a source of inoculum to the soil.
TILLAGE AND PREPARATION FOR SEEDING (PLANTING)
4. Refer to paragraphs 12-16 in the general Code of Practice.
PRE-HARVEST
5. Refer to paragraphs 17-23 in the general Code of Practice.
6. Although OTA is associated with postharvest fungal growth in stored grains, frost damage, presence of
competitive fungi, excessive rainfall and drought stress are pre-harvest factors that may affect levels of OTA
in harvested grains. Crop lodging on the field can also result in the production of OTA in humid conditions.
HARVEST
7. Refer to paragraphs 24-27 in the general Code of Practice.
DRYING AND CLEANING BEFORE STORAGE
8. Refer to paragraphs 28-33 in the general Code of Practice.
9. OTA is produced in cereals due to poor drying or storage conditions. Grain should be allowed to dry as much
as possible before harvest consistent with local environment and crop conditions. If it is necessary to harvest
the grain before its water activity becomes lower than 0.70, dry the grain to a moisture content corresponding
to a water activity of less than 0.70 (preferably 0.65). In a temperate climate region, when intermediate or
buffer storage is necessary because of low drying capacity, make sure that the moisture content is lower than
15%, the buffer storage time is less than 10 days, and the grain temperature is lower than 20°C, in general.
Appropriate conditions for intermediate or buffer storage may be determined on the basis of cereal variety,
kernel size, grain quality and outside air temperature.
STORAGE AFTER DRYING AND CLEANING
10. Refer to paragraphs 34-43 in the general Code of Practice.
TRANSPORT FROM STORAGE
11. Refer to paragraphs 44-46 in the general Code of Practice.
PROCESSING AND CLEANING AFTER STORAGE
12. OTA is highly stable and does not degrade in primary processing (e.g. milling into flour) or further processing
(e.g. baking into bread). Its distribution in unprocessed grain is heterogeneous, as the toxin is typically present
in high concentrations in a very small number of grain kernels (“hot spots”). As grain is processed, the OTA is
redistributed among milled grain fractions, yielding lower levels in endosperm flour fractions and higher levels
in bran fractions relative to those found in the unprocessed grain.
13. Refer to paragraphs 47-54 in the general Code of Practice.
 CXC 51-2003 13

ANNEX 4
PREVENTION AND REDUCTION OF CONTAMINATION BY TRICHOTHECENES IN CEREAL GRAINS
RECOMMENDED PRACTICES BASED ON GOOD AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES (GAP)
AND GOOD MANUFACTURING PRACTICES (GMP)
1. Good Agricultural Practices and Good Manufacturing Practices include methods to reduce trichothecenes
producing Fusarium spp infection and trichothecene contamination of cereals during crop growth and
development, harvest, storage, transport and processing. The more common trichothecenes are
deoxynivalenol (DON) produced mainly by F. graminearum and F. culmorum), T-2 toxin, HT-2 toxin (produced
mainly by F. sporotrichioides and F. poae),, diacetoxyscirpenol (DAS produced by F. equisiti, F. poae, F.
acuminatum) and nivalenol (NIV) produced by F. asiaticum, F. poae,F. culmorum and F. graminearum)
PLANTING AND CROP ROTATION
2. Refer to paragraph 11 in the general Code of Practice.
TILLAGE AND PREPARATION FOR SEEDING (PLANTING)
3. Refer to paragraphs 12-16 in the general Code of Practice.
PRE-HARVEST
4. Refer to paragraphs 17-23 in the general Code of Practice.
5. Use predictive models developed for risk of Fusarium infection of wheat and other small grains, which may
assist producers in decisions on the necessity and timing of fungicide application. The establishment of
Fusarium infection in cereal heads during flowering may need to be monitored before harvest by sampling and
determination of infection by standard microbiological methods. Also, mycotoxin content in representative pre-
harvest samples may need to be determined. Utilisation of the crop as food or animal feed should be based
on prevalence of infection and mycotoxin content of the grain.
HARVEST
6. Refer to paragraphs 24-27 in the general Code of Practice.
7. Do not permit mature grains to remain in the field for extended periods of time, particularly in cold, wet weather
to avoid T-2 and HT-2 toxins formation.
DRYING AND CLEANING BEFORE STORAGE
8. Refer to paragraphs 28-33 in the general Code of Practice.
STORAGE AFTER DRYING AND CLEANING
9. Refer to paragraphs 34-43 in the general Code of Practice.
TRANSPORT FROM STORAGE
10. Refer to paragraphs 44-46 in the general Code of Practice.
PROCESSING AND CLEANING AFTER STORAGE
11. Refer to paragraphs 47-54 in the general Code of Practice.
12. Extrusion of cereal may reduce trichothecene levels in processed products, especially of DON.
13. Separated hulls and seed coat (bran layers) fractions from processed grains to be used in foods may contain
unacceptably high levels of DON and must be examined for DON levels before they are processed into
consumable products.
 CXC 51-2003 14

ANNEX 5
PREVENTION AND REDUCTION OF CONTAMINATION BY AFLATOXINS IN CEREAL GRAINS
RECOMMENDED PRACTICES BASED ON GOOD AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES (GAP)
AND GOOD MANUFACTURING PRACTICES (GMP)
1. Good Agricultural Practices and Good Manufacturing Practices include methods to reduce aflatoxigenic fungi
infection (mainly A. flavus, A. parasiticus and A. nomius) and aflatoxin production in cereals during the crop
growth and development, harvest, storage, transport and processing.
PLANTING AND CROP ROTATION
2. Refer to paragraph 11 in the general Code of Practice.
3. If available and cost effective, extension officers should assist the farmers in procuring and releasing non
aflatoxigenic A. flavus and A. parasiticus into the agricultural environment to suppress the natural occurrence
of the aflatoxigenic fungi following the instructions of the manufacturer. Biological methods could be used, like
other biofungicides and biopesticides.
TILLAGE AND PREPARATION FOR SEEDING (PLANTING)
4. Refer to paragraphs 12-16 in the general Code of Practice.
PRE-HARVEST
5. Refer to paragraphs 17-23 in the general Code of Practice.
6. Biological methods can be used for the control of aflatoxins, but the applied product must be approved by
relevant authorities, safe, and cost-effective towards the targeted toxin producing fungi.
HARVEST
7. Refer to paragraphs 24-27 in the general Code of Practice.
DRYING AND CLEANING BEFORE STORAGE
8. Refer to paragraphs 28-33 in the general Code of Practice.
9. Aflatoxins occur in maize before harvest due to growth of toxigenic fungi as the result of insect infestation, bird
and other animal damage, drought stress, hail damage or a combination of these factors. Aflatoxins rarely
occur in small grains, except in sorghum and as a result of poor storage practices. Grain should be allowed to
be as dry as possible before harvest in a way consistent with the local environmental and crop conditions. If it
is necessary to harvest the grain before water activity becomes lower than 0.70, the grain is to be dried to a
moisture content corresponding to a water activity of less than 0.70 (preferably 0.65) immediately after the
harvest and as soon as possible. In temperate climate regions, when intermediate or buffer storage is
necessary because of low drying capacity, ensure that the moisture content is less than 15%, the buffer storage
time is less than 10 days, and the grain temperature is lower than 20°C, in general. Appropriate conditions for
intermediate or buffer storage may be determined on the basis of cereal variety, kernel size, grain quality and
outside air temperature.
STORAGE AFTER DRYING AND CLEANING
10. Refer to paragraphs 34-43 in the general Code of Practice.
11. The formation of aflatoxins in cereals should be prevented during storage by minimizing the time between
harvest and appropriate drying for storage and transport and maintaining the moisture content at a safe level
(<0.70).
TRANSPORT FROM STORAGE
12. Refer to paragraphs 44-46 in the general Code of Practice.
PROCESSING AND CLEANING AFTER STORAGE
13. Refer to paragraphs 47-54 in the general Code of Practice.
14. Nixtamalization is a process that involves boiling and soaking maize in a solution of calcium hydroxide to
remove the hull. This process may reduce aflatoxin levels in the treated maize as well as in the masa flour
used in making corn tortillas, tamales, pupusas and other masa derived products.
 CXC 51-2003 15

ANNEX 6
PREVENTION AND REDUCTION OF CONTAMINATION BY ERGOT AND ERGOT ALKALOIDS IN
CEREAL GRAINS
RECOMMENDED PRACTICES BASED ON GOOD AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES (GAP)
AND GOOD MANUFACTURING PRACTICES (GMP)
1. The recommended practices are in principle relevant for all cereals but in particular applicable to the crops
most sensitive to ergot sclerotia contamination, such as rye, triticale, sorghum and pearl millet. The incr eased
prevalence of ergot sclerotia in wheat may also be an emerging issue in some countries.
2. Good Agricultural Practices include methods to reduce Claviceps (mainly C. purpurea) infection and ergot
alkaloid (related to ergotism) contamination of cereals during crop growth and development, harvest, storage,
transport and processing. This Annex refers to the control of the Claviceps species only.
PLANTING AND CROP ROTATION
3. Refer to paragraph 11 in the general Code of Practice.
TILLAGE AND PREPARING FOR SEEDING (PLANTING)
4. Refer to paragraphs 12-16 in the general Code of Practice.
5. Early and simultaneous flowering of the crop is the best way to counteract Claviceps infection. The following
recommendations help to prevent Claviceps infection of cereals:
(a) Ensure use of ergot-free seeding material and good establishment with optimum plant populations,
applications of fertiliser and plant growth regulators and good drainage.
(b) Ensure good control of grass weeds (especially those that are hosts to Claviceps) within a field.
Particular attention should be paid to grass weed populations on the headlands of a field. Both cultural
and chemical methods can be used. The control of grass weeds should be continued, especially
when ergot contamination is known to have occurred on a field.
(c) The laying of sufficiently wide tramlines for agricultural vehicles to avoid the green shoots that
increase the risk of infection, may be considered.
6. Where the preceding cereal crop had been infected with ergot disease (or where there is a substantial grass
weed population that was infected with ergot disease):
(a) The cultivation of the subsequent cereal crop should be by inversion ploughing.
(b) Ploughing should not then be used in the subsequent cereal crop as this may return sclerotia to the
land surface.
(c) Where minimal cultivations are used, the seed depth should be at least 5 cm (0.16 ft).
(d) Alternatively, the field should be kept free from cereal production in the second year.
(e) Where low and zero tillage crop rotation practices are normally followed, other mitigation measures
take on greater importance (measures at pre-harvest stage, drying and cleaning).
PRE-HARVEST
7. Refer to paragraphs 17-23 in the general Code of Practice.
8. Consider a partial harvesting of the crop as an option. Field/subsections with a high incidence of ergot, may
be threshed separately, while ensuring the safety of humans and animals. More sclerotia can be found near
a field margin (greater than 1 m) in comparison with zones deeper in the field (at least 30 m from field margin).
Separate harvesting of field borders (3-4 m zone) could significantly decrease ergot sclerotia in the yield.
HARVEST
9. Refer to paragraphs 24-27 in the general Code of Practice.
10. Air-stream cleaning should be used, as far as possible, to remove ergot sclerotia and dust from the grain.
DRYING AND CLEANING BEFORE STORAGE
11. Refer to paragraphs 28-33 in the general Code of Practice.
12. Sclerotia present in the harvested grain have a softer, more supple structure than the harvested cereal grains.
 CXC 51-2003 16

(a) Therefore any sticky material from the sclerotia could adhere to the surface of the grain. In addition,
breakage can occur very easily, and the very fine ergot dust could become deposited on the grains’
surface. Thus, it is important that the ergot sclerotia are removed from the cereal grain as soon as
practicable.
(b) In addition, it is important to eliminate as many ergot sclerotia and dust particles as possible at each
stage of the food processing chain to prevent carryover to the next stage of processing.
STORAGE AFTER DRYING AND CLEANING
13. Refer to paragraphs 34-43 in the general Code of Practice.
TRANSPORT FROM STORAGE
14. Refer to paragraphs 44-46 in the general Code of Practice.
PROCESSING AND CLEANING AFTER STORAGE
15. Refer to paragraphs 47-54 in the general Code of Practice.
16. Colour sorting based on the clear-cut distinction between the colour of ergot sclerotia and that of cereal grain
should be considered, since this is an efficient method to remove sclerotia. Other recommended separation
techniques, such as weigh selectors, gravity tables or indented cylinder separators (trieurs) may also be used.
17. Following the use of the above-mentioned separation techniques, other processes that support the cleaning
of the cereal (scrubbing, brushing, peeling and scouring) should be considered in order to remove the ergot
dust on the surface.
18. To prevent ergot dust from accumulating in the milled flour, the flour filter in the crusher area of the mill unit
may be replaced as appropriate.
19. All waste material should be disposed of in a manner to prevent re-entry into the food or feed supply chain.