‫‪Chemical Engineering principles– First Year/ Chapter One‬‬

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 Chemical Engineering principles– First Year/ Chapter Three

Chapter 4
Temperature

 Temperature is a measure of the energy (mostly kinetic) of the molecules in a system. This
definition tells us about the amount of energy.
 Other scientists prefer to say that Temperature is a property of the state of thermal
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 Chemical Engineering principles– First Year/ Chapter Three

equilibrium of the system with respect to other systems because temperature tells us about
the capability of a system to transfer energy (as heat).
Four types of temperature:
Two based on a relative scale, degrees Fahrenheit (°F) and Celsius (°C), and two based on an

absolute scale, degree Rankine (°R) and Kelvin (K).

Temperature Conversion

Also, the °C is larger than the °F

Also, because of the temperature difference between boiling water and ice (Celsius: 100°C
– 0°C =100°C; Fahrenheit: 212°F – 32°F = 180°F), the following relationships hold:

Δ°C = 1.8000 Δ°F and Δ K = 1.8000 Δ°F

The proper meaning of the symbols °C, °F, K, and °R, as either the temperature or
the unit temperature difference, must be interpreted from the context of the equation or
sentence being examined.
Suppose you have the relation:

What are the units of a and b? The units of a must be °F for consistency. The correct
units for b must involve the conversion factor (1.8 °F\°C), the factor that converts the
size of an interval on one temperature scale

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 Chemical Engineering principles– First Year/ Chapter Three

Unfortunately, the units for b are usually ignored; just the value of b (1.8) is employed.

 The relations between °C, °F, K, and °R are:

Or T°R = T°F + 460

Or TK = T°C + 273

Or T°F = 1.8 T°C + 32

Example 4.1
Convert 100 °C to (a) K, (b) °F, and (c) °R.
Solution

or with suppression of the symbol,

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 Chemical Engineering principles– First Year/ Chapter Three

or

Example 4.2
The heat capacity of sulfuric acid has the units J/(g mol)(°C), and is given by the relation
Heat capacity = 139.1 + 1.56 * 10-1 T
where T is expressed in °C. Modify the formula so that the resulting expression has the
associated units of Btu/(lb mol) (°R) and T is in °R.
Solution
T°F = 1.8 T°C + 32 T°C = (T°F – 32)/1.8
T°R = T°F + 460 T°F = T°R – 460

T°C = [T°R – 460 – 32]/1.8

Note the suppression of the symbol in the conversion between °C and °R.

Problems
1. Complete the following table with the proper equivalent temperatures:

2. The heat capacity of sulfur is Cp = 15.2 + 2.68T, where Cp is in J/(g mol)(K) and T is in K.
Convert this expression so that Cp is in cal/(g mol)(°F) with T in °F.

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 Chemical Engineering principles– First Year/ Chapter Three

Answers:
1.

2. Cp =93.2 + 0.186 T°F

Supplementary Problems (Chapter Four):

Problem 1

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 Chemical Engineering principles– First Year/ Chapter Five

Problem 2

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 Chemical Engineering principles– First Year/ Chapter Five

Chapter 5

5.1 Pressure and Its Units Pressure

Pressure is defined as “the normal (perpendicular) force per unit area (Figure 5.1). The
pressure at the bottom of the static (nonmoving) column of mercury exerted on the sealing plate is

… 5.1

Where p = pressure at the bottom of the column of the fluid, F = force, A = area, ρ = density of fluid
g = acceleration of gravity, h = height of the fluid column, and p0 = pressure at the top of the column
of fluid

Figure 5.1 Pressure is the normal force per unit area. Arrows show the force exerted on the
respective areas

For Example, suppose that the cylinder of fluid in Figure 5.1 is a column of mercury that has an
area of 1 cm2 and is 50 cm high. The density of the Hg is 13.55 g/cm3. Thus, the force exerted by
the mercury alone on the 1 cm2 section of the bottom plate by the column of mercury is

P=F/A …. F= P* A = ρ g h*A

The pressure on the section of the plate covered by the mercury is the force per unit area of the
mercury plus the pressure of the atmosphere

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If we had started with units in the AE system, the pressure would be computed as [the density of
mercury is 845.5 lbm/ft3]

5.2 Measurement of Pressure

Pressure, like temperature, can be expressed using either an absolute or a relative scale.

Absolute

Relative (Gauge) Pressure

Pressure

Figure 5.2 (a) Open-end manometer showing a pressure above atmospheric pressure. (b)

Manometer measuring an absolute pressure.

The relationship between relative and absolute pressure is given by the following expression:

Gauge Pressure + Barometer Pressure (atmospheric)= Absolute Pressure …5.2

P vacuum= p atmospheric – p absolute

The standard atmosphere is defined as the pressure (in a standard gravitational

field) equivalent to 1 atm or 760 mm Hg at 0°C or other equivalent.
The standard atmosphere is equal to

 1.00 atmospheres (atm)

 33.91 feet of water (ft H2O)
 14.7 pounds (force) per square inch absolute (psia)

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 29.92 inches of mercury (in. Hg)

 760.0 millimeters of mercury (mm Hg)
 1.013 * 105 pascal (Pa) or newtons per square meter (N/m2); or 101.3 kPa

For Example, convert 35 psia to inches of mercury and kPa.

And,

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For Example, What is the equivalent pressure to 1 kg/cm2 (i.e., kgf/cm2) in pascal (g = 9.8 m/s2)
[1 kg/cm2] * [9.8 m/s2] * [(100 cm/1 m)2] = 9.8 * 104 N/m2 (or Pa)

Example 5.1
What is the equivalent pressure to 60 Gpa (gigapascal) in
(a) atmospheres (b) psia (c) inches of Hg (d) mm of Hg
Solution

Example 5.2

The pressure gauge on a tank of CO2 used to fill soda-water bottles reads 51.0 psi. At the same time
the barometer reads 28.0 in. Hg. What is the absolute pressure in the tank in psia? See Figure E5.2.

Solution

The absolute pressure in the tank is

51.0 psia + 13.76 psia = 64.8 psia

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Example 5.3
Small animals such as mice can live (although not comfortably) at reduced air pressures down to 20
kPa absolute. In a test, a mercury manometer attached to a tank, as shown in Figure E5.3, reads 64.5
cm Hg and the barometer reads 100 kPa. Will the mice survive?

Solution
You are expected to realize from the figure that the tank is below atmospheric pressure because
the left leg of the manometer is higher than the right leg, which is open to the atmosphere.
Consequently, to get the absolute pressure you subtract the 64.5 cm Hg from the barometer
reading.

The absolute pressure in the tank is

The mice probably will not survive.

5.3 Differential Pressure Measurements

When the columns of fluids are at equilibrium (see Figure 5.3), the relationship among ρ1, ρ2, ρ3,
and the heights of the various columns of fluid is as follows:
P1 + ρ1 d1 g = P2 + ρ2 d2 g + ρ3 d3 g …5.3

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Figure 5.3 Manometer with three fluids.

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Note

If fluids 1 and 3 are gases, and fluid 2 is mercury, the density of the gas is so much less than that
of mercury that you can ignore the term involving the gas in Equation (5.3) for practical
applications.

 Can you show for the case in which ρ1 = ρ3 = ρ that the manometer expression reduces to
the differential manometer equation:
P1 – P2 = (ρ2 – ρ) g d2 … 5.4

Example 5.4
In measuring the flow of fluid in a pipeline as shown in Figure E5.4, a differential manometer was
used to determine the pressure difference across the orifice plate. The flow rate was to be calibrated
with the observed pressure drop (difference). Calculate the pressure drop p1 - p2 in pascals for the
manometer reading in Figure E5.4.

Solution
In this problem you cannot ignore the water density above the manometer fluid.

Example 5.5
Air is flowing through a duct under a draft of 4.0 cm H2O. The barometer indicates that the
atmospheric pressure is 730 mm Hg. What is the absolute pressure of the air in inches of mercury?
See Figure E5.5

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 Chemical Engineering principles– First Year/ Chapter Five

Solution
In this problem you can ignore the gas density above the manometer fluid and the air above the
open end of the manometer.

Next, convert 4.0 cm H2O to in. Hg:

Since the reading is 4.0 cm H2O draft (under atmospheric), the absolute reading in uniform units
is

Questions
1. Figure SAT5.1Q2 shows four closed containers completely filled with water. Order the
containers from the one exerting the highest pressure to the lowest on their respective base.

2. Answer the following questions true or false:

a. Atmospheric pressure is the pressure of the air surrounding us and changes from day
to day
b. The standard atmosphere is a constant reference atmosphere equal to 1.000 atm or
the equivalent pressure in other units.
c. Absolute pressure is measured relative to a vacuum.
d. Gauge pressure is measured upward relative to atmospheric pressure.
e. Vacuum and draft pressures are measured downward from atmospheric pressure.

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f. You can convert from one type of pressure measurement to another using the
standard atmosphere.
g. A manometer measures the pressure difference in terms of the height of fluid (s) in
the manometer tube.

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3. What is the equation to convert gauge pressure to absolute pressure?

4. What are the values and units of the standard atmosphere for six different methods of
expressing pressure?
5. What is the equation to convert vacuum pressure to absolute pressure?
Answers:
1. 3 is the highest pressure; next are 1 and 2, which are the same; and 4 is last. The decisions
are made by dividing the weight of water by the base area.
2. All are true
3. Gauge pressure + barometric pressure = absolute pressure
4. See lectures
5. Barometric pressure - vacuum pressure = absolute pressure

Problems
1. Convert a pressure of 800 mm Hg to the following units:
a. psia b. kPa c. atm d. ft H2O
2. Your textbook lists five types of pressures: atmospheric pressure, barometric pressure,
gauge pressure, absolute pressure, and vacuum pressure.
a. What kind of pressure is measured by the device in Figure SAT5.2P2A?

b. What kind of pressure is measured by the device in Figure SAT5.2P2B?

c. What would be the reading in Figure SAT5.2P2C assuming that the pressure and
temperature inside and outside the helium tank are the same as in parts (a) and (b)?
3. An evaporator shows a reading of 40 kPa vacuum. What is the absolute pressure in the
evaporator in kPa?
4. A U-tube manometer filled with mercury is connected between two points in a pipeline. If
the manometer reading is 26 mm of Hg, calculate the pressure difference in kPa between the
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points when (a) water is flowing through the pipeline, and (b) also when air at atmospheric
pressure and 20°C with a density of 1.20 kg/m3 is flowing in the pipeline.

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5. A Bourdon gauge and a mercury manometer are connected to a tank of gas, as shown in
Figure SAT5.3P2. If the reading on the pressure gauge is 85 kPa, what is h in centimeters of
Hg?

Answers:
1. (a) 15.5; (b) 106.6; (c) 1.052; (d) 35.6
2. (A) Gauge pressure; (B) barometric pressure, absolute pressure; (C) 50 in. Hg
3. In the absence of a barometric pressure value, assume 101.3 kPa. The absolute pressure is
61.3 kPa.
4. The Hg is static. (a) 3.21 kPa; (b) 3.47 kPa
5. 63.8 cm Hg

Supplementary Problems (Chapter Five):

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 Chemical Engineering principles– First Year/ Chapter Five

Problem 1

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 Chemical Engineering principles– First Year/ Chapter Five

Problem 2

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Chemical Engineering principles– First Year/ Chapter Five

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 Chemical Engineering principles– First Year/ Chapter Six

Problem 3

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Chemical Engineering principles– First Year/ Chapter Six

Chapter 6
Introduction to Material Balances
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 Chemical Engineering principles– First Year/ Chapter Six

6.1 The Concept of a Material Balance

A material balance is nothing more than the application of the law of the conservation of

mass:
“Matter is neither created nor destroyed”

6.2 Open and Closed Systems

a. System
By system we mean any arbitrary portion of or a whole process that you want to consider
for analysis. You can define a system such as a reactor, a section of a pipe. Or, you can define the
limits of the system by drawing the system boundary, namely a line that encloses the portion of
the process that you want to analyze.

b. Closed System
Figure 6.1 shows a two-dimensional view of a three-dimensional vessel holding 1000 kg of H2O.
Note that material neither enters nor leaves the vessel, that is, no material crosses the system
boundary. Changes can take place inside the system, but for a closed system, no mass exchange
occurs with the surroundings.

Figure 6.1 A closed system.

c. Open System
Figure 6.2 is an example of an open system (also called a flow system) because material
crosses the system boundary.

Figure 6.2 An open steady–state system.

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6.3 Steady-State and Unsteady-State Systems

a. Steady–State System
Because the rate of addition of water is equal to the rate of removal, the amount of water in
the vessel shown in Figure 6.2 remains constant at its original value (1000 kg). We call
such a process or system a steady–state process or a steady–state system because

1. The conditions inside the process (specifically the amount of water in the vessel in
Figure 6.2) remain unchanged with time, and
2. The conditions of the flowing streams remain constant with time.
 Thus, in a steady-state process, by definition all of the conditions in the process (e.g.,
temperature, pressure, mass of material, flow rate, etc.) remain constant with time. A
continuous process is one in which material enters and/or leaves the system without
interruption.

b. Unsteady–State System
Because the amount of water in the system changes with time (Figure 6.3), the process and
system are deemed to be an unsteady–state (transient) process or system.

 For an unsteady-state process, not all of the conditions in the process (e.g., temperature,
pressure, mass of material, etc.) remain constant with time, and/or the flows in and out of
the system can vary with time.

Figure 6.3 Initial conditions for an open unsteady–state

system with accumulation.

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 Chemical Engineering principles– First Year/ Chapter Six

 Figure 6.4 shows the system after 50 minutes of accumulation (Fifty minutes of
accumulation at 10 kg/min amounts to 500 kg of total accumulation).

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Figure 6.4 The condition of the open unsteady–state system with accumulation after 50
minutes.

 Figures 6.5 and 6.6 demonstrate negative accumulation.

Note that the amount of water in the system decreases with time at the rate of 10 kg/min.
Figure 6.6 shows the system after 50 minutes of operation.

Figure 6.5 Initial conditions for an unsteady–state process with negative accumulation.

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Figure 6.6 Condition of the open unsteady–state system with negative accumulation after 50
minutes.

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 The material balance for a single component process is

Equation 6.1 can apply to moles or any quantity that is conserved. As an example, look at Figure

6.7 in which we have converted all of the mass quantities in Figure 6.2 to their equivalent values in
moles.

Figure 6.7 The system in Figure 6.2 with the flow rates shown in kg mol.
If the process is in the steady state, the accumulation term by definition is zero, and Equation 6.1

simplifies to a famous truism

What goes in must come out (In = Out) …6.2
If you are analyzing an unsteady-state process, the accumulation term over a time interval can be
calculated as

The times you select for the final and initial conditions can be anything, but you usually
select an
interval such as 1 minute or 1 hour rather than specific times.

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 Chemical Engineering principles– First Year/ Chapter Six

 When you combine Equations 6.1 and 6.3 you get the general material balance for a
component in the system in the absence of reaction

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 Chemical Engineering principles– First Year/ Chapter Six

Example 6.1
Will you save money if instead of buying premium 89 octane gasoline at $1.269 per gallon
that has the octane you want, you blend sufficient 93 octane supreme gasoline at $l.349
per gallon with 87 octane regular gasoline at $1.149 per gallon?
Solution
Choose a basis of 1 gallon of 89 octane gasoline, the desired product. The system is the gasoline
tank.

 For simplicity, assume that no gasoline exists in the tank at the start of the blending, and
one gallon exists in the tank at the end of the blending.

 This arrangement corresponds to an unsteady-state process. Clearly it is an open system.

The initial number of gallons in the system is zero and the final number of gallons is one.
Let x = the number of gallons of 87 octane gasoline added, and
y = the number of gallons of 93 octane added to
the blend. Since x + y = 1 is the total flow into the
tank,
y = 1 – x
According to Equation (6.4) the balance on the octane number is

The solution is x = 2/3 gal and thus y = 1 – x = 1/3 gal.

The cost of the blended gasoline is (2/3) ($l.l49) + (1/3) ($l.349) = $
1.216 A value less than the cost of the 89 octane gasoline ($l.269).

6.4 Multiple Component Systems

Suppose the input to a vessel contains more than one component, such as 100 kg/min of a
50% water and 50% sugar (sucrose, C12H22O11, MW = 342.3) mixture (see Figure 6.8). The mass
balances with respect to the sugar and water, balances that we call component balances.

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Figure 6.8 An open system involving two components.

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For Example, look at the mixer shown in Figure 6.9, an apparatus that mixes two streams to
increase the concentration of NaOH in a dilute solution. The mixer is a steady–state open
system. Initially the mixer is empty, and after 1 hour it is empty again.

Basis = 1 hour for convenience. As an alternate to the basis we selected, you could select F1 = 9000
kg/hr as the basis, or F2 = 1000 kg/hr as the basis; the numbers for this example would not
change – just the units would change. Here are the components and total balances in kg:

We can convert the kg shown in Figure 6.9 to kg moles by dividing each compound by its
respective molecular weight (NaOH = 40 and H2O = 18).

Then the component and total balances in kg mol are:

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Figure 6.9 Mixing of a dilute stream

of NaOH with a concentrated stream
of NaOH. Values below the stream
arrows are based on 1 hour of
operation.

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Example 6.2

Centrifuges are used to separate particles in the range of 0.1 to 100 μm in diameter from
a liquid using centrifugal force. Yeast cells are recovered from a broth (a liquid mixture
containing cells) using a tubular centrifuge (a cylindrical system rotating about a
cylindrical axis). Determine the amount of the cell-free discharge per hour if 1000 L/hr is
fed to the centrifuge, the feed contains 500 mg cells/L, and the product stream contains 50
wt.% cells. Assume that the feed has a density
of 1 g/cm3.
Solution
This problem involves a steady state, open (flow) system without reaction.

Basis = 1 hour

Figure E6.2
M.B. on cells
In (mass) = Out
(mass)

P = 1000 g
M.B. on fluid
In (mass) = Out (mass)

D = (106 – 500) g

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 Chemical Engineering principles– First Year/ Chapter Six

6.5 Accounting for Chemical Reactions in Material Balances

Chemical reaction in a system requires the augmentation of Equation 6.4 to take into
account the effects of the reaction. To illustrate this point, look at Figure 6.10, which shows a
steady–state system in which HCl reacts with NaOH by the following reaction:

NaOH + HCl NaCl + H2O

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Figure 6.10 Reactor for neutralizing HCl with NaOH.

Equation 6.4 must be augmented to include terms for the generation and consumption of
components by the chemical reaction in the system as follows

6.6 Material Balances for Batch and Semi-Batch Processes

 A batch process is used to process a fixed amount of material each time it is operated.
Initially, the material to be processed is charged into the system. After processing of the
material is complete, the products are removed.
 Batch processes are used industrially for specialty processing applications (e.g., producing
pharmaceutical products), which typically operate at relatively low production rates.
 Look at Figure 6.11a that illustrates what occurs at the start of a batch process, and after
thorough mixing, the final solution remains in the system (Figure 6.11b).

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Figure 6.11b The final state

of a batch mixing process.
Figure 6.11a The initial state of a batch mixing process.

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 We can summarize the hypothetical operation of the batch as a flow system (open system)
as follows (Figure 6.12):
Final conditions: All values = 0 Flows out:

NaOH = 1,000 lb
H2O = 9,000 lb
Total = 10,000 lb
Initial conditions: All value = 0 Flows in:

NaOH = 1,000 lb
H2O = 9,000 lb
Total 10,000 lb

Figure 6.12 The batch process in Figure 6.11 represented as an open system.

In a semi-batch process material enters the process during its operation, but does not
leave. Instead, mass is allowed to accumulate in the process vessel. Product is
withdrawn only after the process is over.

A Figure 6.13 illustrates a semi-batch mixing process. Initially the vessel is empty
(Figure 6.13a). Figure 6.13b shows the semi-batch system after 1 hour of operation.
Semi-batch processes are open and unsteady – state.

Only flows enter the systems, and none leave, hence the system is an unsteady state – one
that you can treat as having continuous flows, as follows:

Final conditions: Flows out: All values = 0

NaOH = 1,000 lb
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 Chemical Engineering principles– First Year/ Chapter Six

H2O = 9,000 lb
Total = 10,000 lb Flows in:
NaOH = 1,000 lb
H2O = 9,000 lb
Initial conditions: All values = 0 Total = 10,000 lb

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Figure 6.13a Initial condition for the semi-batch Figure 6.13b Condition of a semi-batch
mixing process. Vessel is empty. mixing process after 1 hour of operation.

Example 6.3

A measurement for water flushing of a steel tank originally containing motor oil showed that 0.15
percent by weight of the original contents remained on the interior tank surface. What is the
fractional loss of oil before flushing with water, and the pounds of discharge of motor oil into the
environment during of a 10,000 gal tank truck that carried motor oil? (The density of motor oil is
about 0.80 g/cm3).
Solution
Basis: 10,000 gal motor oil at an assumed 77°F
The initial mass of the motor oil in the tank was

(10000 gal)(3.785 lit/1 gal)(1000 cm3/1 lit)(0.8 g/cm3)(1 lb/454 g) = 66700 lb

The mass fractional loss is 0.0015. The oil material balance is
Initial unloaded residual discharged on cleaning
66,700 = 66,700 (0.9985) + 66,700 (0.0015)
Thus, the discharge on flushing is 66,700 (0.00 15) = 100 lb.

Questions
1. Is it true that if no material crosses the boundary of a system, the system is a closed system?
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2. Is mass conserved within an open process?

3. Can an accumulation be negative? What does a negative accumulation mean?
4. Under what circumstances can the accumulation term in the material balance be zero for a
process?
5. Distinguish between a steady-state and an unsteady-state process.
6. What is a transient process? Is it different than an unsteady-state process?

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7. Does Equation 6.4 apply to a system involving more than one component?
8. When a chemical plant or refinery uses various feeds and produces various products, does
Equation 6.4 apply to each component in the plant?
9. What terms of the general material balance, Equation (6.5), can be deleted if
a. The process is known to be a steady-state process.
b. The process is carried out inside a closed vessel.
c. The process does not involve a chemical reaction.
10. What is the difference between a batch process and a closed process?
11. What is the difference between a semi-batch process and a closed process?
12. What is the difference between a semi-batch process and an open process?

Answers:
1. Yes
2. Not necessarily – accumulation can occur
3. Yes; depletion
4. No reaction (a) closed system, or (b) flow of a component in and out are equal.
5. In an unsteady-state system, the state of the system changes with time, whereas with a
steady-state system, it does not.
6. A transient process is an unsteady-state process.
7. Yes
8. Yes
9. (a) Accumulation; (b) flow in and out; (c) generation and consumption
10. None
11. A flow in occurs
12. None, except in a flow process, usually flows occur both in and out

Problems
1. Here is a report from a catalytic polymerization unit:
Charge: Pounds per hour
Propanes and butanes 15,500
Production:

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Propane and lighter 5,680

Butane 2,080
Polymer missing
What is the production in pounds per hour of the polymer?

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2. A plant discharges 4,000 gal/min of treated wastewater that contains 0.25 mg/L of PCB,
(polychloronated biphenyls) into a river that contains no measurable PCBs upstream of the
discharge. If the river flow rate is 1,500 cubic feet per second, after the discharged water has
thoroughly mixed with the river water, what is the concentration of PCBs in the river in
mg/L?

Answers:
1. 7740 lb/hr
2. 1.49 * 10-3 mg/L

Supplementary Problems (Chapter Six):

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 Chemical Engineering principles– First Year/ Chapter Six

Problem 1

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Problem 2

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Problem 3

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Chapter 7
A General Strategy for Solving Material Balance Problems
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7.1 Problem Solving

An orderly method of analyzing problems and presenting their solutions represents training
in logical thinking that is of considerably greater value than mere knowledge of how to solve a
particular type of problem.

7.2 The Strategy for Solving Problems

1. Read and understand the problem statement.
2. Draw a sketch of the process and specify the system boundary.
3. Place labels for unknown variables and values for known variables on the sketch.
4. Obtain any missing needed data.
5. Choose a basis.
6. Determine the number of unknowns.
7. Determine the number of independent equations, and carry out a degree of freedom analysis.
8. Write down the equations to be solved.
9. Solve the equations and calculate the quantities asked for.
10. Check your answer.
Example 7.1
A thickener in a waste disposal unit of a plant removes water from wet sewage sludge as shown in
Figure E7.l. How many kilograms of water leave the thickener per 100 kg of wet sludge that enter
the thickener? The process is in the steady state.

100 kg 70 kg

Thickener
Wet Sludge
Dehydrated Sludge

Water = ?

Figure E7.1
Solution

Basis: 100 kg wet sludge

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The system is the thickener (an open system). No accumulation, generation, or consumption occurs.
The total mass balance is

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 Chemical Engineering principles– First Year/ Chapter Seven

In = Out
100 kg = 70 kg + kg of water
Consequently, the water amounts to 30 kg.
Example 7.2
A continuous mixer mixes NaOH with H2O to produce an aqueous solution of NaOH. Determine
the composition and flow rate of the product if the flow rate of NaOH is 1000 kg/hr, and the ratio of
the flow rate of the H2O to the product solution is 0.9. For this process,
1. Sketch of the process is required.
2. Place the known information on the diagram of the process.
3. What basis would you choose for the problem?
4. How many unknowns exist?
5. Determine the number of independent equations.
6. Write the equations to be solved.
7. Solve the equations.
8. Check your answer.
Solution
1. The process is an open one, and we assume it to be steady state.

2. Because no contrary information is provided about the composition of the H2O and NaOH
streams, we will assume that they are 100% H2O and NaOH, respectively.

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3. Basis (1000 kg or 1 hour or 1000 kg/hr) (all are equivalent)

4. We do not know the values of four variables: W, P, PNaOH and PH2O.
5. You can write three material balances:
 one for the NaOH
 one for the H2O
 one total balance (the sum of the two component balances)
Only two are independent.
Note: You can write as many independent material balances as there are species involved in
the system.

6. Material balance: in = out or in – out = 0

Could you substitute the total mass balance 1000 + W = P for one of the two component mass
balances? Of course In fact, you could calculate P by solving just two equations:

7. Solve equations:
W = 0.9 P substitute in total balance 1000 + 0.9 P = P
P = 10000 kg & W = 0.9 * 10000 = 9000 kg (The basis is still 1 hr (FNaOH = 1000 kg))
From these two values you can calculate the amount of H2O and NaOH in the product

Then

Note

8. The total balance would have been a redundant balance, and could be used to check the answers

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1,000 + 9,000 = 10,000

Note: After solving a problem, use a redundant equation to check your values.

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Degree of Freedom Analysis

The phrase degrees of freedom have evolved from the design of plants in which fewer independent
equations than unknowns exist. The difference is called the degrees of freedom available to the
designer to specify flow rates, equipment sizes, and so on. You calculate the number of degrees of
freedom (ND) as follows:
Degrees of freedom = number of unknowns — number of independent equations
ND = NU – NE
 When you calculate the number of degrees of freedom you ascertain the solve ability of a
problem. Three outcomes exist:

Case ND Possibility of Solution

NU = NE 0 Exactly specified (determined); a solution exists
NU > NE >0 Under specified (determined); more independent equations required
NU < NE <0 Over specified (determined)

For the problem in Example 7.2,

NU = 4

NE = 4
So that
ND = NU – NE = 4 – 4 = 0

And a unique solution exists for the problem.

Example 7.3
A cylinder containing CH4, C2H6, and N2 has to be prepared containing a CH4 to C2H6 mole ratio of
1.5 to 1. Available to prepare the mixture is (l) a cylinder containing a mixture of 80% N2 and 20%
CH4, (2) a cylinder containing a mixture of 90% N2 and 10% C2H6, and (3) a cylinder containing
pure N2. What is the number of degrees of freedom, i.e., the number of independent specifications
that must be made, so that you can determine the respective contributions from each cylinder to get
the desired composition in the cylinder with the three components?

Solution
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 Chemical Engineering principles– First Year/ Chapter Seven

A sketch of the process greatly helps in the analysis of the degrees of freedom. Look at Figure E7.3.

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Figure E7.3

Do you count seven unknowns — three values of xi and four values of Fi? How many independent
equations can be written?

 Three material balances: CH4, C2H6, and N2

 One specified ratio: moles of CH4 to C2H6 equal 1.5 or (XCH4/X C2H6) = 1.5
F
 One summation of mole fractions:  x 4 1
Thus, there are seven minus five equals two degrees of freedom (ND = NU – NE = 7 – 5 = 2). If
you pick a basis, such as F4 = 1, one other value has to be specified to solve the problem to calculate
composition of F4.

Questions
1. What does the concept ―solution of a material balance problem‖ mean?
2. (a) How many values of unknown variables can you compute from one independent material
balance?
(b) From three independent material balance equations?
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