CHAPTER 1

THE HIGHWAY & ITS DEVELOPMENT

Reported by: Jose Marion V. Bacalla

1-5 HIGHWAY PROGRAMMING

1-6 THE PLANNER
1-7 COMMUNITY ENVOLVEMENT
1-8 HIGHWAY ECONOMY
1-9 COMPUTATION & SURVEY
1-10 REMOTE SENSING
1-11 PHOTOGRAMMETRIC MAPPING
1-12 ORTHOPHOTOGRAPHS
1-13 COLORED PHOTOGRAPHS
1-14 LOCATION OF THE PROPOSED HIGHWAY
1-15 LOCATION OF BRIDGES
1-16 HIGHWAY PLANS & SPECIFICATIONS

CHAPTER 2
DESIGNING THE HIGHWAY
(PART1) REPORTED BY: BELLA REIJA D. SULTAN

2-1 CONSISTENCY
2-2 DEFINITION OF TERMS
2-3 THE DESIGN SPEED
2-4 CROSS SECTION OF TYPICAL HIGHWAY
2-5 ROAD SHOULDER
2-6 THE CROSS SLOPE

(PART2) REPORTED BY: JULIUS S. LABORTE

2-19 ISLAND
2-20 TYPES OF INTERCHANGE
2-21 HIGHWAY INTERSECTION AT GRADE
2-22 FREEWAY ENTRANCE AND EXIT
2-23 RAILROAD –HIGHWAY SEPARATION
2-24 BICYCLE LANE

(PART3) REPORTED BY: FRANCIS N. FERRER

(PART4) REPORTED BY: DYNA GRACE PARALE

 CHAPTER 3
SOIL
REPORTED BY: JAMES RUPERT G. GOZO

3-1 SOIL AND ITS ORIGIN

3-2 TYPES OF SOIL
3-3 CHARACTERISTICS OF SOIL
3-4 CLASSIFICATION OF SOIL
3-5 COMPOSITION OF SOIL
3-6 SOIL REACTION TO DENSITY
3-7 IN-PLACE DENSITY AND UNIT WEIGHT
3-8 RELATIVE DENSITY

CHAPTER 4
SOIL TEST AND SURVEY
REPORTED BY: JEANETH ANN B. SENA

4-1 TEST FOR PARTICLE SIZE

4-2 TEST TO EVALUATE THE EFFECT OF MOISTURE
4-3 DENSITY TEST OF SOIL
4-4 LABORATORY TEST FOR SOIL DENSITY
4-5 FIELD DENSITY TEST OF SOIL IN PLACE
4-6 THE STRENGTH TEST
4-7 SOIL SURVEY

CHAPTER 5
ROAD MATERIALS
(PART 1)REPORTED BY: RONELYN D. FAJARDO

5-1. AGGREGATES
5-1.1 TEST FOR STRENGTH
5-1.2 TEST FOR SOUNDNESS
5-1.3 TEST FOR AFFINITY AND SWELL
5-1.4 TEST FOR SHAPE AND TEXTURE
5-1.5 TEST FOR RESISTANCE TO POLISHING
5-1.6 DEGRADATION TEST
5-1.7 PARTICLE SIZE
5-2. AGGREGATE FOR BITUMINOUS PAVEMENT
5-3. AGGREGATE FOR PORTLAND CEMENT CONCRETE PAVEMENT
5-4. MINERAL FILLER
5-5. BITUMINOUS MATERIAL
5-6. BITUMINOUS BINDERS
5-6.1 CUTBACK OR LIQUID ASPHALT
5-6.2 EMULSIFIED ASPHALT
5-6.3 OXIDIZED ASPHALT AND ROAD TAR
5-6.4 BITUMEN- RUBBER MIXTURE
5-6.5 EPOXY RESIN AS BINDERS
5-6.6 TESTS FOR BITUMINOUS BINDERS
5-7. PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH BITUMINOUS BINDERS
5-8. BITUMINOUS PAVEMENTS

(PART 2) REPORTED BY: KARLA MAE I. DATING

5-9 ASPHALT CONCRETE PAVEMENT

5-10 BITUMINOUS PAVEMENT FAILURE
5-11 MACADAM ASPHALT MAT
5-12 SURFACE TREATMENT
5-13 AGGREGATE FOR BITUMINOUS CONCRETE
5-14 DPWH STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS ON PRIME COAT, TACK COAT AND SEAL COAT
5-15 GEOPLASTIC FABRICS

CHAPTER 6
DRAINAGE & SLOPE PRETECTION
(PART 1) REPORTED BY: KELVIN LAGUADOR

6-1 DRAINAGE
6-2 HYDROLOGY
6-3 DRAINING THE HIGHWAY
6-4 MANHOLE, INLETS & CATCH BASIN
6-6 CHANNEL

(PART 2) REPORTED BY: LAURICE ANN O. BINGABING

6-7 CULVERT (STARTING CONDUITS)

6-8 DESIGN OF UNDERDRAIN
6-9 DEBRIS CONTROL
6-10 THE LEGAL ASPECT OF DRAINAGE
6-11 ROADWAY DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION FOR UNUSUAL SOIL CONDITIONS
6-12 STABILIZING THE UNSUPPORTED SLOPE

(PART 3) REPORTED BY: RAYMART SAN RAMON

6-13 IMPROVING THE STABILITY OF SLOPE

6-14 RETAINING WALL
6-15 HIGHWAY BRIDGES

CHAPTER 7
CONSTRUCTING THE ROADBED
(PART 1) REPORTED BY: MAUREEN JOY A. ILIGAN

7-1 SOIL AS STRUCTURE

7-2 TYPES OF BASE COURSE
7-3 TREATED BASE COURSE
7-4 GRADING & MAINTENANCE OF UNTREATED SURFACE
(PART 2) REPORTED BY: ZYRA JANE Z. SALAO

7-5 DPWH STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS ON AGGREGATE SUB-BASE COURSE

ITEM 200AGGREGATE SUB-BASE COURSE
ITEM 201AGGREGATE BASE COURSE
ITEM 202 CRUSHED AGGREGATE BASE COURSE
ITEM 203 LIME STABILIZED ROAD MIX BASE COURSE
ITEM 204 PORTLAND CEMENT STABILIZED ROAD MIX BASE COURSE
ITEM 205 ASPHALT STABILIZED ROAD MIXED BASE COURSE
ITEM 206 PORTLAND CEMENT TREATED PLANT MIX BASE COURSE
7-6 CLEARING AND GRUBBING
7-7 EXCAVATION

(PART 3) REPORTED BY: ANGELA MAE A. SAN ANTONIO

7-8 FREE HAUL

– OVERHAUL (ITEM 107)
7-9 CONSTRUCTION OF FILLS AND EMBANKMENT
-DPWH SPECIFICATIONS ON EMBANKMENT (ITEM 104)
7-10 SUB – GRADE PREPARATION
7-11 COMPACTION AND STABILIZATION

CHAPTER 8
CONCRETE PAVEMENT
(PART 1) REPORTED BY: JULIE ANNE BABAGAY

8-1 PORTLAND CEMENT

8-2 CONCRETE PAVEMENT CHARACTERISTICS & BEHAVIOR
8-3 CONTROL OF CRACKS
8-4 TRANSVERSE EXPANSION JOINTS
8-5 LONGITUDINAL JOINTS
8-6 CONSTRUCTION JOINT
8-7 REINFORCEMENT OF JOINTS
8-8 THE SUBGRADE & SUBBASE FOR CONCRETE PAVEMENT

(PART 2) REPORTED BY: REGINE MARIE T. LAURELES

8-9 CONCRETE PROPORTIONS

ADMIXTURE
AIR ENTRAINMENT
CEMENT AND WATER RATIO
8-10 CONCRETE MIXTURE
8-11 POLYMER CONCRETE
8-12 CURING OF CONCRETE PAVEMENT
8-13 DPWH SPECIFICATIONS ON CONCRETE PAVEMENT
MATERIAL REQUIREMENTS:
FINE AGGREGATES:
COARSE AGGREGATE
WATER
 REINFORCING STEEL
JOINT FILLERS
STORAGE OF CEMENT AND AGGREGATE
PROPORTIONING, CONSISTENCY AND STRENGTH OF CONCRETE
QUALITY CONTROL OF CONCRETE
REQUIRED QUALIFICATION OF WORKMEN
8-14 EQUIPMENT
BATCHING PLANT EQUIPMENT
MIXERS
PAVING AND FINISHING EQUIPMENT
CONCRETE SAW
FORMS
8-15 PREPARATION OF GRADE
SETTING OF FORMS
CONDITIONING THE SUB GRADE OR BASE COURSE

(PART 3) REPORTED BY: APRIL MARIE DE VERA

8-16 HANDLING, MEASURING AND BATCHING OF MATERIALS

8-17 PLACING OR DEPOSITING OF CONCRETE
8-18 FINAL CONSOLIDATION AND FINISHING
8-19 CURING
8-20 REMOVAL OF FORMS
8-21 CONCRETING BY THE SLIP FORM METHOD
8-22 TOLERANCE AND PAVEMENT THICKNESS

CHAPTER 9
ROAD MAINTENANCE
(PART 1) REPORTED BY: JESICA ABANO

9-1 HIGHWAY MAINTENANCE

9-2 MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT

(PART 2) REPORTED BY: JEMARI LABARRO

9-3 REHABILITATION
9-4 EVALUATION & MAINTENANCE OF CONCRETE PAVEMENT
9-5 HIGHWAY & ITS ENVIRONMENT

(PART 3) REPORTED BY: ANGELICA ABASOLO

9-6 HIGHWAY BEAUTIFICATION

9-7 ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS
9-8 ENVIRONMENTAL EEFECTS OF HIGHWAYS
9-9 CONSTRUCTION &RELATION TO ROADSIDE DEVELOPMENT
9-10 VEGETATION & THE HIGHWAYS
9-11 PARKING & REST AREAS
 CHAPTER 10
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
(PART 1) REPORTED BY: EDMOND I. OJO

10-1 ROAD TRAFFIC SIGNS

10-2 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF ROAD SIGNS
10-3 WARNING (DANGER) SIGNS
10-4 INTERSECTION SIGNS
10-5 PRESCRIPTION SIGN

(PART 2) REPORTED BY: GLEN L. DUGAN

(PART 3) REPORTED BY: JONNEL E. FERRER

10-6 OBLIGATION SIGNS

10-7 END OF PRESCRIPTION SIGNS
10-8 DIRECTION SIGNS
10-9 INFORMATIVE SIGN
10-10 TRAFFIC SIGNALS
10-11 PAVEMENT MARKINGS
10-12 GUIDEPOST & MARKINGS

(PART 4) REPORTED BY: RAMON A GUTIERREZ III

10-13 GUARDRAIL
10-14 CONCRETE BARRIER
10-15 THE HIGHWAY AND URBAN STREET OPERATIONS
10-16 TRAFFIC CONTROL
10-17 FREEWAY AND EXPRESSWAY OPERATIONS
10-18 STREET LIGHTING
10-19 STREET PARKING
10-20 HIGHWAY CAPACITY AND LEVEL SERVICE
DIRECT EFFECTS OF HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION AND ITS USE

A. QUANTIFIABLE MARKET VALUE

1. Cost of highways as to:

a. Planning cost.
b. Right of way appropriations.
c. Construction costs.
d. Maintenance costs.
e. Operating costs.

2. Cost benefits to highway users

a. Vehicles operating costs (including congestion cost) net income or decrease in costs of vehicle
operation per year.
b. Travel savings time (commercial). Net increase or decrease in travel time multiplied by the peso
value of commercial time.
c. Motorist’s safety (economic cost accident) Net change in expected number of accidents times the
average cost per accident per year.

B. NON-QUANTIFIABLE NON-MARKET VALUE

1. Cost benefits to highways user:

a. Motorists safety – Accident cost of pain suffering and deprivation.
b. Comfort and conversion – Discomfort, inconvenience and strain of driving.
c. Aesthetic from driving viewpoint – Benefit of pleasing views and scenery from road.

C. QUANTIFIABLE NON-MARKET VALUE

1. Cost benefits to highway users – traveling savings time. (non-commercial) Minutes save per vehicle
trip.

THE PLANNER

Role:

1. To provide technical and organizational support

2. To receive input or information on the needs and goals of affected persons group or agencies.
3. Incorporate the above for planning and making decision.

Functions:

1. To prepare preliminary design, scoop of study and the initial work program. Know the basic needs, plan
and objectives of affected persons.
2. Exploration of alternatives. Data gathering by contacting the representatives of other agencies involved.
3. Detailed analysis. Prepare detailed plan for appropriate community interaction.
4. Secure formal ratification from the local officials and have the results documented. If nothing goes wrong,
this step is considered final.
 COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT

1. Solicit the cooperation and support of public officials, non-government organizations, influential persons
and conservative group of the community.
2. Create special staff to carry out this function.
3. Community leadership opportunity to participate continuously in the planning stage.
4. Organize and develop skilled persons to conduct group meeting, workshops, hearing and other related
activities.

HIGHWAY ECONOMY

“ A minimum of expenses is of course, highly desirable; but the road which is truly the cheapest is not the one which
has cost the least money, but the one which makes the most profitable returns in proportion to the amount
expended upon it.”
- W. Gillespe, Professor of Civil Engineering
Union College

The intent of expenditures for highways and public transportations:

1. To augment the country’s level of economy.

2. To provide easy access to working place.
3. To facilitate public services; police, fire protection etc.
4. To facilitate medical care, schooling and delivery of related basic services.
5. To give landowner benefits to transportation and increase property assessment.
6. Benefit to motor vehicle users through lower cost of operations and maintenance.
7. Benefit in time saving.
8. Less road accident.
9. To give maximum comfort and ease of travel.

Arguments of those who Favors Borrowing:

1. The need is immediate to have instant infrastructure.

2. No impact project will be seen because the “pay as you go” fund is scattered through out the
entire road system where the situation is most critical.
3. Borrowings encourage investors because of fast progress.

Counter Arguments of those Against Financing Infrastructures through Borrowing:

1. Borrowing may impair the credit rating of government agencies obstructing other more
important improvements.
2. If future income is committed to pay past improvements, no more funds available to maintain
the existing system.

COMPUTATION AND SURVEY

Computers can do processing data for many problems like:

1. Projections and statistical studies of traffic and transit passengers.

 2. Economic analysis.
3. Financial programming.
4. Geometric.
5. Bridges.
6. Pavement design and maintenance.
7. Pavement management.
8. Scheduling for design and construction.
9. Computation of earthworks and other quantities both for planning and payment of contractors.

REMOTE SENSING

Remote sensing is otherwise called Photogrammetry. It is the science and art of obtaining measurements by means
of photography.

Photogrammetry is based on aerial photographs for engineers working data on:

1. Locations.
2. Planning.
3. Geometric design.
4. Right of way.
5. Traffic studies.
6. Drainage.
7. Soil classifications and identifications.
8. Earthwork measurements.
9. Material location.
10. Pavement condition survey.

PHOTOGRAPHIC MAPPING

1. End lap must be greater than one half the picture width specified not less than 55% nor more
than 65% in order that the center of one picture is included in both adjacent photograph.

2. Side lap should average at 25% with less than 15. More than 35% is unacceptable.

3. For making map purposes, the variable includes the focal length of the aerial camera, the desired
combination of map scale and contour interval, and the ratio of map scale to photograph scale.

Instruments used in converting data from aerial photographs into maps are:

1. The Kelsh and Balplex stereoscopic plotters.

2. The wild autograph
3. The kern PG2
4. The Zeiss Stereoplanigraph
 Instruments used in converting data

With photographs and computer recorded data, a separate map could be plotted easily like:

1. The highways
2. The drainage
3. Housing
4. Land use and zoning
5. Property assessment

ORTHOPHOTOGRAPHS

Orthophotographs is an aerial photograph corrected for scale and tilt. When the center portion are skillfully
matched and copied, they appear to be single photograph that shows far more detail than maps. The uncorrected
photographs are combined to form a mosaic, considered better for engineering accuracy and right of way
purposes

COLORED ORTHOPHOTOGRAPHS

Aerial colored photograph presents a more detailed and precise information on traffic and parking studies. It gives
clear information of the geological conditions, land use, source of materials, surfaces and sub-surface drainage. An
oblique photograph is used for special studies particularly, where the ground condition is almost flat or where cliffs
are so steep that a black and white photograph could not give sufficient details.

LOCATION OF THE PROPOSED HIGHWAY

 Early roads started from trails. Movements of people and the use of motor vehicles prompted road
agencies to improve road alignment minimizing sharp curves.

New highway locations are blended with curvature grades and other roadway elements.

To improve the highways, there should be tentative plan as to the control, and minimum design speed,
roadway cross sections, and maximum slope with the following considerations:

1. Reliable cost estimate.

2. Character and hourly distribution of traffic.
3. Economic and community benefit factor.
4. Availability of funds.
Location surveys in the rural areas are divided into 4 stages.

1. Reconnaissance survey of the entire area between the terminal points.

2. Reconnaissance survey of all feasible routes.
3. Preliminary survey of the best route.
4. Location survey, staking of the right of way, the highway and the structure for construction.

Activities:

Under stage 1 – RECONNAISSANCE SURVEY OF THE ENTIRE AREA:

1. Stereoscopic examination of small scaled aerial photographs of the area supplemented by available maps.
2. Determination control of photography and land use.
3. Location of feasible routes based on photographs and maps.

Under stage 2 – RECONNAISSANCE SURVEY OF FEASIBLE ROUTE:

1. Stereoscopic examination of large-scale aerial photographs of each route.

2. Determination of the detailed control of photography and land use.
3. Preparation of route maps by Photogrammetric methods.
4. Location and comparison of feasible routes on photographs and maps.
5. Selection of the best route.
Under stage 3 – PRELIMINARY SURVEY OF THE BEST ROUTE:

1. Preparation of large scale topographic maps using the route photograph and Photogrammetric methods
or preparation of large scale topographic maps by ground survey guided by best route location made on
photographs in the second stage.

2. Design of the preliminary location.

Under stage 4 – LOCATION SURVEY:

1. Staking of the right of way and the highway and structures for construction.

LOCATION OF BRIDGES
 The cost of a bridge and its full approach combined before the crossing site should be determined.

Bridge Survey Report should be accompanied with accurate data on the waterway and the historical
behavior of the water. The Bridge Survey Data shall include the foundation conditions, stream characteristics, and
the adjacent structure on the stream more particularly, their waterway opening.

The following requirements must be considered, when location of the bridge is approximately
determined:

1. A complete data report and special survey of the site.

2. Prepare sketches and full scale map and profiles.
3. The survey report must contain accurate data of the waterway for all behavior of water.
4. There must be a complete report on the foundation condition and the stream characteristics.
5. A complete data of the adjacent structures particularly the waterway opening.
6. If possible, skewed bridge should be avoided.

HIGHWAY PLANS AND SPECIFICATIONS

Plans and Specifications are set of documents of instructions and conditions under which highways and bridges
are built. The Plan contains engineering drawings of the project, whereas, the Specifications is a written
instructions and conditions considered as integral part of the contract between the contractor and highway agency
classified as legal documents.

The complete detailed scheme for the road which are incorporated in the geometric designs are: (
TDERSSP)

1. Traffic
2. Drainage
3. Erosion Control
4. Roadside Development
5. Structure
6. Soils
7. Pavement
Presentation of a Road Plan:

1. The upper sheet is allocated for the plan, top view showing the horizontal alignment, right of way takings,
drainage arrangement and other features.

2. The lower half is allocated to the profile where the original elevation of the ground surface is plotted. The
roadway centerline and the vertical alignment or grade line for the road is indicated.

3. The vertical scale of the profile is usually exaggeratedly enlarged from 5-10 times for precise detail.

4. The profile and other details of the drainage, channels or connecting roads including ramps are also
presented.

5. The estimated earthwork quantities for every 50 meters station or other intervals are indicated along the
bottom of each sheet along with the estimated overhead. This will serve the engineer and the contractor.

6. The roadway cross sections for every situation in the whole project stretch is indicated on another sheet
of the plan.

7. Another sheet of drawings showing all structures and roadway appurtenances is included.

8. The standard size of the drawing sheet is 55cm x 90cm.

Partial list of subjects covered by the standard drawing:

1. Pipe Culverts
2. Concrete Box Culverts

3. Guard Rail and Parapet

4. Curbs

5. Gutters
6. Curb Structures

7. Sidewalks

8. Drainage inlet and outlet structures of numerous types

9. Manholes
 10. Rip-rap and other devices used for bank protection

11. Fences and right of way

12. Other survey markers

The Specifications

Specifications Writing is generally different and a delicate work requiring knowledge of the law of contractors as
well as highway practices and experiences. Specifications that are carelessly written and loosely worded may
result in the use of substandard materials and poor workmanship. Mostly, it involves extra cost to the owner or
the contractor and sometimes landed in court litigations. On the other hand, specifications that are too restrictive
are very costly.

Highway Specification is Divided into Two (2):

1. Standard Specifications

2. Special Provisions

• Standard Specifications - applies to project implemented by administration which treat the subject that
repeatedly occurs in the agency work.

• Special Provisions – covers peculiar item of the project in question that include additional modification to
standard specifications. This includes copies of all documents required in securing competitive bids and
contracts. Specifications are also subdivided into two:

 The general clause that deals with the bidding procedures and award execution and control of
work and other legal matters.

 Specifying detail regarding the materials, manner of work execution and how pay quantities are
to be measured.
DESIGNING THE HIGHWAY

2-1 Consistency is the most important single rule in highway design. That is, by making every element of the
roadway conforms to the expectations of every driver.

Drivers’ expectations in the highway:

o Clear information and guidance through a variety of road signs.

o Avoiding abrupt changes in the traffic as well as the road standards.

2-2 DEFINITION OF TERMS

 AASHTO – American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials

 AASHO – American Association of State Highway Officials

AASHTO publications include:

 Transportation Materials Specifications and Tests

 Specifications for highway bridges

 Geometric design standards

 Numerous policy statements and guides

 Roads and Highways is defined as strips of land that have been cleared and further improved for the
movement of people and goods

 Road has somewhat broader application in usage while generally used to describe a public thoroughfare.
(e.g. railways)
 Highway the term was first used in England to describe a public road built by digging ditches on both sides
and heaping up the earth in the middle creating a way higher state of development than road, but the
word are almost interchangeable.

 Expressway is divided arterial highway for through traffic with full or partial control or access and
generally provided with grade separation at major intersections.

 Freeway is an expressway with full control of access

 Control of Access is a condition where the rights of owners or occupants of adjoining land or other
person’s access to light, air or view in connection with a highway is fully or partially controlled by public
authority.

 Full Control of Access – the authority to control access is exercised to give preference to through traffic
by providing access connections to selected public roads only.

 Partial Control of Access – the authority to control access is exercised to give preference to through
traffic.

 Through Street or Through Highway – every Highway or portion thereof on which vehicular traffic is given
preferential right of way, and at the entrance to which vehicular traffic from intersecting highways is
required by law to yield right of way to vehicles on such through highway in obedience to either stop sign
or yield signs erected thereon.

 Parkway is an arterial highway for non-commercial traffic, with full or partial control access point.

 Arterial Street is an arterial route that carries traffic to the nearest access point or through traffic.

Basic Considerations in Planning Arterial Roadways

 Selection of the routes

 Studies of the traffic volume

 Origin and destination

 Accident experiences

 Width should not be less than 15 meters

 Must carry at least one lane traffic in each direction

 Should be at least one kilometer in length

 Should skirt neighborhood areas rather than penetrate them.

 On grid design system streets, arterials are spaced at about 600 to 900 meters apart.

 Where accident hazard is not a factor, the minimum volume to justify arterial road is 300 vehicles
per average hour during the day, and 450 vehicles hourly during peak periods.
Solutions!!

ↄ Parking is prohibited on one or both sides of the street

ↄ Parking is prohibited several meters away from each side of the road intersections or corners.

ↄ Right turns is allowed on red signals any time with care

ↄ Left turns are eliminated on congested intersection

ↄ The direction of traffic is reversed in the center lane to provide more lanes in the direction of heavier
traffic flow

 Collector Street form smaller mesh grid pattern where passengers are pick up from service streets and
carried to the arterials.

 Local Roads is defined as street or road primarily for access to residence, business, or other adjoining
properties.

 Highway Capacity is defined as the maximum number of vehicles that are reasonably expected to pass a
given point over a given period of time usually expressed as vehicles per hour.

 Under ideal conditions, one freeway lane can accommodate about 2,000 passenger cars per one
hour.

 Two-lane road can carry up to 1,000 passenger cars per hour in each direction.

 AADT or ADT “Average Annual Daily Traffic” refers to traffic volume or flow on a highway as measured by
the number of vehicles passing a partial station during a given interval of time.

2-3 The Design Speed

“The speed determined for design and correlation of the physical feature of a highway that influence vehicles
operations. it is the maximum speed that can be maintained over a specified section of the highway when weather
and traffic conditions are so favorable that the design features of the highway govern.” Defined by AASHTO.

AASHTO recommended “The design speed be set to the greatest degree possible, to satisfy the need of nearly all
drivers both today and throughout the road anticipated life.”
Table 2-1 Minimum Recommended Design Speed

Design Speed
Facility
Urban Km/hr Rural Km/hr

110-95
Freeway 80-95 preferred
mountainous

Arterial 64-95 but 48 in built up areas 80-110

Collectors 48 km/hr See table 2-2

Local 32-48km/hr See table 2-2

Table 2-2 AASHTO Minimum Design Speed km/hr for Rural Collectors and Local Roads based on current ADT

Class Terrain
Average Daily Traffic
Collector 0-400 400-750 750-2000 2000-4000 Over 4000

Level 60 75 75 75 90

Rolling 45 60 60 75 75

Mountainous 30 45 45 60 60

Local 0-50 50-250 250-400 Over 400

Level 45 45 60 75

Rolling 30 45 45 60

Mountainous 30 30 30 45

2-4 Cross Section of Typical Highway

ó Variables to be consider

→ Volume of traffic

→ Character of traffic

→ Speed of traffic
 → Characteristics of motor vehicles and drivers

Recent study showed that:

ọ A 7.2m wide pavement has 18% less accident compared with pavement narrower than 5.50m
wide.

ọ A 7.2m wide pavement has 4% fewer accident than the 6.00m wide roadway.

ọ Accident records showed no difference between the 6.60m and 7.20m wide pavement

ọ For 6.00, 6.60m and 7.20m wide with 2.70m-3.00m wide shoulder, recorded accident decreases
by 30% compared to 0 to.60m wide shoulder. And 20% compared with a .90 to 1.20m wide
shoulders.

ọ Two Lane Rural Highways, a 7.20 meters wide surface is required for safe clearance between commercial
vehicles and is recommended for main highways.

ọ Collector Roadway, 6.00m wide surface width is 4.80m for a 30km/hr design speed.

ọ Local Rural Roadway, the minimum surface width is 4.80m for a 30km/hr design speed.

ọ Urban Roadway, the minimum design width is 3.60m although 3.0m is allowed where space is limited.

Figure 2-1 CROSS SECTION OF TYPICAL TWO LANE HIGHWAY Fig. 2-2 MULTI-LANE HIGHWAYS AND FREEWAYS
33.5 26.5

23.5 22m

Fig. 2-4 UNDIVIDED WAYS

2-5 ROAD SHOULDER

Road shoulder or verge is defined as that portion of the roadway between the edge of the traffic lane and the
edge of the ditch, gutters, curb or side slope.

Importance of Road Shoulder

› Serves a place for vehicles to stop when disabled or for some other purposes.

› The road capacity decreased and the accident opportunity increase if the shoulder is too narrow.

› Shoulder should be continuous along the full length of curves

“All inter-town or city highways shall be provided with edge line and may be used on other classes of roads.”

-Uniform Traffic Control Device Manual

Policy on Geometric design recommended that:

◊ Outside shoulder be paved for at least 3 or 3.6m wide if truck volume is more than 250 in the design hour
(ADT)

◊ The recommended width of left (median) shoulder is 1.2 to 2.4m with at least 1.2 meters paved.

◊ If there are 6 or more lanes, the median shoulder should be 3or3.6m wide if truck volume in the design
hour exceeds.

◊ For arterials with ADT less than 400 the usable shoulder width is fixed at 1.2m minimum, although 2.4m
wide is much preferred.

◊ When the design hour volume ADT exceeds 400, the usable minimum shoulder width is 2.4m although
3.6m is recommended.

◊ For Urban Arterial Road, similar shoulder without curb is suggested unless needed for proposed drainage.

◊ The width of median shoulder on four lanes divided arterials is fixed at 90ccm as minimum.

◊ For six or more lanes, 2.4too 3m shoulder width is recommended

◊ For Rural Collectors Roadway, 60cm wide graded shoulder is required for ADT’s less than 400
 ◊ For ADT’s over 2000, 2.4m wide shoulder is recommended

Table2-3 Width of Roadway for Undivided Highway

Total Travelway Shoulder Width Roadway Width Speed of Reference

14.00 3.25 20.50 100-80-60-40

12.00 3.25 18.50 60-40

7.00 2.75 12.50 100-80-60-40

7.00 2.00 11.00 80-60-40

6.70 2.75 12.20 100-80-60-40

6.70 2.00 10.70 80-60-40

6.00 2.75 11.50 80-60-40

6.00 1.50 9.00 80-60-40

Barrier
Parapet

FOOTPATH
Fig 2-7 Straight Alignment Shoulder Detail with Stop
Lane Used As Cycle Path and Footpath

Wall Parapet w/ Barrier

Fig 2-8 NO STOP LANE, NO FOOTPATH, NO

GAURDRAILS SHOULDER
2-6 The Cross Slope

The cross slope is provided in all tangent sections of the roadway. Slope usually falls in both directions from the
center-line of the two lane highway except where super elevation of curves directs all water towards the inside.

2-19 ISLAND
BRIEF HISTORY
 The Romans, who implemented the grid as a urban planning methodology, would place monuments at
the center of large intersections.
 One author claims that Stonehenge served as an inspiration for the first circus (road circus) in England,
which resulted in the traffic island but the first traffic island may not have been built in an English circus.
 When precisely was the first traffic island built? Some claim the first recorded traffic island was built at St.
James street along Piccadilly in London in 1864 by Colonel Pierpoint

ISLAND
An island is a defined area between traffic lanes for control of vehicle movement and for pedestrian
refuge.

• Traffic Islands
A principle concern in Channelization is the design of the islands. An island is a defined area between traffic lanes
for control of vehicle movements.

When traffic islands are longer, they are instead called traffic medians, a strip in the middle of a road. serving the
divider function over a much longer distance.
If the island uses road markings only, without raised curbs or other physical obstructions, it is called a painted
island or (especially in the UK) ghost island.

When making left turns, drivers will often drive over painted islands even though it is technically illegal. Some
traffic islands may serve as
Refuge islands for pedestrians

Classification of Islands
 1. Channelizing Islands - These are designed to control and direct traffic movement, usually turning.
Channelizing islands are shown in Fig.

2. Divisional Islands - These are designed to divide opposing or same direction traffic streams, usually
through movements. Fig. shows the placing of divisional islands in a roadway

3. Refuge islands - Pedestrian islands are provided to serve as safety zones for the aid and protection of
persons on foot. If a divisional island is located in an urban area where pedestrians are present, portions of
each island can be considered a refuge island. Refuge islands are shown below.

Island is included in the design of intersections for the following purposes:

• Separation of vehicular flows.
• Separation of conflicts.
Separation of conflicts.
Reduction of the Area of Conflict: The impact area is decreased when Channelization is provided, and hence the
probability of conflicts is also reduced. The figure below further clarifies the statement.

• Reduction of traffic and indications of proper use of intersections.

• Arrangement to favor a prominent turning movement.
• Location of traffic control devices.

When cross traffic meets at flat angle, head on collision could be more serious. A right angle at 75° to 105° is most
favorable giving the driver that opportunity to access or calculate the position and speed of oncoming vehicles.

A well-studied super elevation is an important adjunct to channelization that regulates the vehicle speed and:
1. PROHIBITED TURNS ARE PREVENTED.
Discourage prohibited turns by island placement and shape: Undesirable and prohibited turns can be discouraged
by the proper selection of shape and location of the islands.

Fig. shows how prohibited turns can be discouraged by proper shaping and placement of islands.
2. REFUGE MAY BE PROVIDED FOR TURNING OR CROSSING VEHICLES AND PEDESTRIAN
Protection for turning vehicles/crossing conflicting traffic streams: Provision of a refuge area between the two
opposing streams allows the driver of a crossing vehicle to select a safe gap in one stream at a time and also
provides a safer crossing maneuver. Fig. 10 further clarifies the above statement.
Fig. further clarifies the above statement.

3. BY CHANNELIZATION, REFUGE MAY BE PROVIDED FOR TURNING OR CROSSING VEHICLES AND PEDESTRIANS
4. THE DRIVERS HAS TO FACE ONLY ONE DECISION AT A TIME, HENCE, CONFLICTS CAN BE AVOIDED.
Merging traffic streams at small angles: Merging at small angles permits the flow of traffic streams with minimum
speed differentials. Hence, the gap acceptance time is also small in such cases

Fig. shows how channelizing devices can also be used for locating traffic control devices.

2-20 TYPES OF INTERCHANGE

The functions of freeway interchanges are
• To provide separation between two or more traffic arteries.
 • To facilitate the easy transfer of vehicles from one entry to other or between local roadway and the
freeway.

Objections to the Cloverleaf Interchange Design

• It requires large area of land.
• At higher design speed, more time is consumed just to traverse the longer loops.
• Vehicles making left turn execute 270° right turn and travel greater distance becoming very unpleasant
and hazardous due to the sharp curves and sleep grades.
• Vehicles leaving the curve loop in one quadrant weave those entering the adjacent loop from the through
roadway.
• Alternative cloverleaf design with collector distributor road is recommended for one or two through
street if the cost of added land paving and structures can be justified. Under this type, weaving and
merging movements and separated. It is provide an opportunity to speed adjustment clear of the
freeway. When freeway meets freeway where the traffic movement is heavy, interchange is provided
with directional left turn in all four quadrants.
2-21 HIGHWAY INTERSECTION AT GRADE
All highways except freeways have intersections at grade. Intersection area is considered part of every connecting
road. In this area all crossing and turning movement occurs.
1. For right angle intersections with little traffic, the use of street sign is more than sufficient.
2. For Y intersection or other related conformation where vehicles meet at unfavorable angles may require
channelization.
3. The flared design will involve the following:
a) Widening the entering traffic lane to allow deceleration of the car and clear of through traffic.
b) Widening the leaving lanes to provide acceleration and merging from the traffic streams.

4. Intersections must accommodate large trucks, and the radius of all curves must be sufficient enough to
accommodate them.
A careful traffic count and projected future improvement must precede the design of all critical sections.
Based from the data gathered on traffic count, the lane capacity could be determined including the number of
lanes to be constructed.
2-22 FREEWAY ENTRANCE AND EXIT
The overall effectiveness of the individual freeway systems is governed by the flow characteristics of vehicles, and
the driver’s behavior near on and off the channel.
A single lane on ramp vehicle flows into the outer continuation freeway lane. The design is either a taper blending
into the through lane or an auxiliary lane parallel to the through lane. In either case, sufficient length is required to
allow the vehicles to accelerate and merge into the ongoing vehicle stream at a speed near that of the freeway.
Vehicles leaving the freeway need distance to accelerate and clear of the flow of ongoing traffic. In situation where
one lane could not meet the traffic demand, two lane exits is necessary. In that situation, an auxiliary lane must be
added to the freeway at least 800 meters before the point of exit. Even with one lane exit, an auxiliary lane is
necessary for it reduces confusion and congestions.

2-23 RAILROAD-HIGHWAY SEPARATIONS

The main question asked on a railroad and highway separation is: “Where one is to go over – the railroad or the
highway?” If the highway is to go over the railroad, the structure itself is the lighter and the highway load is much
smaller than the railroads. With regards to the vertical clearance height, the railroad requires minimum of 7.00
meter as against 4.80 meters clear distance above the highway.

If the highway goes under the railroad, special provision is required for the removal of rainwater that falls within
the opposing area. If the ground water is high in the vicinity of the crossing, the roadway must be scaled against
leakage and be made heavy enough to prevent from floating.

Grade separation is the method of aligning a junction of two or more surface transport axes at different heights
(grades) so that they will not disrupt the traffic flow on other transit routes when they cross each other. The
composition of such transport axes does not have to be uniform; it can consist of a mixture of roads, footpaths,
railways, canals, or airport runways. Bridges, tunnels, or a combination of both can be built at a junction to achieve
the needed grade separation.

2-24 BICYCLE LANE

Bicycle use is now becoming popular due to energy crises and traffic problems. It requires separate road for the
riders that is entirely separate from the vehicular traffic. The design speed is to 20 to 30 kilometers per hour for
flat section. The width is 2.00 meters minimum for a two-way travel. The grade of the lane is 5% maximum on
short distances.
• Segregated cycle facilities are a form of cycling infrastructure consisting of marked lanes, tracks,
shoulders and paths designated for use by cyclists and from which motorised traffic is generally excluded.
The term includes bike lanes, cycle tracks, separated bike lanes, road shoulders and side paths located
within a road right-of-way.
3-1 Soil and its Origin

Soil may be defined as the accumulation of unconsolidated sediments and deposits of solid particles as a
result of the integration of rocks.

Rocks may be defined as natural aggregate of minerals connected by strong bonding of attractive forces
classified as consolidated materials.

Rock types are classified into three major classes in accordance with their on origin or method of
formations:

1. Igneous Rock
2. Sedimentary Rock
3. Metamorphic Rock

Igneous Rock is the result from the cooling and hardening of molten rock called magma that has
originated from deep within the earth.

The molten lavas that rapidly cooled on the earth surface are volcanic rock types called basalts, rhyolites
and andesites.

Basalts Rhyolites Andesites Granite

The molten rocks that were trapped deep below the surface of the earth, cooled slowly, and the mineral
components forms into large interlocking crystals and coarse textured rocks classified as plutonic types of which,
granite is the most common.

Sedimentary Rocks are formed from accumulated deposits of soil particles or remains of certain
organisms that have harden by pressure or cemented by materials.

Sedimentary rocks include limestone and dolostone, shale, conglomerate and breccia.
 Limestone Dolostone Shale Conglomerate Breccia

Metamorphic Rocks are rocks resulted from metamorphism due to changes in temperature, pressure
and plastic flow, changing the original rock structure and mineral composition of the rock.

Under this processes, limestone is change to marble, sandstone to quartzite, shale to slate or phylite.

Categories of Soil

Soil can be divided into two categories, namely:

1. Residual Soil
2. Transported Soil

Residual Soil or Sedimentary Soil is formed from the weathering of rocks or accumulation of organic
materials remained at the location of their origin.

Weathering Process:

Mechanical Weathering – refers to physical disintegration due to effects of wind, rain, running water or
tectonic forces (earthquake).
 Chemical and solution weathering – is decomposition of rock due to chemical reactions that occur as a
result of exposure to atmosphere, temperature changes, reaction with water or other materials. Likewise,
climate, topography, drainage and vegetative cover have great influences on the chemical or solution
weathering process.

Transported Soils are those materials transported from their place of origin. Transportation may result
due to the effects of gravity, wind, water, glaciers or human activity.

3-2 Types of Soil

The major categories of soil are gravel, sand, silt and clay. Gravel and sand are universally known as
coarse grain soil because of their individual particles that are large enough to distinguish without magnification. On
the other hand, silt and clay are considered as fine grain soil because of their tiny particles.

Gravel Sand Silt Clay

Gravel is composed of unconsolidated rock fragments that have a general particle size range and include
size classes from granule- to boulder-sized fragments.

Sand is a naturally occurring granular material composed of finely divided rock and mineral particles.
 Silt is granular material of a size somewhere between sand and clay whose mineral origin is quartz and
feldspar. Silt may occur as a soil or as suspended sediment (also known as suspended load) in a surface water b

Clay is a fine-grained soil that combines one or more clay minerals with traces of metal oxides and organic
matter.

Cobbles or Boulder are particles commonly larger than gravel.

Cobbles and Boulder

Plasticity is the ability of the materials to undergo deformation without cracking.

If small amount of moist silt sample is shaken on the palm of the hand, water will appear on the surface of
the sample but disappear when shaking stops. This phenomenon is called dilatancy.

Dilatancy

3-3 Characteristics of Soil

 Soil consists largely of minerals formed by disintegration or decomposition of rocks. Disintegration or
decomposition into soil may be caused by the action of water or other natural forces like temperature change, or
by plant or animal life.

Soil contains humus and organic acids resulted from decay of vegetation. All soils contain water, either
free or absorbed in varying contents. Soil in most case, are blend or mixture of particle sizes, shapes, and parent
rock materials making its behavior very difficult to predict.

Behavior of soil mass could be determined based on the characteristics of individual soil particles such as:

1. Grain size

2. Grain shape

3. Surface texture and electrical surface charges, resulted from chemical composition and molecular
structures.

The General Characteristics and Classification of Soil Particles are enumerated as follows:

1. Gravel 4. Silt grain

2. Coarse sand 5. Clay

3. Fine sand 6. Colloidal clay

Gravel consist of rock fragments more or less rounded by water action or abrasion classified according to
the following types:

a) Quartz is the hardest of common rock forming mineral.

b) Well Rounded Pebbles and Boulders – those that undergone long period of wear that become almost
quartz.

c) Slightly Worm Gravel is rough and angular including other materials or rocks like granite, schist, basalt
or limestone.

Quartz Well Rounded Pebbles and Boulders Slightly Worm Gravel

Fine Sand has particles that are more angular than the coarse and fine sand particles.
 Coarse Sand is usually rounded like gravel with which it is found and generally contains the same
materials.

Silt Sand is similar to fine sand with the same mineral composition. They are found as rock flour in glacial
moraines. It could be produced by chemical decay. Occasionally, silt contains:

1. Pumice – is a light-colored, extremely porous igneous rock that forms during explosive volcanic
eruptions.

2. Loess - is a clastic, predominantly silt-sized sediment, which is formed by the accumulation of wind-
blown dust.

3. Materials foreign to the associated sand.

Fine Sand Coarse Sand Silt Sand

 Clay is a plate like, scale like, or rod like in shape as a result of chemical weathering. Because of their
smaller sizes, its performance is influenced by moisture and surface chemistry.

Colloidal Clay is a finer clay particle that remains suspended in water and does not settle under the force
of gravity.

Coarse Grain Materials. For most purposes, coarse grain materials are considered satisfactory
construction material.

Important Grain Shape Characteristics

1. Rounded particles extracted from the stream that has undergone wear, are considered strong materials.

2. Flat and flaky particles that were not subjected to wear, are weak and variable that is not suitable for
various use.

3. Angular or roughly cubical shape particles produced from crushing strong and tough rocks, increases the
resistance of soil mass to deformation when subjected to load, due to individually interlocking grains.

4. Generally, the rounded particle has the tendency to roll over each other when subjected to load.

3-4 Classification for Soils

Pedology is the science of soils. It is the basis for pedological classification under the principle that: “like
soil are developed on like slope when like materials are weathered in like fashion.”

The texture classification of soil depending on the grain size distribution is classified into three groups,
namely: (a) sand, (b) silt and (c) clay.

GRADE SIZE OF PARTICLES (mm)

Coarse Sand 2.00 – 0.25

 Fine Sand 0.25 – 0.05

Silty 0.05 – 0.005

Clay Smaller than 0.005

FIGURE 3-1 TEXTUAL CLASSIFICATION FOR SUBGRADE SOIL OF SAND AND SMALLER SIZES

The positions of every point inside the triangle represent the sieve analysis of soil in particular grading.
After determining the grain size of the sample, chart is read as follows:

1. Spaces vertically upward starting from zero at the bottom represent clay percentage.

2. Spaces from left to right diagonally downward starting with zero at the left, represents silt.

3. Spaces from right to left diagonally downward starting with zero at the right, represents sand.

Soil that is almost entirely a mixture of sand and silt are classified as loams. Every soil containing clay of
less than 20%, is classified as loam with a prefix sandy or silty added to indicate which predominates. These will
appear at the lower portion of the chart.

Soil containing 20 to 30 percent clay is also called loam, with the term clay added to indicate the higher
clay content. All other soil is designated as clay with prefixes of sandy, or silty to indicate the remainder of the
materials.

The Unified Soil Classification System, was introduced by the U.S. Army Corps and the Bureau of
Reclamations. Letters were used instead of numbers to designate the different groups. The mechanical analysis
and the liquid and plastic limit tests are the primary classification tools. The principal symbols and soil designations
are:

1. For coarse grain soil – more than 50% retained on No. 200 sieves.

Symbols Identification

G For gravel or gravely soil

S For sand and sandy soil

2. Subdivision of Sand and Gravel

Symbols Identification

W For well graded, fairly clean materials

 GW For well graded gravel

SW For well graded sand

C Coarse materials with clay binder in combination GP and SP

P Poorly graded fairly clean material in combination GM and SM

M Coarse materials containig silts or rock flour in combination GM

and SM

3. Fine grain soil (more than 50% passing No. 200)

Symbols Identification

Mo Organic silts and very fine soils

C Inorganic clays

O Organic silt and clay

4. Fine grain soil grouped according to its liquid limit

Symbols Identification

L For fine grain soil with liquid limit less than 50, low to medium
compressibility in combination ML, CL and OL

H For fine grain soil with liquid limit greater than 50, high
compressibility in combination MH and OH

P Highly organic soil-peat and swamp oil

The Unified Soil Classification System recommended several ways for quick identification of fine grain
portions of the soil, namely:

1. The sample is mixed with water to have a putty-like consistency, then formed into pat and dried
completely.
 2. If the pat is broken by the fingers and the dry strength is high, plasticity of the sample is considered high.

3. If dry strength of the sample is high, then, it exhibits clay and colloid characteristics

4. If the sample is a pat of fine silty sand, it will easily break in the finger.

5. Fine sand will cause the pat to feel gritty on the fingers and silts is smooth.

6. Dilatancy or reaction to shaking is another way of classifying the soil mortar. About one cubic inch of soil
is mixed with water and formed into a pat of soft but not sticky consistency. If the material is of fine sand,
shaking and jolting the sample on the palm of the hand will bring water to the surface of the sample.
Squeezing it between fingers causes the moisture to disappear. Silts react less completely but clay does not.

TABLE 3-1 COMMON SIEVE TYPES AND MESH OPENING

Sieve Size U.S. Standard Tyler Standard British Standard

Disintegration No. Millimeter Millimeter Millimeter

4 4.760 4.700 -

8 2.380 2.362 2.057

10 1.680 1.651 1.676

20 0.840 0.833 -

40 0.420 - -

60 0.250 0.246 0.251

100 0.149 0.147 0.152

200 0.074 0.074 0.076

270 0.053 0.053 -

400 0.037 0.038 -

3-5 Composition of Soil

Soil deposit consists of solid particles and void spaces between particles, either partially or completely
filled with water. Void spaces not completely filled with water, are either filled with air or other gases.
 Strength and compressibility of the soil is directly related to:

1. Soil density weight per unit volume.

2. Water content of the soil.

3. Void ratio

4. Degree of saturation.

FIGURE 3-2 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VOLUME AND MASS WEIGHT

Relationship Between Mass Volume and Mass Weight

From Figure 3-2, the total weight of the soil volume is:

Weight of the solid (Ws) + Weight of the water is equal to the Total Weight (Wt) or

Ws + Ww = Wt

Similarly for measurement of mass

Ms + Mw = Total Mass

Ms + Mw = Mt

Therefore, the total volume of soil sample of the bulk includes the solid and liquid, air or gas. The volume
of water and air is called volume of voids, thus:

The total volume (Vt) = volume of solid + volume of voids

Vt = Vs + (Vw + Va)

= Volume of solid +Volume of voids

Vt = Vs + Vv

The relationship between the weight and volume of any materials:

W = VgUw
 While mass and volume

M = VgDw

Where:

W = weight of the material

V = volume occupied by the material

G = specific gravity of the material

3
Uw = unit weight of water at temperature stated (in most soil work, Uw = 62.4 lb/ft , 9.8
3 3
dynes/cm or 9.81 kN/m regardless of temperature)

M = mass of the materials

3 3
Dw = density of water (1gm/cm or 1.95 slugs/ft )

o The specific gravity of most commonly occurring rock or soil or soil materials is between 2.30 and 3.10

o The specific gravity of soil solids lies within the range of 2.60 to 2.75

The Unit Weight of Soil U could be Expressed as:

𝑊𝑡 3 3
Wet unit weight 𝑈𝑤𝑒𝑡 = (p/ft , kNm )
𝑉𝑡

𝑊𝑠 3 3
Dry unit weight 𝑈𝑑𝑟𝑦 = (p/ft , kNm )
𝑉𝑡

For soil density:

𝑀𝑡 3 3
Wet density 𝐷𝑤𝑒𝑡 = (kg/m , gm/cm )
𝑉𝑡

𝑀𝑠 3 3
Dry density 𝐷𝑑𝑟𝑦 = (kg/m , gm/cm )
𝑉𝑡

3
1 gm/cm = 62.4 pounds per cubic ft.
3
The weight of one cm of water = 980 dynes
3
The weight of one ft of water = 62.4 lbs.

By definition, water content W is the ratio of the weight of water in soil volume to the weight of soil
solids, or of the mass of water in a soil to the mass of solids. Thus:

𝑊𝑤 𝑀𝑤
𝑊% = 𝑥 100% 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 100%
𝑊𝑠 𝑀𝑠

Where:

w % = Water content in percentage

Ww = Weight of water
 Ws = Weight of dry soil

Mw = Mass of water

Ms = Mass of solid

The relationship of water content and the weight of dry soil to the total weight of the soil volume should
be:

𝑊𝑡 = 𝑊𝑠 + 𝑊𝑤

(𝑊%) 𝑊𝑠
Since: 𝑊𝑤 =
100%

(𝑊%)𝑊𝑠
By Substitution: 𝑊𝑡 = 𝑊𝑠 +
100%

𝑊𝑠 (1+𝑊%)
By Factoring: 𝑊𝑡 =
100%

𝑀𝑡
Similarly 𝑀𝑠 = 𝑤%
1+
100%

The weight of dry soil mass could be found easily with these equations when the weight of a large soil
mass sample and the water content is known from a representative sample.

The Void Ratio and Porosity in relation with the solid and void volume follows:

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑑𝑠
𝑒=
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑

𝑉𝑣
𝑒=
𝑉𝑠

The Void Ratio is expressed in decimal number, and the Porosity P is conventionally expressed in
percentage. Thus:

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑑𝑠 𝑥 100%

𝑝% =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

𝑉𝑣
𝑝% = 𝑥 100%
𝑉𝑡

And the relationship between void ratio and porosity is:

𝑝%
100%
𝑒= 𝑝%
1−
100%

𝑒
𝑝% = 100%
1+𝑒

The degree of saturation S, indicates the portion of the void spaces in a soil material that is filled with
water. The degree of saturation is expressed in percentage.

𝑉𝑤
𝑆% = 𝑥 100%
𝑉𝑣

Full saturation or 100% saturation means that all voids are filled with liquid.
 𝑉𝑣
Since 𝑉𝑡 = 𝑉𝑠 + 𝑉𝑣 and 𝑒 =
𝑉𝑠

𝑉𝑡 = 𝑉𝑠 + 𝑒𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑠(1 + 𝑒) or;

𝑉𝑡
𝑉𝑠 =
1+𝑒

Example 1

One cubic foot of soil sample weighing 130 lbs was taken from a test pit. The entire sample is thoroughly
dried and finally weighted 120 lbs. solve for the water content, wet unit weight and the dry unit weight.

Solution

Weight of water: Ww = 130 – 120 = 10 lbs

Weight of dry soil Ws = 120 lbs

Total volume of sample = 1.0 cu. ft.

Wet unit weight Uwet = Wt/Vt = 130/1.0 = 130 lbs/cu.ft.

Dry unit weight Udry = Ws/Vt = 120/1.0 = 120 lbs/cu.ft.

Water content w% = (Ww/Ws) x 100% = (101 lbs/120 lbs) x 100%

Water content w% = 8.3 %

Example 2

Compute for the wet density, dry unit weight, void ratio, water content and the degree of saturation from a
sample of moist soil with mass weight of 20 kg that occupies a total volume of 0.008 cu. m and 0.006 cu. m volume
of solid. The sample is dried in oven and weighed 18 kg. The specific gravity of the soil solid is 2.60.
Solution

𝑀𝑡 20
Wet density: 𝐷𝑤𝑒𝑡 = = = 2,500 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝑉𝑡 0.008

𝑊𝑠 𝑀𝑠𝑔
Dry Unit: 𝑈𝑑𝑟𝑦 = =
𝑉𝑡 𝑉𝑡

𝑘𝑁
18𝑘𝑔(9.81 3 )
𝑚
= 22.072 𝑘𝑁/𝑚3
0.008 𝑚3

𝑀𝑤
Water Content: 𝑤% = 𝑥 100%
𝑀𝑠

20−18
𝑤% = 𝑥 100% = 11.1%
18

𝑉𝑣 0.008−0.006
Void ratio: 𝑒= = = 0.33
𝑉𝑠 0.006

𝑊𝑔𝑠 11.1 𝑥 2.60

Degree of saturation: 𝑆% = = = 87%
𝑒 0.33

Example 3

A 200 cubic centimeters sample of wet soil has a mass of 300 grams when 100% saturated. The mass was
180 grams when dried. Determine the dry density, dry unit weight, water content, void ratio, and specific gravity.

Solution:

𝑀𝑠 180𝑔𝑚
Dry Density: 𝐷𝑑𝑟𝑦 = = = 0.90 𝑔𝑚/𝑐𝑚3
𝑉𝑡 200𝑔𝑚

0.90𝑔𝑚 (62.4 𝑙𝑏𝑠/𝑓𝑡 3 ) 𝑙𝑏𝑠

Dry Unit Weight: 𝑈𝑑𝑟𝑦 = � � = 56.2 𝑓𝑡.
𝑐𝑚3 𝑔𝑚/𝑐𝑚3 𝑐𝑢

(𝑀𝑤) (300 𝑔𝑚.−180 𝑔𝑚.)𝑥 100%

Water Content: 𝑤 % = 𝑥 100% =
𝑀𝑠 180 𝑔𝑚.
 𝑤 % = 66.60 %

Example 4

Laboratory test result showed that the void ratio of a saturated soil sample is 0.40. The specific gravity of
soil solid is 2.60. Find the wet unit weight of the soil and its water content.

Solution

1. Since the sample is saturated, all voids are filled with water.
𝑉𝑣
2. Void ratio: 𝑒 = = 0.40 , but Vv and Vs are not known so it is assumed that Vs = 1.0
𝑉𝑠
Therefore;
𝑉𝑡 = 𝑉𝑠 + 𝑒𝑉𝑠 = 1.0 + 0.40(1.0) = 1.40
𝑊𝑠 = 𝑉𝑠 𝑔𝑠 𝑈𝑤 = 1.0(2.60)(62.4 𝑝𝑐𝑓) = 162.24 𝑙𝑏𝑠
𝑊𝑤 = 𝑉𝑤𝑈𝑤 = (0.40)(62.4) = 24.96 𝑙𝑏𝑠

From which:
𝑊𝑡 = 𝑊𝑠 + 𝑊𝑤 = 162.24 + 24.96 = 187.20 𝑙𝑏𝑠

Thus:
Wet unit weight;
𝑊𝑡 187.2
𝑈𝑤𝑒𝑡 = = = 133.7 𝑝𝑐𝑓
𝑉𝑡 1.40
Water Content:
𝑊𝑤 24.96 𝑙𝑏𝑠 𝑥 100%
𝑤%= 𝑥 100% = = 15%
𝑊𝑠 162.24 𝑙𝑏𝑠

To relate a value given in grams per cubic centimeter (i.e. density) to pound per cubic foot (i.e. unit
weight), multiply by 62.4 gm/cm3 = 62.4 lbs/ft 3 .

Submerged Soil

For under water condition, the soil solid is buoyed up by pressure of the surrounding body of water.
Therefore, the weight of submerged soil become lighter compared to the soil above water. Thus the effective soil
weight becomes the unit weight when weighed under water. The weight of water in the voids of soil is zero when
submerged, because all voids were assumed to be filled with water, and the weight of solid reduced by the weight
of water displaced.

Therefore, the submerged weight is equal to the soil weight above the water minus the weight of water
displaced. Thus;

Wsub = Vs gs Uw – Vs gw Uw
 = Vs Uw (gs – gw) (by factoring)

= Vs Uw (gs – 1)

Since the unit weight is the total weight divided by the total Volume, we have:

𝑊𝑠𝑢𝑏 𝑉𝑠 𝑈𝑤 (𝑔𝑠−1)
𝑈𝑠𝑢𝑏 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 = =
𝑉𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑠 (1+𝑒)

𝑔𝑠−1 𝑈𝑤
𝑈𝑠𝑢𝑏 𝑜𝑖𝑙 =
1+𝑒

For easy computation, the submerged weight is ½ the wet soil above the water table, except the soil
containing significant decomposed vegetation or organic materials.

Usub soil = ½ U wet soil (approximately)

For soil above the water table but 100% saturated, we have:

Usub soil = Usat – Uw

3
Usub soil = Usat soil – 62.4 lbs/ ft

Example 5

One cubic foot undisturbed soil from a test pit, weighs 100 pounds net weight. The dry weight of the
sample is 80 lbs. What will be the effective unit weight of the soil if it is submerged below the ground water level
when the specific gravity is 2.60?

Solution

1 1
𝑈 𝑠𝑢𝑏 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 = 𝑈𝑤𝑒𝑡 = (100 𝑝𝑐𝑓) = 50 𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 3
2 2

Using the accurate formula, we have:

𝑊𝑠 80 𝑙𝑏𝑠 80
𝑉𝑠 = = = = 0.49 𝑓𝑡 3
𝑔𝑠 𝑈𝑤 2.60 (62.4) 162.24

𝑉𝑣 = 𝑉𝑡 − 𝑉𝑠 = 1.0 − 0.49 = 0.51 𝑓𝑡 3

𝑉𝑣 0.51
𝑒= = = 1.04
𝑉𝑠 0.49

(𝑔𝑠−1)𝑈𝑤 (2.60−1)(62.4)
𝑈𝑠𝑢𝑏 = (1+𝑒)
= (1+1.04)
= 48.94 𝑙𝑏𝑠/𝑓𝑡 3

𝑊𝑠𝑢𝑏 = 𝑉𝑠 𝑈𝑤 (𝑔𝑠 − 1) = (0.49)(62.4)(2.60 − 1) = 48.92 𝑙𝑏𝑠/𝑓𝑡 3

𝑊𝑠𝑢𝑏 48.92 𝑙𝑏𝑠/𝑓𝑡 3

𝑈𝑠𝑢𝑏 = =
𝑉𝑡 1.0 𝑓𝑡 3

3-6 Soil Reaction to Density

 The property of soil that contains larger amount of fines, are influenced by mixture rather than by any
other factor. Soil that is strong enough with supporting capability under one set of moisture is changed. Records
revealed that an increase of 1% moisture content on granular layers increase damage to pavement by a factor of
700. Definitely, soils that are used as sub grade is subject to moisture changes.

Density of soil is its mass per unit volume. It is sometimes expressed as “Wet Weight” or the total weight
including water. The air volume of soil substantially decreases as soil particles become dense when compacted.
The most important consideration in pavement work is, to decrease the moisture content of the coarse grain soil.

3-7 In-Place Density and Unit Weight

In place density, refers to the volumetric weight expressed in pound per cubic foot, or kilo Newton per
cubic meter or mega grams per cubic meter of soil in the undisturbed condition or compacted fill. The density of
3 3
water is one mega gram per cubic meter (1 mg/m ) or 1,000,000 gm/m )

For coarse grain soil, the higher the density or unit weight, the stronger the shear strength, and the lesser
the tendency to settlement by compression.

The modern equipment used for making in place density and unit weight test, is a nuclear apparatus.
Through controlled use of nuclear materials, gamma rays (photons) are emitted into the tested soil. The photons
collide with electrons in the soil materials. Some are being scattered and others were being absorbed. The quantity
of photons reaching a detection device relates to the soil density to determine the water content of the soil. A
Newton emitting device and detector is used.

A nuclear density gauge is a tool used in civil construction and the petroleum industry, as well as for
mining and archaeology purposes. It consists of a radiation source that emits a directed beam of particles and
a sensor that counts the received particles that are either reflected by the test material or pass through it. By
calculating the percentage of particles that return to the sensor, the gauge can be calibrated to measure the
density and inner structure of the test material.

Different variants are used for different purposes. For density analysis of very shallow objects such as
137
roads or walls, a gamma source emitter such as Cesium is used to produce gamma radiation. These isotopes are
226
effective in analyzing the top 10 inches (25 centimeters) with high accuracy. Radium is used for depths of 328
yards (300 meters). Such instruments can help find underground caves or identify locations with lower density that
would make tunnel construction hazardous.

Nuclear Density Gage

3- 8 Relative Density

Higher strength and resistance to compression are developed by the soil when it is dense, or compact
condition (high density), than when it is in a loose condition (low density). In a dense condition, the soil void ratio
is low and high on loose condition.

Relative density is expressed in percentage:

𝑒 max − 𝑒𝑜
𝐷𝑟% = 𝑥 100%
𝑒 max − 𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑛

Where:

e max – Void ratio of the soil in its loosest condition.

e min – Void ratio of the soil in its densest condition.

eo – Void ratio of the soil in its natural conditioned or conditions in question.\

In terms of dry unit weight, the relative density is:

1 1
−
𝐷𝑟 % = 𝐷𝑢𝑙 𝐷𝑜
1 1 𝑥 100%
−
𝐷𝑜 𝐷𝑢𝑑

Where:

Dul = Dry unit weight in its loosest condition.

Dud = Dry unit weight in its densest condition.

Do = Dry unit weight in its natural condition or condition in question.

Example 6

A sample of undisturbed fine sand 0.09 cubic foot, 10 lbs. dry weight with specific gravity (gs) of 2.60 was
tested at the maximum density of 0.40 and minimum density with void ratio of 0.90. Find the relative density of
the undisturbed sample.

Solution
 𝑊𝑠 10 𝑙𝑏
𝑉𝑠 = = (2.60)(62.4)
= 0.06𝑓𝑡 3
𝑔𝑠 𝑈𝑤

𝑉𝑣 = 𝑉𝑡 − 𝑉𝑠 = 0.09 − 0.06 = 0.03 𝑓𝑡 3

𝑉𝑣 0.03
𝑒𝑜 = = = 0.5
𝑉𝑠 0.06

𝑒 max − 𝑒𝑜 0.90−0.50
𝐷𝑟% = 𝑥 100% = = 80%
𝑒 max − 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛 0.90−0.40

𝑊𝑠 10 𝑙𝑏𝑠
𝑈𝑑𝑟𝑦 = = = 111 𝑙𝑏𝑠/𝑓𝑡 3
𝑊𝑡 0.09

TABLE 3-3 REPRESENTATIVE VALUES OF RELATIVE DENSITY

Typical Range of Unit Weight

Descriptive Relative

Condition Density 3
Lbs/ cu. Ft. kN/m

Loose Less than 35 Less than 90 Less than 14

Medium Dense 35 – 65 90 – 110 14 – 17

Dense 65 – 85 110 – 130 17 – 20

Very Dense More than 85 More than 130 More than 20

Source: Essentials of Soil Mechanics and Foundation by David E. Mc Carthy

4-1 Test for Particle Size

Different soil has different characteristics affecting the performance of each individual soil by moisture
content and density. There are several kinds of physical tests that have been developed to measure soil
performance issued and recommended by AASHTO and ASTM.

The Sieve Analysis is the process being used to determine the particle sizes of gravel and fine aggregates.
A sample of the material is thoroughly dried and shaken through series of sieves ranging from course to fine. The
amount on each sieve is weighed and recorded. The AASHTO standard sieve sizes for soil aggregates are presented
as follows.

Sieve No. in 2 1 1/2 1 3/4 3/8 4 10 40 200

Inches
By Number 50 37.5 25.0 19.0 9.50 4.75 2.0 .425 0.075
Opening in
millimeter
Source:AASHTO Designation T-27,M92 and ASTM Desig. E-11

SIEVES

Material finer than No. 200 sieve (0.075 mm) is not feasible in determining the particle sizes. Instead,
these are determined by observing the rate at which the grains settle through liquid or gas.

Under the Stoke’s Law, “ The rate of settlement of solid through a given liquid or gas is proportional to the
square of the diameters of the solid.” The AASHTO method as specified is called Hydrometer Test AASHTO
Designation T-88.

Fig. Schematic Drawing

Hydrometer Test of a hydrometer.

1. Sample of the material passing No. 10 sieve is mixed The lower the density
of fluid, the deeper the
thoroughly with water and dispersing agent that
weighted float B will
dissipate any electrolytic bonds in the sample that sink; the depth can be
might case flocculation and accelerate settlement. read off the scale A
2. After 12 hours, the mixture is agitated making all
particles suspended in water.
 3. The mixture is then placed in a graduated flask, allowing the solid to
settle under the pull of gravity.
4. The bigger the particles settle first, followed by the smaller then the
smallest one. The specific gravity of the liquid decreases. The changes are
recorded by special hydrometer and read at prescribed intervals.
5. Change in specific gravity is related to the grain size of the material by
Stoke’s Law.
6. Careful control of temperature and other possible variable is strictly
observed to obtain satisfactory test results.

4-2 Test to Evaluate the Effect of Moisture

The shrinkage limit (SL) is the water

content where further loss of moisture
will not result in any more volume
reduction

The plastic limit is determined by rolling

out a thread of the fine portion of a soil
on a flat, non-porous surface.

The liquid limit (LL) is often conceptually

defined as the water content at which
the behavior of a clayey soil changes
from plastic to liquid.

Consistency of the soil varies from semi solid to plastic then, to liquid if water content is increased.

1. The Liquid Limit Test

The AASHTO Designation T-89 on liquid limit signifies the percentage of moisture at which the
sample changes by decreasing the water from liquid to plastic state. When the sample is wet than
the liquid limit, a grooved sample of the soil in a cup will flow when lightly jarred 25 minutes. On
the other hand, if the sample is jarred at the liquid limit, water separates the soil
Fig. 1 Mixing of Soil Fig. 2 Place Soil in Liquid Fig. 3 Make a groove in the Fig. 4 Testing
Limit Device soil

Divided soil cake before test Soil cake after test

particles just wide enough to remove the soil mass shearing strength. Several tests on each sample
are required to reach the moisture content wherein the groove in the sample is required to close at
exactly 25 blows.

2. The Plastic Limit Test

AASHTO Designation T-90 signifies the percentage of moisture wherein the sample changes
with lowering wetness from plastic to semi-solid condition. At this stage, the soil mortar starts to
crumble when rolled into threads 1/8” diameter. Additional water will make the soil plastic, but
sands are non-plastic material that its non-plastic limit cannot be determined.

3. The Plastic Index Test

AASHTO Designation T-91 is defined as the numerical difference between its liquid limit and its
plastic limit. It is also referred to as the percentage of dry weight. In some combination, it
measures:
a.) The fineness and shapes of the soil particles
b.) The interplay of the attractive forces tending to hold the clay mineral flakes together
 c.) The thickness and velocity of the water film and,
d.) The quantity and electrical charges of the cations.

For coarse rain soil or fine grain soil with few particles of clay of colloidal size, small increase of water
above the plastic limit will cause particles separation, destroying the attractive forces that provide
shearing strength. It simply means that, the difference between the plastic limit and the liquid limit is
small, so that the plastic index is also small.

On the contrary, for a soil that is high in clay or colloids, more water will be required before the
attractive forces are overcome, and the strength of the mass is destroyed. In this case, the plasticity index
is numerically high.

Experienced road builders use the Plastic Index as one control in selecting the materials for under
pavement. A common base course materials specified, requires the plastic index not to exceed 6 while
others insist on not greater than 3. Soils with high plasticity indices are much less acceptable for sub-
grade in base course.

4. The Shrinkage Test

Shrinkage test measures the
1 2 3 changes in volume and weight that
occur as partly mixture of soil and
water (except sieve No. 40). Sample
is dried from the near liquid limit to
constant weight of 110° C. The
results are stated in terms of
shrinkage limit, volumetric change,
and lineal shrinkage.
4 5 6 Higher value of shrinkage
factor showed that the soil will give
more trouble and problem. The
volume of a certain soil increases
when it absorbs water. Soils that are
suitable for subgrade and base course
are those that expand very little when
moistened. And those that swell more
are considered as poor materials. A
common soil specimen requires volume change limit of 1/% for base coarse materials.

5. Hand Feel Test

Experienced soil engineer employ the hand feel test to approximately predict plasticity index of the soil.
The test may include:
a.) Thread toughness at moisture content approximating the plastic limit.
b.) The air-dried strength
c.) Dilatancy

Soil mortar possessing high plastic index will produce tough threads and high strength without dilatancy.

On the other hand, soils having low Plastic Index (PI) will react in an
opposite manner. Skilled soil technician could on the basis of this test
predict the Plastic Index with standard error of about 1% .

Dilatancy
 Clean sand with some rocks and certain other materials are classified as non-plastic materials because
they cannot be rolled into threads as required in determining the plastic limit.

As a rule:

1. Non-plastic soils are excellent type of road materials when properly confined under wearing course.
2. A well graded rock dust form hard durable surface when wet and compacted.
3. Clean sand displace easily under load and their use as fill or base course create problems, but they may
have other desirable feature such as facilitating sub-surface drainage.

6. Sand Equivalent Test

AASHTO Designation T-176 is for field determination of the presence of undesirable quantities
of clay-like materials in soil. Aggregate mixture is based on the volume, rather than on weight. The sand
equivalent is the ration between the height of the sand column (laboratory experiment test) and the
combined height of sand and expanded saturated clay expressed in percentage. Higher values of sand
equivalent indicate superior materials. The allowable moving average value from the California
Specification is 21 for sub base, 31 for aggregate base and 45-50 for aggregates of various type asphalt
concrete and 76 for concrete sand.

4-3 Density Test

of Soil

The density of soil or weight per cubic foot varies with the peculiarities of the soil itself, the moisture
content, and the compacted device plus the method of their use. The standard weight of soil per cubic foot cannot
be fixed, but should be determined in particular instance.

The Main Variables in the Soil Proper are:

1. Specific Gravity of the Soil particles that may vary from 2.0 to 3.3
that is normally between 2.5 and 2.8.
2. Particle Size distribution of the soil. A mass composed of entirely
spheres of one size in the densest possible condition will contain
75% solid and 25% voids. The smaller the sphere in the mass the
higher the percentage of the solid, hence, particle size distribution
may greatly affect density.
3. Grain Shape of Soil Particles. Sharp angular particles will resist shifting from loose to a compacted state.
Flaky particles in soil will decrease its density because they are difficult to compact.

4-4 Laboratory Test for Soil Density

Test for density may be divided into two:

1. Laboratory test to set standard for density.

2. Field test to measure the density of soil in-placed on the roadway.
Laboratory tests may be subdivided into three, according to the basis of compaction procedures.

1. Static test
2. Dynamic or impact test
3. Tamping foot or kneading compaction test

Static test is determining the maximum density of soil sample in the laboratory.

A sample of about 5000 grams of soil containing a specified percentage of water is

placed in a cylinder mold 6 inched diameter and 8 inches high.

The sample is then compressed under a load of 2000 pounds per square inch applied at
the speed of 0.05 inch per minute.

When the maximum load is reached, it is held for a period of 1minuteand then, gradually
released from the known dry weight of the soil.

The mold diameter and the height dry density of the sample are computed. Several
samples are compresses to delineate the peak of the moisture density. This peak value
represents the standard.

Dynamic or Impact Test.

Samples of soils each containing a designated percentage of water are

compacted in layers into molds of specified size.

The sample is compacted by applying a number of blows from a free

falling hammer of prescribed dimension and weight with flat circular
face. The peak of moisture density value represents the standard density.
Clegg Impact Soil Tester
The AASHTO tests may be applied on that portion of the soil which will pass No.4
sieve or all that passes ¾” sieve.

Table 4-1 DETAILS OF DYNAMIC COMPACTION TEST

NAME OF TESTS
Test Details AASHTO Modified California
Standard AASHTO impact
Diameter of Mold (inches) 4 to 6 4 to 6 2.86
Height of Sample (inches) 5 cut to 4.58 5 cut to 4.58 10-12
Number of Lifts 3 5 5
Blows per lift 25 to 56 25 to 56 20
Weight of hammer lbs. 5.5 10 10
Diameter of compacting surface 2 2 2
(inches)
Free fall distance (inches) 12 18 18
Volume, net in cubic ft. 1/30 or 1/13.33 1/30 or 1/13.33 Varies

Tamping foot or Kneading Compact Test. The material is fed into a rotating
mold and compacted by several repetitive loads applied through tamping
shoe shaped like a sector of the circle.

About 25% of the specimen is covered in each application. Compaction is

through kneading action in contrast with the static pressure or impact test.

4-5 Field Density Test of Soil in Place Kneading Compactor

Field density test is the means of comparing the density with the
laboratory results. The comparison is performed on the basis of relative compaction defined as follows:

𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑤𝑡. 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑢. 𝑓𝑡. 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑤𝑎𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒

𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑤𝑡. 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑢. 𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟

Relative compaction is the only measure by which the acceptability of a completed roadway structure is
measured.

Field Density and Moisture Content by Sampling

The manners of determining relative compaction by sampling are as follows:

1. Obtain samples of compacted materials to be tested at full depth.

2. Find the wet and dry weight of the sample, then, determine its moisture content.
3. Determine the volume of sample in the fill by finding the weight of materials required to fill the space.
4. From the dry weight of the sample and the volume that it occupies in the fill, find the dry weight per cubic
foot.
5. Find the relative compaction of the soil in the fill by dividing its dry weight per cubic foot by the laboratory
standard density.

There are four factors that affect the accuracy of measuring relative density, they are:

1. Change in the soil itself.

2. The sampling methods.
3. The accuracy of laboratory testing for standard density.
4. The accuracy of testing field density.
4-6 The Strength Test

Soil tests to determine the strength of soil is classified into:

1. Test for load carrying capacity, rate, and amount of consolidation in soils
that support the foundation. (This is applicable to bridge foundation)
2. Test to measure the supporting power of disturbed soils as compacted
under standard procedures.

California Bearing Ratio Method (CBR)

The California Bearing Ratio Method (CBR) combines load deformation

test performed in the laboratory with an empirical design chart to determine the
thickness of pavement base and other layers. The tests are briefly conducted as
follows:

1. The disturbed soil samples at different moisture content are compacted

in 3 layers by static loading or impact hammer into a cylinder mold 6
inches diameter by 8 inches high. The specimen depth is about 5 inches.
The5.5pounds hammer AASHTO standard density test is used in the
impact method.
2. The moisture density curve is plotted. The sample with greatest dry
density is chosen.
3. The specimen in the mold is immersed in water for four days to allow saturation. Expansion of the
specimen is recorded.
4. A small piston of 3 inches diameter is forced into the confined specimen. Load deformation data is
recorded. The California Bearing Ration is computed as follows:
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑡 0.1 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐶𝐵𝑅 =
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑐𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑠 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛
0.1 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ 𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
The HVEEM Stabilometer Method

This method measures the horizontal pressure developed in a short cylinder sample
loaded vertically on its end.

Stabilometer Operating Procedures:

1. Four different samples are prepared on a short cylinder about 4 inches

diameter by 2 ½ inches high of different known moisture contents.
2. Compaction is done using tamping foot or kneading compactor.
3. Each compacted specimen inside the mold is compressed until water exudes
from it and pass several electric circuits wired in parallel through the base
plate of the exudation measuring devices.

It was found out after several tests that soils in underlying pavement exceeded
moisture under pressure of about 300 psi. It appears that soaking did not produce a
condition of certain fine grain materials. In effect, the exudation pressure is a
different means in determining the moisture contents of the soil on the roadway.
Moisture content in stabilometer test samples is set to bracket the 300psi. value on
HVEEM Stabilometer
which design was based.

Test for Expansion Pressure

After exudation test while sample is still in the mold, it is tested for
expansion pressure.

A perforated brass plate is placed on the sample and covered in water for 16-
20 hours. Expansion during this period is prevented, and the pressure that
prevents it is measured. As mentioned earlier, soils that expanded due to the
presence of water should be placed under sufficient weight of fill to prevent
swelling.

Stabilometer Test Expansion Pressure Device

After the expansion test, the specimen is enclosed in a flexible sleeve and placed inside the stabilometer. Vertical
pressure is applied slowlyat speed of 0.05 inch per minute until it reaches 160psi. the developed horizontal
pressure is reduced to 5 psi using the displacement pump. The turns of displacement pump needed to bring the
horizontal pressure to 100psi is determined. The displacement procedure is intended to measure the penetration
of the flexible diaphragm into the intersection of the sample.

The resistance value R of the soil is computed by the following formula:

100
𝑅 = 100 −
2.5𝑃𝑣
−1+1
𝑃ℎ

Where:

R = resistance value

Pv = vertical pressure (160 psi)

D = turns displacement reading (approx. from 2 to 5)

Ph = horizontal pressure in psi at Pv of 160psi

Schematic drawing of stabilometer test

Tri-Axial Design Method

This method is used by some agencies for compression tests. In open

system tri-axial test, lateral pressure is held constant releasing from the container
as increased load causes the sample to expand laterally.

Dynamic Modulus

Re-compacted or undisturbed samples are tested to determine the

influence of temperature, degree of saturation, density, and age on the dynamic
response of pavement materials.

It was found that the modulus of asphalt concrete ranges from 100 000 to 1 000 000 psi, depending upon
the temperature. For cement treated base, form 500 000 to 3 000 000 psi. For aggregate base and sub base from
10 000 to 50 000 psi. , and for fine grain aggregate soil, 1 500 to 50 000 psi. , depending upon the water content.

Fig. Schematic Diagram of Diametral Test

Nuclear Devices Test

Recently, Nuclear Devices for determining in-place densities and moisture contents are used. The gauge
readings are easily converted to density and prevent moisture using calibration curves or microprocessors. The
portable device is either the transmission, or back scatter type.

The transmission type measures density and moisture content for any depth
up to 25 centimeters.

The back scatter device is placed directly on top of the soil layer slightly
above it to provide an air gap between the instrument and soil surface. It measures
density and moisture content to a depth of 3 to 4 inches.

` Nuclear device overcomes construction delay where samples could be taken

while construction equipment is operating. The Nuclear Device travels over the fill at

Nuclear Device
about 4.5 kilometers per hour and continuously recording the density and moisture content.

Schematic
Diagram of
Nuclear Device

4-7 Soil Survey

The preliminary soil investigation is an integral part of highway reconnaissance and preliminary location
survey. In fixing the position of roadway, the following should be taken into accounts:

1. Soil conditions
2. Directness of the route
3. Topography
4. Right of way
5. Neighbourhood disruption
6. Environmental consideration

Vertical Auger Boring

The early phase of soil survey is the collection of information gathered from the following:

1. Identification of soil types from: geological and agricultural soil maps, aerial photographs, and other
sources.
2. Investigation of ground water conditions, examining existing roadway cuts and other excavations.
3. Review of the design and construction procedures, and present condition of roads that traverse the
area.
4. Soil exploration along the right of way using the auger boring and test pile. Sampling should be at
frequent intervals to fix the boundaries of each soil types.
 5. Test holes should extend to a significant depth below the sub-grade
elevation with recommended minimum depth.
6. The location, nature of the ground, origin of parent materials, landform
and agricultural soil name, should be recorded.
7. Each soil layer is described according to thickness, fixture structure,
organic content, relation contents and cementation. The depth of seepage zones of free
water table and bedrocks are also recorded.
8. The soil profile along the roadway centreline showing location or test

hole range of soil profile characteristics for each district soil type is plotted.

Along with the first reconnaissance and preliminary location survey. The highway
agencies make a detailed study of the following data.

1. The vertical and horizontal location of the proposed construction.

2. Location and evaluation of suitable borrow and construction materials.
3. Need for the type of sub-grade or embankment foundation treatment
and drainage.
4. Need for special excavation and dewatering techniques.
Pile Testing 5. Development of detailed sub-surface investigations for specific structures.
6. Investigation of slope stability in both outs and embankment.

Refraction Seismic Method

A geophysical method used for sub-surface exploration called refraction seismic method relies on the
principle that, the speed of shock travelling through the earth surface varies, depending upon the kind of
materials.

Shock waves travel through light loose soils at approximately 180 meters per second, and 6000 meters
per second on dense and solid rock.

The shock waves travel beneath the denser material along its upper margin, and the returned to the
recording instrument.

This test is useful in determining the depth of the rock but could be deceiving on roughly tilted stratified
materials.

The refraction method was developed for exploration of underground conditions of roadway cuts. The
test is done by applying direct current to flow through the soil between two other supply electrodes placed
immediately at the third points. The resistivity changes where the depth is produced, recording the results at
various electrode spacing.

This method is somewhat reliable although sometimes it cannot be totally depended on regarding the
information as to the presence of solid rock. It is useful in area exploration when it is used to find localized sand
and gravel deposits.
A B

C D
5-1 Aggregates

Aggregates intended for either Bituminous(asphalt) or Portland cement concrete pavement, should be of good
quality in accordance with the requirements of AASHTO standard or Item-703 of the Department of Public Works
and Highways specifications which generally provides that:

“The aggregates shall consist of hard durable particles or fragments of crushed stone, crushed slag, or crushed rock
or natural gravel.”

Fig.5.1(From upper left to lower right,crushed stone, crushed slag,crushed rock, natural gravel)

Aggregates to be classified as good quality must undergo various test enumerated as follows:

1. Test for strength

2. Test for soundness
3. Test for affinity and swell
4. Test for shape and texture
5. Test for resistance to polishing
6. Degradation test

Test for strength

 Fig. 5.1 Los Angeles Abrasion Test machine

Fig. 5.2 Charged steel spheres

The criterion for aggregate strength test is the Los Angeles Rattler Test (AASHTO T-96) briefly conducted as
follows:

1. Rattler test is done in a hollow cylinder closed at both ends. The cylinder measures 70 centimeters
inside diameter by 50 centimeters long provided with steel shelf projecting radially inward 3 ½ inches
mounted with its axis horizontally on stub shaft and fastened at ends.
2. The cylinder is rotated 500 revolutions at speed of 30 to 33 rounds per minute.
3. After testing, the sample is is passed on to No. 12 sieve. Those that passes through it are set aside, the
amount of loss is the difference between the original and final weight expressed in percent.
 4. The FHWA recommended that aggregates for a dense graded mixture shall have 50 or less coefficient
of wear.
5. For open graded mixture, the requirement is 40 or less. However, percentage may be set in cases
where excellent aggregates are abundantly available.

Fig. 5.3 Aggregate before and after Strength test with Los Angeles Abrasion Machine

Test for Soundness

Soundness refers to the resistance of materials to deterioration from the effect of action like freezing and thawing.
The common test for soundness is the application with sodium or magnesium sulfate. (See AASHTO T- 104).

1. A sample of fine or course aggregate is dried, and then immersed in a saturated solution of sodium or
magnesium sulfate, followed by draining and oven drying.
2. The application of liquid solutions will cause splitting, crumbling, cracking or flaking of the particles
surface. The application is conducted in five immersion and drying cycles.
3. After washing and drying, aggregate samples are examined carefully and sieve to determine the
changes in particle sizes. The result is recorded as percentage loss.
4. Some road agencies do not require soundness test for aggregate intended for asphalt pavement
particularly in areas where temperature of the pavement does not fall below the freezing point.
 Fig. 5.4 Aggregate before and after performing Test for Soundness
Test for Affinity and Swell

Strong and durable pavement must have binder that adhere or stick firmly to the aggregate particles. If the binder
separates or strip’s- off from the aggregate, the pavement will disintegrate under traffic.

Another reaction of the aggregate is to pit when aggregates are pulled off caused by running wheels. In the event
that the pavement mixture swells, the interlock and friction between the particles are destroyed resulting to
collapse of the pavement stability.

1. Hydrophilic is the term used when the aggregate has greater affinity for water than asphalt. Meaning,
they like water than asphalt in contrast to hydrophobic which means fear, or against water.
2. If an aggregate is hydrophilic, the chemical bond between the aggregates and water is much stronger
than those between the asphalt and the aggregates. On the contrary, if the aggregate is hydrophobic,
pinholes will develop on the asphalt and water will penetrate the surface until it reaches the aggregates.
3. Such water aggregate interferences may develop at the sharp edge of crushed particles and in due time,
water will destroy the aggregate and asphalt bond.
4. Sometimes, the stripped asphalt flushes to the surface of the pavement making it slickly, and after
stripping, fine aggregates that are susceptible to swelling will expand when moistened, and then disrupt
the pavement structure.
5. The immersion compression test (AASHTO T-165) indirectly measure the tendency of aggregate to
strip or swell under the effects of water.
 Fig. 5.5 Pitting of Pavement
Shape and Texture of Aggregates

1. A relatively rounded smooth aggregate particle like natural gravel is recommended for Portland cement
concrete pavement because the mixture is workable. Meaning easily managed and consolidated inside
forms.
2. The angular or cubical shape and rough surface texture aggregate has been proven excellent material for
asphalt pavement because it has stronger interlocking action and well adherence of asphalt binder to the
particles.
3. A thin or elongated piece of dirt is considered undesirable material for either asphalt or concrete pavement.
4. The AASHTO Standard Specifications for asphalt pavement aggregate has no specific stipulation as to the
control of shape or surface texture.

Test for Resistance to Polishing

 Fig. 5.6 Polished Stone Value (PSV) Polishing Machine

One good criterion for pavement design is the high coefficient of friction between the tire and the road
surface.

A good asphalt or concrete road design is when “the rubber tire is in direct contact with the aggregate and not
with the binder” measured under the following considerations:

1. If in so short a time, the aggregate surface of the road becomes polished and sticky, the coefficient
of friction between the road surface and the tire will be dangerously low.
2. The skid resistance has bearing relation with the polishing of the aggregate, prompting the road
agency to consider the skid resistance measurement on existing road to be included and part of the
road inventory.
3. Aggregates produced from limestone are practically susceptible to polishing. On the other hand, if
the parent rocks are sandstone or fine grain igneous type, polishing is not severe.
4. Limestone coarse aggregate containing larger amount of sand that are insoluble in diluted
hydrochloric acid, are found to be resistant to polishing.
5. Likewise, the friction factor between the tire and the road surface will increase substantially if
silica sand is included in the mixture.

Degradation Test

Some aggregates degrade in the presence of water. This is measured through mechanical agitation in water
under designation test T-210 of AASHTO.
 1. About 2.5 kilograms of course aggregate that is retained on No. 4 sieve are washed thoroughly and
agitated for 10 minutes.
2. Sedimentation test like the sand equivalent test for soil is done on the sample passing the 0.075
mm (no. 200) particles generated. The durability index result ranges from 0 to 100, but the FHWA
specifications set a minimum value of 35.
3. For the fine aggregate that passes the 4.75 mm(no.4) sieve, test is the same as the above
procedures except that the sample size is only ½ kilogram.
4. The sand equivalent test is performed after 10 minutes to establish durability index of 35.

Particle Size

1. For dense graded pavement

2. For open graded pavement
3. For sheet asphalt

Fig. 5.7Dense Graded

Pavement

Fig. 5.8. Open Graded Pavement

5-2. Aggregate for Bituminous Pavement

Fig. 5.9 Typical Bituminous Pavement Section

Generally, for Bituminous or asphalt pavement, the aggregates constitute 88% to 96% by weight or more than 75%
by volume. AASHTO standard specifications provide that:
“The aggregates shall consist of hard, durable particles of fragments of stone or gravel and sand or other fine
mineral p[articles free from vegetable matter and lumps or balls of clay and of such nature that it can be
compacted readily to form a firm, stable layer. It shall conform to the grading requirements shown in table 5-1
when tested by AASHTO T-11 and 27”

Table 5-1 GRADING REQUIREMENTS

The following materials are classified under item 300 of the DPWH standard specifications.

1. Coarse aggregate materials retained on 2.00 mm No. 10 sieve shall have a mass percent of wear by Los
Angeles Abrasion Test (AASHTO T-96) of not more than 45.
2. When crushed aggregate is specified, not less than 50 mass percent of the particles retained on the 4.75
mm (no 4) sieve shall have at least one fractured face
3. The fraction passing the .75mm (no 200) sieve should not be greater than 2/3 of the fraction passing
the 0.425 mm (No.40) sieve.
4. The fraction passing 0.425 mm (NO 40) sieve shall have a liquid limit not greater than 35 and a
plasticity index range of 4 to 9 when tested by AASHTO T89 and T-90 respectively.

5-3. Aggregate for Portland cement Concrete Pavement

 5.10 Portland Cement Concrete Pavement

In order to obtain high quality concrete, road agencies have imposed almost without that all aggregates shall pass
appropriate tests for strength, soundness, wear or combination of these three.

1. The presence of organic impurities in the aggregates intended for concreting road pavement may cause
slow or non-hardening of concrete.
2. The strength of fine aggregate is measured by the compression tests of sand- cement mortar.
3. Soundness of fine aggregate is measured by the resistance to deterioration under the action of Sodium
or Magnesium Sulfate.
4. For Coarse aggregate the requirement consists of crushed stone, gravel, blast furnace, slag or approved
inert materials of similar characteristics or combination thereof having hard, strong durable pieces free
from adherent coatings.

AASHTO Fine aggregate grading by weight

Percent Passing
3/8” sieve 100
No. 4 sieve 95-100
No. 16 sieve 45-80
No. 50 sieve 10-30
No 100 sieve 2-10

TABLE 5-2 MAXIMUM AMOUNT OF DELETERIOUS MATERIALS PERMITTED IN COARESE

AGGREGAATES FOR CONCRETE AASHTO M-80
Maximum Allowable Percent by Weight
Materials Pavements Bridge Deck
Chert(2.40 sg) 3.0 % 3.0%
Coal and Lignite 0.5 0.5
Clay lumps 3.0 2.0
Materials Passing No200 sieve 1.0 1.0
Sodium Sulfate Soundness 12 12
Magnesium Sulfate 18 18
The Department of Public Works and Highways Standard Specifications classify aggregate under item 703 and
specifically provides that:

1. Aggregate shall consist of hard, durable particles or fragments of crushed stone, crush slag or crushed
or natural gravel
2. Coarse aggregate is the material retained on the 2.00 (No.10) sieve and shall have a percentage of wear
not more than 50 for sub base and not more than 45 for base and surface courses as determined by
AASHTO designation test T-96
3. Fine aggregate is the material passing the No. 10 sieve (2.00mm) consisting of natural, crushed sand
and fine mineral particles. The fraction passing the 0.075 mm(No.200) sieve should not be greater than
0.66 (2/3) of the fraction passing the 0.425 mm (No.40) sieve.
4. . For Base Course, the fraction passing the 0.425 mm(no.40) sieve shall have a liquid limit of not more
than 25 and a plastic index of not greater than 6. For sub-base, the liquid limit shall not be greater than
35, and plastic Index shall not be greater than 12.
5. For surface coarse the fraction passing the 0.425 mm (No.40) sieve shall have a liquid limit not more
than 35 and plasticity index not less than 4 nor exceed 9.

5-4. Mineral Filler

The strength of road pavement will be increased if dust additive which dense the graded mixture is added.
It is called mineral filler that reduces the void contents in the mixture. This dust additive is not the ordinary dust
that is being found in our floors and tables.

Dust additive is classified into:

1. Finely powdered limestone

2. Slag
3. Hydrated Lime
4. Portland Cement
5. Trap rock dust
6. Fly ash
 Fig. 5.11 Finely Powdered Limestone,Slag, Hydrated Lime, Portland Cement(from upper
left to lower right)

The DPWH Standard Specifications relative to mineral filler states that:

“Mineral filler shall consist of finely divided mineral matter such as rock dust, hydrated lime, hydraulic cement,
fly ash or other suitable mineral matter. It shall be free from organic impurities and at the time of use shall be
sufficiently dry to flow freely and shall be essentially free from agglomerations.”

AASHTO M-17 provides that:

Percentage passing by weight shall be as follows:

No. 30(0.66mm) sieve 50

No. 50 (0.30mm) sieve 95-100

No.200(0.075mm) sieve 70-100

AASHTO further stipulates that all minerals other than hydrated lime or Portland cement, the plastic index
value shall be 4 or less.

5-5. Bituminous Material

 Bituminous material or Asphalt in short is a viscous liquid used as binder for aggregates in road construction. At
normal temperature, asphalt is either slightly thicker than water or hard but brittle material that breaks under a
hammer blow when cold.

1. Bituminous material is in liquid form when mixed or combined with aggregates.

2. The action of asphalt binder depends on its type and the aggregate it is combined with.
3. If the road pavement is the open type, consisting entirely of coarse particles and asphalt, heavy binder is
needed requiring more asphalts

5-6. Bituminous Binders

Asphalt Cement is used as binder for almost all high types of bituminous pavement. Asphalt cement is a semi solid
hydrocarbon retained after fuel and lubricating oils are removed from petroleum.

Penetration refers to the consistencies of asphalt cement as described under AASHTO- T49. It is the distance that a
standard needle penetrates a sample under known conditions of loading time and temperature. Recently, the
procedure used in grading asphalt cement is the Viscosity Test rather than Penetration test.

Cutback or Liquid Asphalt

Fig. 5.12 Liquid Asphalt

Liquid asphalt is a petroleum product consisting of asphalt cement with a liquid distillate (diesel, kerosene or
gasoline).

The use of cutback is being frowned for two reasons:

a. It is a usable fuel
b. It is an air pollutant

Cutback or liquid asphalt is classified into:

a. Slow curing (SC) road soil

b. Medium curing(MC) cutback asphalt
 c. Rapid Curing (RC) cutback asphalt

Emulsified Asphalt

Fig. 5.13 Asphalt emulsion being sprayed onto a prepared surface. The spray bar allows for consistent coverage of
one lane-width at a time.

Fig. 5.14 The emulsion spray bar in action. Note the distinctive brown color before the emulsion "breaks."
 Fig. 5.15 the emulsion color turns to black after it is said to have "broken."

Fig. 5.16 The aggregate should be added to the emulsion before the emulsion breaks. Note that in this photo, the
aggregate was added too late, which is poor procedure.

Emulsified asphalt is a kind of mixture where in the minute globules of asphalt disperses in water. Asphalt content
ranges from 55% to 70% by weight. Emulsion could be applied or mixed at normal temperature, because when
the water content evaporates, the asphalt remains. It has the following characteristics.

1. Emulsified asphalt is excellent with wet aggregate because the water medium carries the asphalt into
a superior contact with the particle surfaces.
2. Emulsified asphalt is an alternate to cutback asphalt for energy and environmental objectives.
3. The Cationic Emulsion is very effective on high siliceous aggregates but may strip from high alkaline
that carry strong positive surface changes.
4. Rejuvenating agent is an emulsified petroleum resin sprayed over the surface of an old asphalt road
that changes to asphaltenes causing the binder to harden and cracks
Oxidized Asphalt and Road Tar

Fig. 5.17 Oxdized Asphalt

Fig. 5.17 Road Tar

Oxidized asphalt is suitable only for roofing and similar applications. Highway used of oxidized asphalt is limited to
water proofing of structures and filling joints of concrete pavement.

Road tar is a byproduct of the distillation process of coal. Tars are produced from gas house coal. Tars are
produced from gas house coal tar, cook oven tars and water gas tar.

The AASHTO classification of coal tars includes RT-1 to RT-12 and RCTB-5 to RTCB-6

RT-1 is suitable for application as Tack of Prime Coat at normal temperature.

The DPWH Specifications Classify Bituminous Tack under Item 302 which provides that :

1. Bituminous materials should be either Rapid Curing Cut Back or Emulsified asphalt.
2. Tack Coat shall be applied only to dry surfaces or slightly moist. No tack coat shall be applied when
the weather is either foggy or rainy.
 Fig. 5.18 Tack Coat
3. Immediately prior to the application of tack coat , the surface is lightly sprayed with water, but not to
be saturated.
4. The rate of application of either rapid curing, cutback or emulsified asphalt is within the range of 0.2
to 0.7 litre per square meter. Any excess of this specified quantity should be blotted by sand or
removed.
5. Tack Coat shall be sprayed only as far in advance on the surface course as will permit it to dry in
tacky condition. Traffic shall be kept off the Tack coat until after fully dried.

Bitumen- Rubber mixture

It was experimented in Holand in the year 1929. It was adopted in the United States in 1947 and later in European
countries. The assessments of the road states that;

1. Very little improvement gained as far as coefficient of friction on newly laid pavement but expect higher
advantages after six months. The analysis of the Bureau of Public Roads states that:
“An appraisal of the real economic value of addition of rubber to asphalt must wait on further observation of
the behavior of experimental pavements under the influence of age-weather and traffic.”
2. According to the report, powdered rubber foams added to bitumen has improved the stability of some but not
all.

Epoxy Resins as Binders

 Fig. 5.19 Epoxy resins

Epoxy binders are produced in a clear, dark, rigid and flexible form for application of either concrete or
asphalt pavement. Hardening can be attained by mixing the resin and the catalyst hardener prior to application.
The result is called thermosetting. Meaning, it will not soften under the influence of heat or action of solvent like
water or petroleum products.

Test for Bituminous Binders

1. Test of consistency is subdivided into:

a. Kinematics Viscosity test AASHTO T-202
b. Saybolt-Fural Test AASHTO T-72
c. Engler specific gravity test AASHTO T-54
d. The float test AASHTO T-50
e. Penetration test AASHTO T-49
f. Softening point test AASHTO T-53
2. Test for durability AASHTO T-52
3. Test for solubility AASHTO T-44
4. Distillation Test AASHTO T-78
5. Thin Film oven Test AASHTO T-179
6. Flash point AASHTO T-48% 79
7. Test for homogeneity of petroleum asphalt AASHTO 102
8. Special Test for Emulsion asphalt AASHTO T-59
a. Test for demulsibility
b. Test for settlement
c. C. Sieve test
d. Cement mixing test
e. Particle charge and PH Test
f. Miscibility and freezing test

5-7. Problems Associated with Bituminous Binders

1. The thickness of asphalt film in the pavement ranges from 0.005 to 0.010mm. Test result showed that the
thicker the asphalt film, the lesser is the process of aging. Where pavement has lower percentage of voids,
aging is also relatively low.
2. Mixtures that are too dry, cracks and breaks easily.
3. Higher asphalt content and lower percentage of voids may cause instability of the pavement.
4. Improper construction procedures can age asphalt prematurely. One example is mixing asphalt with an
overheated aggregate.
5. Storing the mixed materials, or an extended period of mixing, the temperature produces substantial
reduction of asphalt penetration.
6. Climatic conditions can seriously affect the behavior of asphalt binders
7. Different brand or source has variability in behavior.
8. Asphalt, meeting a specified penetration requirement at 77F but with high viscosity temperature ration will
become hard and brittle at lower temperature.
5-8.Bituminous Pavement

Fig. 5.20 Asphalt Pavement

Fig. 5.21 Portland Cement Concrete pavements

It is a combination of mineral aggregate and binders. The mixture of rock material particles with asphalt has
created so many names to wit:

1. Asphalt Macadam
2. Asphaltic concrete
3. Mastic
4. National Paving
5. Plant mix
6. Asphalt Sheet
7. Road mix
8. Armor coat
9. Oil mat etc.

“ Although several names were affixed to bituminous pavement, yet , there is only one thing to
remember that, all bituminous roadways are nothing more than a mixture of mineral aggregates and
asphalt. Meaning asphalt road is virtually a Bituminous road.”
Qualities of Asphalt Road

To consider an asphalt road in good service, it must posses in its full life the following qualities:

1. The surface must be free from cracks or raveling due to shrinkage and fatigue failure.
2. It must withstand weather condition, including the effect of surface water, heat, cold and oxidation.
3. It must be resistant to internal moisture such as water vapor
4. It must possess a tight or porous impermeable surface as the case may be suitable to underlying base on the
sub-base.
5. It must be smooth riding and skid free surface.

A satisfactory asphalt pavement could be attained under the following construction procedures.

1. Viscous asphalt binder is heated to a fluid condition and mixed with heated aggregates. The mixture is then
laid and compacted while still hot.
2. Mixing liquid or emulsion asphalt with aggregates at normal temperature is either by plant or mixing. The
mixture is laid and compacted at normal temperature before the solvents evaporate or emulsion breaks.
3. Spread and compact the clean crushed stones spread and heated or emulsified asphalt binder over it. sCover
the sprayed pavement with fine aggregate. This process is referred to as penetration method.

Asphalt Concrete Pavement

The term Asphalt Concrete refers to a
dense graded road surface made of hot mineral
aggregates, mixed with hot asphalt and laid at high
o o
temperature of about 275 F to 300 F. Asphalt
concrete is the highest type of dense bituminous
pavement suitable for the most heavily travelled
roads. A prime coat is first applied over untreated
and treated base before asphalt concrete is laid. The purpose is to bind any loose particles of the base and likewise
act as bond between the base and the pavement to deter rising moisture from penetrating the pavement.

The thickness of compacted asphalt concrete ranges from 2 inches for lightly travelled road to 6 inches or
more for roads where traffic is considerably heavy.

Bituminous Pavement Failure

Bituminous pavement failures are caused by excessive load. Heavy load creates deflection on the road
surface, with insufficient underlying strength.
Repetitious application of excessive load will roughen and crack the road pavement that ultimately result
to complete failure of the roadway.
Deflection on the road surface may be the effect of elastic deformation from the consolidation of the
base and subsoil or from the combination of elastic and plastic deformation.
Repeated heavy wheel load on highly resilient soil causes deflection leading to fatigue failure of the
asphalt surface. Alligator or map cracking of the surface will be substantially evident. Elastic deformations in the
subgrade penetrate to a depth of 6.00 meters although mostly to a depth from the surface.
Macadam Asphalt Mat
Bituminous macadam road has large amount of voids in the lower part of the aggregate layers. The road
strength originates from the interlocking aggregates that hold the individual stone together. Under this condition,
a strong well drain base that will not squeeze upward into the pavement voids is required.
The Bituminous Macadam base or surface is composed of two or three layers of progressively smaller,
clean, sharp angular stones bonded by asphalt. Each layer is compacted by rolling then sprayed with asphalt.
Usually, the surface course is sealed by spraying a binder and blotted with fine crushed stones. The binder at the
time of spraying is fluid enough to penetrate and coat the aggregate particles.

Constructing the Macadam Asphalt Road

1. Spread the coarsest aggregate to the roadway. Compact with either smooth wheeled roller or vibratory devices.
2.Smoothness of the surface is checked after compaction. Low spots are corrected by removing, replacing and
reconstructing the stones until smooth surface is attained.
3. Apply asphalt by spreading the right amount bitumen at specified temperature. The lower stone layer will not be
coated if the asphalt binder is too thick. On the other hand, too fluid mixture will cause running of the binder down
the underlying layers.
4. in placing the key stone base course, sufficient amount of smaller stone is mixed and spread on top to fill the
inter locking voids, followed by compaction then spraying with asphalt binder.
5.Sealing of the surface is applied to the seal the pavement against moisture. This involve spreading of selected
binder, spraying and rolling of the cover aggregates.
6. During construction, the weather must be dry and warm. If not it is better to use emulsified asphalt as binder.
7. Before the application of asphalt binder , coarse aggregate is first choked with smaller stone to seal the
remaining top voids , followed by spraying emulsified asphalt binder.

Surface Treatment
Road surface treatment method is applied to upgrade untreated surface and to rejuvenate an existing
pavement. The inverted penetration method is applied wherein the binder asphalt is first prayed over a prepared
surface then covered with fine aggregates. This procedure is in contrast with the penetration method wherein the
spraying of asphalt binder is done after the placement of the aggregates.

On the basis of purpose to be accomplished, surface treatment is subdivided as follows:

1. Dust palliatives to control dust
2. Prime coat or tack coat treating the surface to provide wearing coarse.
3. Armor coats to provide protection for untreated surfaces.
4. Seal coats and retreads.
5. Sheet asphalts.
6. Tack coats
7. Slurry seals
8. Asphalt overlay

Dust palliative
Dust palliative is a surface treatment or application of asphalt to control dust and fine sand along the
highway.

1. The road surface is treated with the application of about .02 gallons per square meter of light slow curing oil.
The material commonly used is the MC-70 but occasionally MC-30 or the MC-70. This oil penetrates the surface for
about ½ inch and provide film that surrounds the particles and bind together.
2. Slow curing oil is usually selected because it remains soft and last quit longer period of time. Satisfactory result is
also noticed when slow setting emulsions diluted in a mixture of 4 to 9 parts of water was used.
3. Cut-back or Emulsion asphalt is unsatisfactory material for surface treatment as dust palliative. It becomes
harder asphalt producing brittle surface that easily cracks in a short time followed y fast disintegration.
4. Used crankcase motor oil is also considered as an effective dust palliative.

Purpose of the Prime Coat or Tack Coat

1. To plug the capillary voids in the pavement in order to stop the upward
movement of moisture.
2. To improve adhesion between the base and surface course.

The lighter curing medium cutback oil is generally used for prime coats.
It is fluid enough to penetrate into the base course but retain viscous asphalt in
the purses of the treated surface. Surface to applied with prime coat
binder, should be uniform without variations, properly shaped,
moistened and rolled to have a plain and uniform solid surface.
Light tars grade RT-1 to Rt-3 have been successfully used as
prime coat. The amount of asphalt binder to be applied is from .3 to .8
gallons per square meter surface area depending upon the tightness
of the surface to be primed.
After the application of prime coat, vehicular traffic should
be detoured until the surface is no longer sticky. If traffic detour is
not possible, a blotter of coarse sand should be applied on top of the
prime coat.
Armor Coat

Armor coat is a surface treatment using a thin

bituminous binder covered by mineral aggregate applied to
an earth, gravel or water bound macadam surface or to
stabilize the base.
Surface treatment applied in two or more lifts is
referred to as an armor coats.

When fund is limited, armor coat is used as temporary pavement and protection of the base materials.
1. For two-course treatment, the maximum size of cover materials for the first lift is ¾ to 1 inch.
2. For three treatments, the maximum size of aggregate cover is 1” to 1- ¼ inches.
3. The maximum size of aggregate for each subsequent lift should be reduced.

The surface treatment, that follows the prime coat, could be as thin as ¼ inch, or as thick as 1 inch. The
thinner type is sometimes called, one shot type consisting of about .20 to .40 gallons per square meter of fairly
heavy liquid asphalt materials covered with 5 to 10 kilograms of clean screened stone , or fine screened gravel, or
slug which are free of dust. Larger cover materials with maximum size up to ½ “ or 5/8 “ wil require 15 to 20
kilograms per square meter surface area.
Surface treatment is applied on a clean, and dry surface, no wind and in good weather condition. For
heavy traffic highway, surface treatment only serve as palliative for it lack strength to sustain the traffic load.

Seal Coat and Retread

Seal coat is the application of asphalt binder to a pavement surface covered with aggregate. there is no
specific distinction given between surface treatment and seal coat. However, seal coat is intended for temporary
surface treatment with average life duration of 10 years. seal coat is also intended to:

1. Provide an abrasion and water resistant surface

2.To improve the skid resistance of bleeding bituminous surface which had polished under traffic.
3. To improve light reflection and no glare characteristics of pavement surface
4. To provide lane shoulders and other demarcations
5. To alert drivers that unusual dangerous condition is near ahead.
6. Sometimes the surface is sprayed with light coating of SS-1h Emulsified asphalt or Petroleum resin to rejuvenate
or improve its appearance. This treatment is sometimes called, Black Seal or Color Coat.

Sheet Asphalt
Sheet asphalt is a mixture of sand fillers and asphalt cement. It is about
1 ½ “ thick covered asphalt concrete or slab of Portland cement concrete having
a characteristics of noiseless, easily cleaned surface extensively use as surface
course on urban streets. The high binder content of 9% to 12% by weight makes
the sheet asphalt very expensive as compared with other service able types.
When binder is excessively applied to what is being required, the result is
unstable slickly surface which is dangerous when wet.

Cold Laid Asphalt

Cold laid asphalt is a mixture of coarse and fine aggregates and liquid
asphalt or emulsion. The mixture can prepared in a central plant or field mixture
. A content of 5% to 10% liquid asphalt is required to permit coating. This type of
mixture is acceptable for low volume roadway only.
 Aeration before spreading maybe required for evaporation of some solvent water, otherwise, the
pavement might be over lubricated and become unstable.

Slurry Seal
Slurry seal is a combination of sand, crushed stone, emulsified asphalt
and water. It is an effective solution in filling cracks and rejuvenating the surface
of badly deteriorated surface. The mixture a proportion of 1,350 kilograms fine
sand, 1,350 kg. rock dust and 140 gallons SS-1 or SS-1h emulsified asphalt diluted
with about 80 gallons of water or heavy light mixer. the purpose of the operation
is to fill all cracks to produce coating of about 1/8 inch thick over the entire
surface area of the road. If the seal is excessively asphalted, there is a danger
that the road might be slickly under traffic.

Asphalt Overlay
Asphalt overlay is a layer of asphalt bound aggregate laid to an existing pavement. The purpose is to level
out distorted surface or to cover cracks and joints of the pavement. If the purpose is to strengthen the existing
pavement, the choice is not overlay but Asphalt concrete tightly bonded to the old pavement with Tack Coat.
A thin asphalt overlay is normally specified to the bridge deck and other structures that require lighter
load. Overlay thickness could be from 50 mm to 150 mm (2” to 6”).

Aggregate for bituminous concrete

Coarse aggregate retained on 2.36(No.8) sieve should be either crushed stone, crushed slag, crushed or
normal gravel.
When crushed gravel is used, not less than 50 mass percent of the particles retained on 4.75 mm (No.4)
sieve shall have at least one fractured face. The coarse aggregate gradation when combined with other required
aggregate fractions in proper proportion, the resultant mixture shall meet the gradation required under the
composition of mixture for the specific types specified,
Only one kind of aggregate shall be used on the project except direction of the Supervising Engineer.

Fine Aggregates
Fine aggregates passing the 2.36 mm (No.8) sieve shall consist of natural
sand, stone screening or slag screenings or a combination thereof. The resultant
mixture of fine aggregates when combined with other required aggregate should
meet the gradation requirements under the composition of mixture for the specific
type as specified.

Open Graded Asphalt Concrete friction Coarse

Relatively, pure carbonate aggregates or any aggregates known to be polishing should not be used as
coarse aggregate. In addition, the coarse aggregate fraction shall have at least 75 mass percent of particles by
weight, with at least two fractured faces except that lightweight aggregates need not meet this requirements. The
abrasion loss shall not exceed 40 mass percent.

Lightweight Aggregates
Lightweight aggregate, (except slag) could be manufactured by the rotary kiln process if permitted by the
special provisions of the specifications.
The materials shall consist of angular fragments uniform in density and reasonably free from flat,
elongated or other deleterious substances. It shall also show an abrasion loss of less than 45 mass percent when
tested in accordance with AASHTO T-96. The mass per cubic meter shall not exceed 1080 kilograms after testing
through 5 cycles of the magnesium sulphate soundness test. The loss shall not exceed 10 mass percent.
Aggregate for Bituminous Plant-Mix Surfacing
The aggregate should be uniformly graded from coarse to fine. Target values for the intermediate sieve
should be established within the limits given on Table 5-5.
If the crushed gravel is used, not less than 50 mass percent of the material retained on the 4.75 mm(No.4)
sieve shall have a sand equivalent of not less than 35 as determined by AASHTO T-176 alternate method no.2. The
aggregate shall be free of clay balls and adherent films of clay of other matter that would prevent thorough coating
with the bituminous materials.

Aggregates for Hot-Plant-Mix Bituminous Pavement

Various aggregates fraction for the mixture should be sized, graded, and
combined in such proportions that the resulting composite blend meets one of the
grading requirements as prescribed on Table 5-6.

Bed Course Materials

Bed Course ,materials for sidewalks, paved waterways and curbing shall consist of cinders, sand, slag,
gravel, crushed stone or other approved materials having 37.5 mm ( 1- ½ ” ) square openings.
DPWH Standard Specification on Prime Coat, Tack Coat and Seal Coat

Item 301 Bituminous Prime Coat

Materials
Bituminous material is either Rapid Curing (RC) or Medium Curing (MC) Cutback Asphalt, whichever
specified. Prime coat is applied only to dry or slightly moist surface. No Prime coat will be applied during foggy or
rainy days.

Equipment
1. The liquid bituminous material sprayed by a pressure distributor with no less
than 1000 liters capacity mounted on pneumatic tires of width and load produced
on the road surface not to exceed 1000 kilograms per centimetre width of the
tire.
2. The tank must have heating devices able to heat complete charge of
o
bituminous liquid up to 180 C. The heating device has automatic control that
overheating will not occur.
3. The flame should not touch the casing of the tank directly containing the
bituminous liquid. The liquid should be insulated that when the tank is filed with
o o
bituminous liquid at 180 C, the temperature will not drop to less than 20 C per hour when the tank is not being
heated.
4. A thermometer is fixed to the tank to measure the liquid temperature continuously. The tank is furnished with
calibrated dipstick to indicate its content. The pipes for filling the tank shall be furnished an easily changeable
filter.
5. The distribution has the capacity to vary the spray width of bituminous liquid in maximum steps of 100 mm to a
total width of 4 meters. The spraying bar must have nozzles from which the liquid is sprayed in fan-shaped over
the road surface equally distributed over the total spraying width
6. The pump is furnished with an indicator showing the rate of liquid flow. A thermometer is fixed to indicate the
temperature of the liquid immediately before it leaves the spraying bar.
7. The distribution is furnished with Tachometer indicating its forward speed visible from the drivers seat.
8. The distributor shall be designed where the deviation from the prescribed rate of application does not exceed
10% equipped with a device for hand spraying of the bituminous liquid.

Application of Bituminous Materials

1.The surface to be treated shall be cleaned with broom including the removal of all dirt and other objectionable
materials before applying Prime Coat.
2.Prior to the application of Prime Coat, the surface is slightly sprayed with water but not saturated.
3. The rate of bituminous material application is within the range of 1 to 2liters per square meter.
4. Prime cot should be left undisturbed for a period of 24 hours, close to traffic until it has penetrated and cured
sufficiently, so it will not be picked-up by the wheels of passing vehicles.
5. The Prime Coat should not be in excess of the specified amount. Any excess is blotted with sand or removed.
6. Area not accessible by the distributor is sprayed manually using the device for hand spraying.
7. The surface of the roads and trees adjacent to the areas being treated shall be protected to prevent their being
spattered or marred by asphalt.

Item-302 Bituminous Tack Coats

The standard specification for Tack Coat is the same as that of the Prime Coat. The difference should be
enumerated as follows:
1. The manner of application is either by the Rapid Curing or Emulsified Asphalt within the range of .2 to .7 liter per
square meter.
2. Tack coat is sprayed in advance on the surface course to permit it to dry into s “tacky” condition. The tack coat is
maintained until the next course is applied.

Item 303- Bituminous Seal Coat

This item consists of an application of bituminous materials with or
without the application of aggregate to a bituminous surface course.

Materials Required:
1. The approximate amount of materials required for Seal Coat per square
meter is provided on Table 5-14.
2. Bituminous material is the asphalt cement penetration grade 120-150 Rapid
Curing or Medium curing Cutback asphalt.
3. Cover aggregates for Type 2 Seal Coat consists of sand or fine screening free from dirt or other organic matter.
4. The aggregate for Type 3 Seal Coat is crushed stone, crushed slag or crushed gravel. Only one type of aggregate
shall be used in a project unless other alternative type is approved.
5. The aggregate shall have a mass percent of wear not exceeding 40 when tested by AASHTO T-96.
6. When crushed slag is used, it should be uniformed in density and quality. A density of not less than 960
kilograms per square meter as determined by AASHTO T-96.

Construction Requirements
1. Seal coating should not be undertaken on foggy or rainy day or when the surface to be treated is wet.
2. Wet material Cover Coat, should not be used on the work and no Seal Coating work be continued at night unless
provided with sufficient lighting.
3. Seal Coating operation should not be started until the bituminous surface is thoroughly compacted by traffic and
road roller.
4. Seal Coating should not be placed on newly constructed or reconditioned road surface in less than 10 days after
the the surface is laid and opened to traffic.
5. Road surface to receive bituminous material should be cleaned of dirt, sand, dust and objectionable materials.
The cleaning should be effected by means of a rotary power broom or power blower.
Application of Bituminous Materials
1. Bituminous material should be applied by means of pressure distributor at the rate of approximately 0.9 to 1.8
liters for Asphalt cement and 1.5 to 3.0 liters for Cutback Asphalt per square meter of surface in a uniform,
unbroken spread over the section to be treated.
2. The pressure distributor specifications including its appurtenances are the same as that enumerated in item 301
Bituminous Prime Coats. Those that differ will be disapproved.
3. Application of bituminous material at the junction of spreads should not exceed the specified quantity. Any
excess should be removed from the surface by squeegee.
4. If necessary to obtain proper junction of spreads, a strip of manila paper approximately one meter wide and at
least as long as the spray bar should be used at the beginning and end of each sread. The paper is removed
immediately after use.
5.Any skipped areas or recognized deficiency should be corrected immediately by hand application of operated
pressure device.

Spreading a Cover Aggregates

1. immediately after the application of asphalt, the cover aggregate should be spread evenly after the surface at
the rate of approximately .004 to .007 cubic meters per square meter.
2. Spreading of the Aggregate Cover is through aggregate spreader, to obtain and even accurate distribution. The
used of spreader board attached to the tailgate of the truck, should not be permitted.
3. Tires of the aggregate truck should not be allowed to come in contact with the uncovered and newly applied
asphalt.
4. After spreading the cover aggregate, the surface is broom lightly with an approved push or drag broom to
ensure an even distribution then rolled with an approved power roller weighing not less than 5 not more than 6
tons to a uniform surface.

Item 304- Bituminous Treatment

This item consist of either single application of bituminous material followed by a single spreading of
aggregate (single surface treatment) or two application of bituminous material each followed by spreading of
aggregate (double surface treatment)

Material Requirements
1. The approximate amount of material per square meter and sequence of operation for single or double surface
treatment is provided in table 5-16
2. The quantities given into the table are those aggregates having a bulk specific gravity of 2.65 as determined by
AASHTO T-84 and T- 85.
3. The supervising engineer may adjust the amount of asphalt material per square meter if necessary, to fit into
prevailing condition. But the total amount of aggregate per square meter after adjusting for specific gravity will not
be changed.
 Bituminous Materials
Bituminous material foe surface treatment is either slag or crushed gravel. Only one type of aggregate
should be used in the project unless alternative type is approved. The aggregates shall have a mass percent wear
not exceeding 40 when tested under AASHTO T-96.
When crushed gravel is used not less than 50 mass percent of the particles retained on the 4.75 mm
(No.4) sieve shall have at least one fractured face. When crushed slag it used, it must be of uniform quality and
density of not less than 960 kg. per square meter (AASHTO T-19)

Construction Requirements
1.The contractor or supplier shall furnish the engineer certified certificate in duplicate of the asphalt materials
delivered to the size.
2. The contactor shall provide weighing equipment on the site to control the application of aggregate. It must have
an approve multiple beam style scale with indicator and other necessary dials protected by a weatherproof house
with floor area with not less than 10 sq. meters.
3. A mechanical spreader is used for spreading the aggregate, capable of spreading the aggregates uniformly over
the full width of the area being treated, and shall have a control to regulate the feed gates, the feed roll, the auger
and truck hatch.
Application of Bituminous Materials
1.Application of bituminous material is done only when the weather condition is dry and favourable. Spraying
o
should not be done unless the road temperature is above 20 C for at least one hour prior to the commencement of
o
spraying operation and the is not less than 20 C during the spraying.
2. Asphalt material is applied to the surface at least 24 hours after it has been Prime-coated.
3. The asphalt material should be applied in dry surface whenever cutback or asphalt cement is used. The surface
should be lightly wetted with water when emulsion asphalt is to be used.
4. The recommended application temperature for asphalt cement is within the range that produces a viscosity of
10 to 60 seconds saybolt fural. And for cutback Asphalt with the range given in item Bituminous Material, the ideal
temperature is when fogging occurs.

Spreading the aggregates

1. Immediately after applying asphalt material, the dry aggregate is uniformly and evenly distributed over the
treated surface by an approved mechanical aggregate spreader.
2. Truck delivering aggregate shall be move backward in spreading aggregate to prevent the tires and mechanical
spreader from rolling directly over the newly sprayed asphalt.
3. No portion of the sprayed surface shall remain uncovered for a period of more than 2 minutes. Immediately
after spreading the aggregate, treated surface is rolled with an approved pneumatic tire roller.
4. Asphalt materials that are exposed during rolling operation, should be covered with additional aggregate and
further rolled until an even surface is attained.
5. Traffic should be prohibited from passing at speed in excess of 40 km. per hour before the asphalt material
completely set.

Item 305- Bituminous Penetration Macadam Pavement

This item consist of furnishing and placing one or more courses of graded aggregate and more application
of bituminous materials, followed by Seal Coat cover aggregate constructed on a prepared base.

Material Requirements
The amount of material per square meter and sequence of operations shall be as provided in table 5-19.
Bituminous Material is either Asphalt Cement Rapid Curing Cutback Asphalt or Emulsion Asphalt
whichever is specified.
Aggregate should be crushed stone, crushed slag or crushed gravel consisting of clean, tough, durable
fragments, free from excess of flat, soft or disintegrated pieces and free from stone coated with dirt or other
objectionable matter. Natural gravel may be used for cover material.
Aggregate shall have a mass percent of wear not exceeding 40 when tested by AASHTO T-096.
*When crushed gravel is subjected to five cycles of the Sodium Sulfate Soundness Test (AASHTO T-104),
the weighted loss shall not exceed 12 mass percent.
*When crushed slag is used, it shall be uniform density and quality. A density mot less than 1,120
kilograms per sq.m. as determined by AASHTO T-19. Application of bituminous material should be made only when
the aggregate is dry and the atmospheric temperature under the shade is 15oC or above and the weather is not
foggy or rainy.

Equipment

1. The equivalent to be used shall includes;

a) Hand or power operated brooms
b)Shovel
c)Rakes
d)Self powered bituminous material distributor hand or power operated spray pumps, broom dragging
equipment and self-powered rollers.
2. A sufficient number of stiff-fiber steel bristle push brooms is included.
3. the roller should be self-propelled steel wheel, vibratory or pneumatic type. Its weight should be sufficient
enough to compact the layer of the required conditions.
Base Preparations
1. Before spreading the aggregate, the base is properly cleaned of all loose foreign materials. The existing base is
swept until the embedded large aggregate is exposed or in case of previously constructed asphalt until the surface
is free from mud or other covering.
2. Prime Coat is applied to prepared untreated base, or in case of previously constructed asphalt, or cement
surface, Tack Coat is applied.
3. during the application of asphalt materials, building paper is laid over the end of the previous application where
the new application will start on the building paper.
4. The distributor should not be cleaned or discharged into ditches, borrow pits or shoulder along the right of way.

Item -306 bituminous Surface Course

Bituminous material is either Rapid Curing(RC) cutback Medium Curing(MC) Cut Back or Emulsified
Asphalt which ever specified. The proportion of bituminous material on the basis of total dry aggregate is from 4.5
to 7.0 mass percent when cut back asphalt is used and from 6.0 to 10.0 mass percent when emulsified asphalt is
used.
During the mixing operation, one half of one 0.5 to 1.0 mass percent of hydrated time, dry aggregate basis
is added to the mixture. The lower percentage limit is applicable to aggregate which predominantly calcareous.
1. The equipment includes bituminous distributors and heating equipment, scarifier, mixer, spreader, and finishing
compacting equipment.
2.Road roller should be self-Propelled steel wheel tandem of3 wheel rollers weighing not less than 8 tons of each
and a Pneumatic Tree Rollers having compacting width of not less than 1.52mm(60 inches and the gross mass
adjustable within the range of 3,540 to 6,360 kg/m of compaction width.
3. All tires of Pneumatic Roller is equally inflated exerting equal unit pressure with mass of varying contact
pressure to suit project condition.

Base Preparation
Case-I (New Aggregate)
When new aggregate is used for the road mix surface course, the existing base is scarified lightly and
bladed to a uniform grade and cross section as specified
Case-II
1. When materials in the existing rod surface are to be used for mixing, the surface is scarified lightly and bladed to
a uniform grade and cross section. The re-shaped surface is scarified to depth as determined by the Engineer to
leave a foundation of undisturbed material parallel in profile and cross section to the finished surface.
2. The loosened materials are bladed aside into window side of the road, and the undisturbed materials rolled,
watered, and rolled as directed.

Geoplastic Fabrics
The Geoplastic fabrics were introduced and experimented
in Europe in the year 1970. They were used to reinforce soil of
pavement and to provide drainage and erosion control for highways
and railroads.
According to FHWA report RD 80-021 entitled Evolution
Test Methods and Use Criteria for Geotechnical Fabrics in Highway
application, the use of geoplastic fabric is considered as excellent.
The evaluation was supported by Koerner and Welosh in
“Construction and Geotechnical Engineering Use of Synthetic Fabric”
published in New york year 1980.
The Function of Geoplastic Fabrics
1. As Filter. It holds the soil in place while allowing water to flow easily away by some form drainage.
2. As Drainage. Heavy geoplastic fabrics provide channels for carrying water away from the soil to the drainage.
3. As Separator. The fabrics prevent different materials from mixing together.
4. As reinforcement. It adds mechanical strength to the soil of pavement structure.
5. As Armor. It protects the soil from surface erosion or attractive forces.

Materials
Euplastic fabrics are manufactured from polypropylene, polyester, nylon, polyethylene and polyvinylidene
chloride of which changes in properties depends on the processes by which the fabric is produced aside from the
differences in chemical composition. Most of these Geoplastic materials are made of polypropylene and polyester.

Differences in Properties Includes:

1. Specific Gravity
2. Strength
3. Future Stain
4. Modulus of Elasticity
5. Creep resistance
6. Resistance to ultra-violet light and biological effect

Construction Methods are classified as either Woven or Knitted non-

woven.
For Woven fabrics, the filaments are directed in two
perpendicular directions and overlapped. For transportation use, the
pattern is simple uniform and rectangular constant pore size distribution.
The monofilament Fabrics are woven from single strands and the
Multifilament Fabrics are made from yarns with many fine strands. The
Ribbon Filament Fabrics are made from strands with widths several times
their thickness.
Knitted Geoplastic Fabrics (KGF) is made of loops of fibers
connected by straight segments. They could be stretched in either
direction without significant stresses to the fabrics. Knitted Geoplastic
Fabrics in tubes serve well as filters around drain tile particularly for agricultural needs.
Non-woven Geoplastics are neither woven or knitted. The fibers or strand
arrangement are held together under the following number:
1. Needle punching through the fabrics.
2. Heat bonding or melt bonding.
3. Resin bonding wherein the fabric is impregnated with a resin which cements the fibers
together.
4. Combination bonding is the combination of two or more of the processes described to produce a particular
characteristics.
Drainage and Slope Protection

Drainage - Defined as the means of Collecting, Transporting and Disposing of surface water originating in or near
the right of way, or flowing in stream crossing or bordering the right of way.

Surface drainage is only one among the many problems to be considered in establishing the location and
construction of roads.
Surface drainage is the removal of excess water from the surface of the land. This is normally accomplished by
shallow ditches, also called open drains. The shallow ditches discharge into larger and deeper collector drains. In
order to facilitate the flow of excess water toward the drains, the field is given an artificial slope by means of land
grading.

Types of Surface Drainage Systems

Ditches or Open Drains

Grassed Waterways
Humps and Hollows (Bedding)
Levees or Graded Banks
Laser Levelling

Surface Drainage problems follow three basic considerations:

 • Hydraulic Design that deals with estimating the highest rate of run-off to be handled.
• Hydraulic Design deals with the selection of the kinds and sizes of the drainage facilities that is most
economical to accommodate the estimated water flow.
• Erosion Control is to ascertain the design will not create erosion or other unacceptable environmental
conditions.

Hydrology
Is that branch of physical geography that deals with water on the earth.

The branch of hydrology that concern highway engineers are:

- The frequency and Intensity of precipitation.
- The frequencies that this precipitation brings the highest run-off which are equal or exceeded critical
values.
- The distribution of precipitation throughout the seasons that influences water behavior affecting the
highway surfaces.
- The prediction regarding future rainfalls or run-off from gathered statistical approaches, formula, or
simulated methods based on the laws of probability.

Runoff is predicted based on the following methods:

• By the Rational Methods

• By the Empirical Formula
• By the Unit Hydrograph
• By Statistical Approach
• By Simulation

Rational Method
The Rational Method is most effective in urban areas with drainage areas of less than 200 acres. The method is
typically used to determine the size of storm sewers, channels, and other drainage structures. This method is not
recommended for routing stormwater through a basin or for developing a runoff hydrograph.
The Rational Method is based on empirical data (data collected from the site being studied) and on hypothetical
rainfall-runoff events. The hypothetical portion of the Rational Method is assumed to model what would happen
during natural storm events.

During an actual storm event, the peak discharge is dependent upon many factors, including:
• Antecedent moisture conditions. (If the ground is already saturated from a previous rain, then more
runoff will result than would be expected if the ground was drier.)
• Rainfall magnitude. (The total amount of rainfall, in inches.)
• Rainfall intensity. (The amount of rainfall over a certain period of time, in inches per hour.)
• Rainfall duration. (Length of time over which rainfall occurs, in hours.)
• Rainfall distribution. (The rain may fall over only a certain portion of the drainage area or over the entire
drainage area.)
• The effects of infiltration, detention, and flow routing throughout the watershed.
The general procedure for determining peak discharge using the Rational Method is as follows.
 • Step 1: Determine the drainage area (in acres.)
• Step 2: Determine the runoff coefficient (C).
• Step 3: Determine the hydraulic length or flow path that will be used to determine the time of
concentration.
• Step 4: Determine the types of flow (or flow regimes) that occur along the flow path.
• Step 5: Determine the time of concentration (Tc) for the drainage area.

Step 6: Use the time of concentration to determine the intensity.

Step 7: Input the drainage area, C value, and intensity into the formula to determine the peak rate of
runoff.

Rational Formula
Qp= 0.28*C*I*A
where:
• Qp= Peak runoff rate [m³/sec]
• C =Runoff coefficient [-]
• I = Rainfall intensity [mm/hr]
• A = Drainage area [km²]

Suggested Value of Coefficient of Runoff, (C), for used in the Rationa Formula

Type of Drainage Area Coefficient of Runoff

Concrete or Bituminous Pavement 0.8 – 0.9

Gravel Roadways, open 0.4 – 0.6

Bare Earth (high value for steep slope) 0.2 – 0.8

Turf Meadows 0.1 – 0.4

Cultivated Fields 0.2 – 0.4

Forested Areas 0.1 – 0.2

Unit Hydrograph
A hydrograph is a graph showing the rate of flow (discharge) versus time past a specific point in a river, or other
channel or conduit carrying flow. The rate of flow is typically expressed in cubic meters or cubic feet per second
(cms or cfs).
It can also refer to a graph showing the volume of water reaching a particular outfall, or location
in a sewerage network, graphs are commonly used in the design of sewerage, more specifically, the design of
surface water sewerage systems and combined sewers.

Relationship and Effect of Hydraulic and Construction

• Usually, highway construction disrupt existing natural drainage pattern.
• Construction operations may disturb the ground cover, and loosen the soil creating muddy stream as a
result of erosion.
• Erosion create debris that are carried downstream, and deposited at points where the velocity slackens.
• Any changes in the land use may alter the historical run-off or un-gauged rural water shed that could be
disastrous on wide scale basis.

Cardinal Rules on Drainage Design

• As much as possible, existing drainage system patterns and soil cover should not be disturbed.
• Necessary changes in the drainage patterns should not in any manner bring velocities that may create
new erosion problems.

Drainage Economic Considerations

The term economy in drainage system, simply mean; finding the solution to a problem that is cheapest in the long
run under the following conditions:
 Determine the estimated initial investment cost.
 Consider the maintenance cost or outlay.
Consider anticipated loss and drainage for each solution.

Draining the Highway

 • Water flowing across the roadway down the road slope must be thin enough in a sheet form like so that
the erosion on the shoulder will be minimized.
• Unprotected slope could be badly washed out if irregularity in the pavement or shoulder accumulates
water into small streams.
• One way of preventing washout of the side slope is to retain the water at the outer edge of the shoulder.

Draining the Urban Street

Manholes. Inlets, and Catch Basin

Manholes, Inlets and catch basins are classified under item 502 of the DPWH standard specifications which
includes construction, reconstruction or adjustment of manholes inlets and catch basin.

Manholes
A manhole (alternatively utility hole, cable chamber, maintenance hole, inspection chamber, access chamber or
confined space)
is the top opening to an underground utility vault used to house an access point for making
connections or performing maintenance on underground and buried public utility and other services including
sewers, telephone, electricity, storm drains and gas.

Manhole closings are protected by a manhole cover (also known as a "biscuit")

 a flat plug designed to prevent accidental or unauthorized access to the manhole. Those plugs
are traditionally made of metal, but may be constructed from precast concrete, glass reinforced plastic or other
composite material (especially in Europe, or where cover theft is of concern).

Inlets
An opening through which fluid is admitted to a tube or container.

Catch Basin

Material Requirements
 • Corrugated metal units
• Sewer and Manhole made bricks from shale or clay.
• Joint mortar mixture
• Frames, gratings, covers and ladder rungs

ASTM D-1187
Standard Specification for Asphalt-Base Emulsions for Use as Protective Coatings for Metal

Construction Requirements
• Concrete construction must conform to the requirements for item 405-structural concrete.
• Masonry shall fit neatly and tightly around the pipe.
• When grade adjustment or existing structure is specified, the frames, covers and gratings are removed
and then reset to the specified elevation.
• Upon completion, each structure should be cleaned.

Method of Measurement
Standard manholes, inlets and catch basins be it new or reconstructed will be measured in unit.
Any authorized additional concrete, reinforcing bars, masonry or labor required, will be measured and paid for
under Item 404 and 405. Junction box structure is measured for payment as a manhole.

Channel

The purpose of designing a channel is to determine the cross section of the canal that will accommodate
water flow smoothly and cheapest to construct and maintain.
• Side slope with a ratio of 2:1 or even flatter is most acceptable, except on rock or other hard materials
where channels are lined.
• The design of crown ditches, gutters, stream channels, and culverts flowing partially or fully are based on
the principle of flow in an open canal
Manning Formula
 The Manning formula is an empirical formula estimating the average velocity of a liquid flowing in a
conduit that does not completely enclose the liquid, i.e., open channel flow. All flow in so-called open channels is
[1]
driven by gravity. It was first presented by the French engineer Philippe Gauckler in 1867, and later re-developed
by the Irish engineer Robert Manning in 1890.

The discharge formula, Q = A V, can be used to manipulate Gauckler–Manning's equation by substitution for V.
Solving for Q then allows an estimate of the volumetric flow rate (discharge) without knowing the limiting or actual
flow velocity.
The Gauckler–Manning formula is used to estimate the average velocity of water flowing in an open channel in
locations where it is not practical to construct a weir or flume to measure flow with greater accuracy. The friction
coefficients across weirs and orifices are less subjective than n along a natural (earthen, stone or vegetated)
channel reach. Cross sectional area, as well as n', will likely vary along a natural channel. Accordingly, more error is
expected in estimating the average velocity by assuming a Manning's n, than by direct sampling (i.e., with a current
flowmeter), or measuring it across weirs, flumes or orifices. Manning's equation is also commonly used as part of a
numerical step method, such as the Standard Step Method, for delineating the free surface profile of water flowing
in an open channel.

Representative Value of Roughness Coefficient, n, Various Channel Lining

Types of Lining Value of n

Ordinary Earth, smooth gravel 0.02

Rough rubble or jagged rock 0.04

Rough concrete 0.02

Bituminous lining 0.02

Smooth rubble 0.02

Well Maintained grass-depth of flow over 15 cm 0.04

Well Maintained grass-depth of flow under 15 cm 0.06

Heavy grass 0.10

• Sub-critical flow – water flowing down a mild slope in an open canal.

It exists when the depth of the water in the channel is greater than the critical depth.
• Super-critical flow - Water flowing on steep slope
It exists when the depth is less than the critical level.

• The actual velocity must be checked against the maximum values for protected earth.
• Where channel scouring is indicated, reduction of water velocity should be adopted to a safe level
 • To reduce the velocity is to reduce the flow of water by diversion.

• Where the diversion is not possible, the channel is widened, or lenghtened. As an alternative, the slope of
the channel is decreased.
• Baffles, checks or drops are introduced to reduce slope in channel.

Maximum Safe Velocity when Channel Erosion is to be prevented

Types of Lining Allowable Velocity in ft/s

Well established grass on any good soil 6

Meadow type of blue or Bermuda grass 5

Bunch grasses, exposed between plants 2-4

Grains, stiff stemmed grasses that do not bend over under shallow flow
2-3

Earth without Vegetation

Fine sand or silt, little or no clay 1-2

Ordinary firm loam 2-3

Stiff clay, highly colloidal 4

Coarse gravel 4

Clay and Gravel 4

Soft Shale 5

Culverts
A culvert is a structure that allows water to flow under a road, railroad, trail, or similar obstruction. Typically
embedded so as to be surrounded by soil, a culvert may be made from a pipe, reinforced concrete or other
material. A structure that carries water above land is known as an aqueduct.

Materials:
 • Corrugated Metal
• Plain or Reinforced Concrete
• Asbestos Cement
• Votrified clay or cast iron

Installation of Culverts
• Straight Type
• I-Type
• U-Type
• Wing Type
• Flared Type
• Warped Type
• Stepped U - Type
Conduits

Conduits are laid on bedding or footing that conforms to the following

standard specifications:

1. Conduit Bedding is classified into Class A, B and C.

2. In laying culvert pipes, the requirement of class C bedding is
applied if no bedding class is specified.
3. Class A bedding shall consist of a continuous concrete cradle
confirming with the plan details.
4. Class B bedding is extended to a depth not less than 30% of the
vertical outside diameter of the conduit pipe.
5. The minimum thickness of the bedding materials beneath the
pipe is 10 centimeters is composed of sand passing a 9.5 mm
sieve but not more than 10% passes 0.075 mm sieve.
6. The layer of bedding material is arranged and shaped to fit I the
conduit for at least 15% of its total height.
7. When a bell and spigot type is used, the recesses in the bottom trench are shaped to accommodate the bell.
8. Class C bedding should be extended to a depth not less than 10% of its total height.
9. For flexible pipes, the bed is roughly shaped and a bedding blanket of sand is specified as follows:

Pipe Corrugation on Depth Minimum bedding depth

10 mm 25 mm
25 mm 50 mm
50 mm 75 mm

Laying the Conduit pipe

1. Installation of conduit pipes should start at the downstream end of the

conduit line.
2. The lower segment of the conduit pipe should be in contrast with the
shape throughout its full length.
3. The bell or groove ends of the rigid conduits and outside conferential laps
of flexible conduits are placed with longitudinal laps or seams at the side.
4. Paved or partially lined conduit pipes are laid with the longitudinal
centerline of the paved segment coincides with the
flow line of water.
5. Elliptical and elliptically reinforced conduits are
placed with the major axis within 5 degrees of a
vertical plan through the longitudinal axis of the
conduit.
Joining the conduit Pipes

Rigid conduit pipes are the bell and spigot type, tongue and groove, or
other types that maybe specified.

1. In joining conduit pipes, the ends are fully entered into the inner surface
evenly flushed. Joints are connected by:
a.) Portland Cement mortar or grout
b.) Rubber gaskets
c.) Oakum and mortar or joint compound
d.) Plastic sealing compound
e.) A combination of these types or any other as may be specified
2. Joint mortar for concrete pipes consists of one part by volume of Portland
cement and two parts of approved sand with water necessary to obtain a
refined consistency. Mortar should be used immediately within 30 minutes
after its preparation.
3. Mortar joint is made with excess mortar to form a continuous bead around the
outside joint of the pipe and smoothly finished on the side.
4. Rubber gaskets are installed to form a flexible watertight seal. When Portland
cement mixture is used, the completed joints are protected against rapid drying
by any suitable covering materials.
5. Flexible conduits are firmly joined by coupling bands.

Backfilling

Backfilling follows after the laying installation of conduit pipes under the following specifications:

1. Materials or backfill should be fine, readily compacted soil or granular material selected from approved
sources. It should be placed on each side of the conduit for the fill trench width up to elevation of 30 cm
above the top of the pipe.
2. Backfill materials should be free from stones that would be retained on 50 mm sieve, nor chunks of highly
plastic clay and other objectionable materials.
 3. At least 95% of the granular backfill materials
pass the 12.5 mm sieve and not less than 95% of it
are retained on a 4.75 mm sieve.
4. Oversized materials if present should be removed.
5. On top of the trench, backfill materials are placed
at or near optimum moisture content and
compacted in layers not exceeding 15 cm (compacted) on both sides up to 30 cm above the top of the
conduit. Care should be exercised to compact thoroughly the backfill under the haunches of the conduit.
6. For that portion above the trench on each side of the conduit pipe, the width of backfill is equal to twice the
diameter of the conduit or 3.5 m whichever is smaller.
7. After being bedded and backfilled, all conduits are protected by cover fill 1 meter high, before any heavy
equipment is permitted to cross during the construction of the roadway.

Field Strutting

Whenever required by the plan and specifications, vertical

diameter of rounded flexible conduits is increased by 5% through shop
elongation or by means of jacks applied after the entire line of conduit
installed on the bedding but before backfilling. The vertical elongation
should be maintained by means of sills and struts, or by horizontal ties
used on paved invert pipe.

Pipes and struts should be 30 cm in place until the

embankment is completed and compacted.

Methods of Measurements

Conduit pipe of different types and sizes whether new or

reinstalled will be measured by linear meter installed. Conduit with
slope or skewed ends will be measured along the invert. Every section
will be measured according to the number of units installed. Class b
bedding (footing) materials placed and approved will be measured in
place by cubic meter.

When the Bid Schedule contains an estimated quantity for furnishing and placing backfill materials and
pipe culverts, the quantity to be paid will be the number of cubic meter completed in place and accepted,
measured in final position between the limits as follows:
 1. Measurement include backfill materials up to the top of the original ground line but will not include any
materials placed outside of vertical plane 45 cm up outside and parallel with the inside wall of the pipe at
its widest horizontal dimension.
2. The measurement will also include all backfill materials above the original ground line adjacent to the pipe
for a height of 30 cm above the top of the pipe and for a distance on each side of the pipe not greater than
the widest horizontal dimension of the pipe if the original ground line is less than 30 cm.
3. The measurement includes the placing of backfill materials in all trenches.

6-8 Design of Underdrain

Underdrain is categorized under Item 501 of DPWH Standard Specifications, which provides that:

“This item shall consist of constructing underdrain, using pipes

and granular filter material underdrain pipe outlets and blind drains
using granular material in accordance with the specifications and in
reasonably close conformity with the lines and grades shown on the
plans or as established by the engineer.”

1. The pipe is used to carry away collected water. The size and
number of pipes and its locations of opening should be studied carefully
to prevent excessive entrance velocity that will cause silting to the pipe.
2. Filter materials with which the trench is backfilled or the
opening in the filter, should be fine enough so that the adjacent soil will not be washed out into the drain.
3. The top of the underdrain should be sealed with impervious soil to prevent the entrance of surface water.
4. Intercepting drains must extend into the impervious zone.
5. The pipes are laid into the flow line at least 1.2 meters below the finished grade and carefully bedded with
gravel or filter materials.
Materials

Materials should conform to the requirements specified as

follows:

1. Zinc coated (galvanized) corrugated iron or steel for culverts and

underdrain (AASHTO M-36).
2. Extra strength and standard strength clay pipe and perforated clay
pipe (AASHTO M-165)
3. Porous concrete (AASHTO M-176)
4. Perforated concrete (AASHTO M-175)
5. Bituminous fiber non-pressure sewer drain and under drainage pipe
system (AASHTO M-177)
6. Asbestos cement perforated underdrain pipes (AASHTO M-189)

Granular Backfill Filter Materials

Granular backfill filter materials shall be permeable meeting the

requirements of AASHTO M-6 specifications except that soundness test will
not be required and minor variations in grading and content of deleterious
substances may be approved by the engineer. All materials are subject to
inspection before acceptance.

Construction Requirements

1. Pipe installation. Trenches are excavated to the dimensions and grades required by the plan. A minimum of
15 cm bedding layer of granular backfill materials are placed and compacted at the bottom of the trench.
Sub drainage pipe are embedded firmly
on the bedding.
2. Perforated pipes are placed
with the perforations downward
securely joined with appropriate fittings
or bands.
3. Non-perforated pipes are laid
with the bell end upgrade with open
joints wrapped with suitable material to
permit entry of water, or unwrapped as
may be specified.
4. Upgrade end sections of all
sub drainage pipe installations are
closed with suitable plugs to prevent
entry of the soil materials.
5. After the pipe installation,
granular backfill materials are placed
30 cm above the top of the pipe and
should not be displaced by the covering
of open joints.
6. The remainder of granular
backfill are placed and compacted at
 every 15 cm layers up to the required height. Any remaining portion of the trench above the granular
backfill shall be filled with either granular or impervious material and thoroughly compacted.

Underdrain Outlet

Trench for underdrain outlets are excavated to the depth and width as
planned. Pipes are laid in the trench with all ends firmly joined and backfilled after
inspection and approval of the pipe installation.

Blind Drain

Trenches for blind drains are excavated to the width and depth as shown on plans.
The trench is then filled with granular backfill material to the required depth. Any
remaining upper portions of the trench should be filled with either granular or
impervious material in accordance with the requirements for excavations.

6-9 Debris Control

Flood waters usually carry objectionable objects like brushes,

banana trunks, tree brunches etc. This floating debris clogs culvert
entrances and raises the headwater elevation overflowing the
road and damaging adjoining properties. Culverts should be
designed to allow debris to pass A single large span box culvert is
preferred on streams carrying large floating objects than the multi-
span culvert with the same area of openings.

Another alternative is to extend the curtain wall

separating the barrels of the multi span culverts upstream, with its
top slanting downward so that in time of flood, debris carried by
flood water will ride up on this wall or turn to pass easily through
the opening.

Another method proven effective is to install up stream

debris racks or wire, steel rail or piling. Some design provides trap
for the sand or gravel carried by the stream rather than having it
pass through the structure. However, design of debris control
devices depends upon the kind of debris to be handled the volume
of floodwater and the site conditions.
6-10 The Legal Aspect of Drainage

Highway agency is legally responsible for any damage to private

property affected by the changes it makes in natural drainage pattern
within the limit that water must flow.

Damage claim against the Department could be established if:

1. When as a result of the agency’s project, the flow of several

streams or creeks were concentrated into a single channel
that resulted to erosion, silting or flooding of private
property.
2. When due to pure design or inadequate maintenance, water
backed against highway or embankment resulted to
inundation of land or property or caused injury or death.
3. Liability however, is limited to damages in direct
consequences of the improvement. The agency would not
be liable for damages if an unprecedented storm causes the
stream to overflow a newly constructed channel, provide
that this channel has the capacity equal to the natural
volume of water flow.
4. Engineering decisions if based on an accepted practice do
not provide for a course action. In any case, the
responsibility of the highway agency would be determined
through negotiations or court litigations. Therefore, design
of drainage system must satisfy the various requirements of
the environmental laws and regulations.

6-11 Roadway Design and Construction for Unusual Soil Conditions

Problems usually encountered in the design and constructions

of roadways are:

1. The stability of fill sand slope

2. The drainage
3. Capillarity and frost heave
4. Permafrost
5. Elasticity and rutting

Stability of Fills and Slope

There are instances where the materials in cut bank slips

down the roadway or sometimes, a portion of high fill slides outward
carrying portion of the roadway. This pattern of failure is common in fills o cut slope of homogenous non-granular
materials.

1. Slides may happen during construction or at later date after the road is in service. It is advisable to risk
some sliding or adjustments of large slope than to flatten increasing pay yardage.
 2. If possible during the location surveys, areas that are threatened by frequent slide should be avoided. Minor
slop adjustments, slides and ledge falls that occur during construction should be removed to widen fill or to
flatten the slope.
3. Slides may be caused either by mudflows, slope
adjustment, or movement due to underground
water or underground rock strata. Slides happen
when an underlying inclined surface of shale,
soapstone, or the like is lubricated by seepage
water.
4. Slides may be controlled by removing large
portion of the materials above the slippage
surface, or by some drainage devices that keeps
water off the surface of weakness.
5. Water must always be intercepted before it lubricates the critical slip surface.

Capillarity

Capillarity is the tendency of water to seek its

own level as if an open channel flows through the pores
and fine channels of the soil. It is the force pulling free
water through the voids of the soil in all directions.

Capillary action is most common in permeable

materials such as dirty gravel and soils composed mainly
of fine sand, silts or clay silts. Capillary flow however, is
less common in impermeable materials like clay and
colloidal soils.

1. In roadway construction,
moisture has to be controlled. Over
saturation of the soil I road structure
reduces its strength and the
differential expansion of the soil due
to uncontrolled moisture may lead to
serious problems.
2. Moisture in the roadway is
brought about by the changes in
weather, seasons or by capillary
action of the water.
3. Water movement due to
capillary action take place in any
directions, and an upward movement
may create undesirable conditions. If
the surface of the soil is open,
evaporation of moisture is faster, and
no damage may result, but, if the surface is covered with pavement or other impervious blanket, capillary
water may accumulate and saturate the subsurface layers that usually resulted to pavement failure.
4. Consistency of soil varies from semi solid to plastic liquid if moisture content is increased. The behavior of
the material used is directly correlated with changes and percentages of moisture content.
 5. Voids in soils are of the same order of magnitude as the particle sizes. Thus, the height of capillary rise
would be greater in fine grain soils than in coarse grain soils. Likewise, temperature plays an important role
in the capillary rise of water in soils. The height of rise is greater in low temperature than in high
temperature.

TABLE 6-4 REPRESENTATIVE HEIGHTS OF CAPLLARY RISE IN SOILS

SOIL TYPE Approximate Capillary Heights
Centimeters Feet
Small Gravel 2 to 10 0.1 to 0.4
Coarse Sand 15 0.5
Fine Sand 30 to 100 1 to 3
Silt 100 to 1000 3 to 30
Clay 1000 to 3000 30 to 90

TABLE 6-5 REPRESENTATIVE VALUES OF COMPRESSIVE STRESSES RESULTING FROM CAPILLARY

FORCES
Soil Type pcf Compressive Stress
Kg./cu. cm. kN/ sq. m.
Silt 200 to 2000 0.1 to 1.0 10 to 100
Clay 2000 to 6000 1.0 to 3.0 100 to 300

Frost Heave

Frost heaving (or a frost heave) is an upwards swelling of soil during

freezing conditions caused by an increasing presence of ice as it grows
towards the surface, upwards from the depth in the soil
where freezing temperatures have penetrated into the soil (the freezing
front or freezing boundary).
Elasticity and Rutting

Elasticity is common in soil whose fines consist mainly of flat and flaky particles.
This kind of soil has rubberized characteristic that rebound under heavy loads.

Drainage and Slope Protection

1. Highly plastics soils should not be place closer to the roadway surface
where heavy loads are expected. Early cracking of the pavement may
happen due to deformations caused by the rebound of the soil.
2. When heavy loads passes on a plastic soils, compression and rebound
occurs to at least 6 meters below the surface. 80% of the load is
concentrated 90 cm. from the top of the surface. The design therefore,
is to sum up the total expected load and rebound in the pavement to be
sure that it does not produce fatigue and failure in the pavement.
3. Deflection of the pavement surface as the wheel slowly rolls past the reference point is measured by
measuring device called Bankelman Beam. A long slender bar slips into the space between dual tires of the
truck wheels Deflection rate of travel shock wave is recorded.

6-12 Stabilizing the Unsupported Slope

An existing earth slope that have been stable can experience significant movement called slope failure or landslide
due to the following physical changes:

a. Changes in natural conditions

b. Changes induced by man

Changes in natural conditions may be result from:

1. Occurrence of earthquake
2. Subsidence of underground cavern

3. Erosion
4. Slope weakening due to the development of cracks or shrinkage cracks are followed by water intrusions.
5. Variations in the elevation of ground water or changes in the slope subsurface flow that create new seepage
forces.
6. Weakening of buried soil or rock seams due to ground water flow or chemical leaching.
Elements of Roads and Highways

Changes Induced by Man

a. Increased loading on slope or near its crest.

b. Removal of earth below the toe of a slope.
c. Removal of materials from slope making it steeper.
d. Topographic modification like earth moving, excavations,
change in elevation from one area to another which may
create slope failure.
e. Landslide or other conditions caused by man.

Slide

Slide refers to the occurrence where the moving mass is defined

and separated from the underlying and adjacent earth by plane,
comprising a number of adjacent planes were seepage result. The
seepage plane represent the continuous surface where the
maximum shear strength of the earth material has been reached
with the result that large displacement occurs.

Slide is classified into four:

1. Rotational slide.
2. Translational slide.
3. Block or wedge failure.
4. Flows and spread.

Rational slide is associated with natural slopes and constructed

embankment of homogenous materials possessing cohesion.

Translational slide is associated with slope of layered materials

where the mechanism of slippage occurs along a weak plane that
possesses a downward dip and in cohesionless soil slopes where
seepage occurs.

Block or Wedge failure refers to the displacement of an intact mass

of soil due to the action of an adjacent zone of earth.

Flows and Spread failure is the most complex type of soil mass
movement. Flows involve lateral movement of soil having a
characteristic of viscous fluid, although the actual consistency of the moving mass
may vary from very wet to dry.

Spread refers to the occurrence of multi-directional lateral movement by a

fractured soil mass. Earthquake is a typical causes of lateral spreads.
Flows and Spread failure is the most complex type of soil mass movement. Flows involve lateral movement of soil
having a characteristic of viscous fluid, although the actual consistency of the moving mass may vary from very wet
to dry.

A flow is a spatially continuous movement in which surfaces of shear are short-lived, closely spaced, and usually
not preserved.

Spread refers to the occurrence of multi-directional lateral movement by a fractured soil mass. Earthquake is a
typical causes of lateral spreads.
7-1 SOIL AS STRUCTURE
Early road constructions have concentrated mainly on the road surface pavement. Little attention was given to the
subgrade, the base materials, and the manner of construction more particularly, the placing & compacting of the
pavement foundation. As a result, too many road failures past & present were recorded with an endless
maintenance & rehabilitation activities.

Because of these very expensive undertakings, highway agencies were prompted to undertake advance
researches & studies on the properties of sub-grade & soil performance under severe conditions. After a long
study of the unending road failures, road agencies have established a more detailed procedure regarding the kind
of materials to be used on a particular condition, type & behavior of the soil where the road is to be constructed.

3 major structural parts of roadway:

-The sub-grade or Sub-base
-The base coarse
-The pavement

SUBGRADE OR SUB BASE is the earth beneath the road, properly arranged and graded, compacted and stabilized. It
is defined as the “supporting structure on which the pavement surface & its special under-coarse rest.”

BASE COARSE is the materials laid on top of the subgrade consisting of crushed stone or gravel, sometimes mixed
with asphalt.

PAVEMENT is the material laid over the base coarse consisting of asphalt concrete or Portland cement concrete.

7-2 TYPES OF BASE COARSE

Base coarse is classified into two types:
-The granular base coarse or untreated soil mixture
-Treated base coarse

The granular base coarse is a road surface of untreated soil mixture described as gravel road.
Gravel road consist largely of stone pebbles or crushed rock particles combined with either: clay, lime, iron oxide
or other fine materials sufficient enough to serve as binder of the coarse particles.
 UNTREATED SOIL MIXTURE / GRAVEL ROAD

CLOSER VIEW ON GRAVEL ROAD

CONSTRUCTION & MAINTAINANCE REQUIREMENTS OF UNTREATED GRAVEL ROAD SURFACE

That, the road must be stable to support the super imposed loads without detrimental deformation. It must be
resistant against various traffic activities & could with stand the abrasive action of traffic.
It must shed the large portion of rain that falls on the surface because water penetrating the sub grade might
soften it & loosen the surface stability.

It must be free from large rocks or stones over one inch in diameter so that it could be regularly maintained by
blading or dragging.

Gravel road must possess capillarity properties sufficient enough to replace the moisture lost through the surface
evaporation. The road must maintain the desired damp condition that is required to bind the particles together.
On dry weather, the moisture film on the clay particles should bind the entire mass together, and in wet weather,
the first rain that fall on the surface should expand the clay close the pores to prevent water from entering and
softening the materials.

An excessive amount of highly expansive clay materials should be avoided because clay will swell & unseat the
coarser materials when wet 7 ultimately will weaken the stability of the road.
Gravel road must be low cost. Funds for low traffic road is very limited that most of the time overlooked in the list
of appropriation priorities except on election period.

Use local materials. Meaning, those materials that could be found nearby the project must be utilized.
If the gravel surface road is to be maintained for several years without bituminous or asphalt surface treatment or
other impervious surfacing, AASHTO standard specifications requires maximum liquid limit of 35 & a plastic index
of 4-9 & a maximum 8% passing the no.200 sieve.

(TABLE 7-1)

7-3 TREATED BASE COARSE

To stabilize the base coarse, it is sometimes treated with either asphalt. Lime, Portland cement or other
materials as binders mixed with the aggregate base coarse. Treated base coarse is adopted if in the study or
analysis of the highway agency, a better road can be produced at a minimal over all cost, or when a politician order
the highway office to construct the road with or without study because it was a commitment during the campaign
period.

Asphalt or bituminous treatment is employed to waterproof and bind the granular aggregate to the sand
& clay. Thus, the primary function of the asphalt in a treated aggregate, is waterproofing. Asphalt treated base
allows a thinner overall depth of the pavement.

Different types of asphalt are used to bind the natural materials like untreated granular base & granular
aggregate with sands & even clay. The type of asphalt binders for base coarse depends on several factors
enumerated as follows:

• The mixing procedure is either by plant or field mixing.

• If mixing is processed in the plant, the aggregate is heated to specified temperature & mixed with either;
asphalt cement, cutback asphalt or emulsion asphalt.
• The quality of asphalt is classified as either for stabilizing or for waterproofing.
• If the purpose is for stability, mixtures are measured in the laboratory by the marshall or HVEEM
stabilometer procedures. The weight of asphalt in percentage would probably in the range of 5% to 7%.
• If the purpose is for waterproofing only, 2% to 3% of the asphalt binder is added.
• If emulsion asphalt is used, enough water is included in the mixture to allow compaction at near optimum
moisture content
SAND & ASPHALT BASE COURSE
The sand and asphalt base coarse is composed of either, loose beach sand, dune pit or river sand
cemented with asphalt materials. In the early road construction, sand & clay mixture is not only used as road
surfaces but also for base coarse. But lately, the cutback asphalt, emulsified asphalt or tars have been introduced
as substitute for the clay binders to produce quality base coarse for roads & highways.

Sand for mixing asphalt should be clean & strong, because the surface properties & grain shape must have the
quality to resist displacement under the load. if in the event that quality of available sand is not satisfactory, it may
be blended with sharp angular particles like crushed aggregate, stone or screened slag, stone dust, loess, cement
or other non-cohesive minerals to produce an stable mixture. The test could be by the hubbard field, marshall &
Hveem Stabilometer procedures.

Asphalt binders with the grade of asphalt cement for hot plant mixing should be:
-Medium viscosity, rapid or medium curing asphalts.
-Slow setting emulsified asphalt; or
-Tars of grade RT-6 to RT10

The content of asphalt binder is in percent by weight ranging from 4% to 10%. Compaction is done using either
pneumatic tired or smooth wheeled roller. In case the surface is tight & non-friable, sealing could be disregarded.

FINE GRAIN ASPHALT BASE

An asphalt stabilized base & subgrade constructed with fine grained has a controlled plastic index up to 30
are processed with lime. Those with up to 50% passing the No.200 sieve & plastic index up to 18 can be stabilized
even without pre-treatment.

SOIL & BASE COARSE STABILIZED WITH CEMENT

The use of Portland cement in stabilizing soils & aggregates was initially practiced after world war-1 in 1914.
1.cement stabilization by mixing natural materials & Portland cement compacted at optimum moisture
content & cured to hydrate the cement is considerably strong & stable base. It is less susceptible to deformation
caused by moisture & temperature changes.

2. comparatively, this is less rigid than the portand cement concrete because its modulus of elasticity
ranges from 100,000 for clay soils with little cement up to 1,000,000 for the strong mixture. Its comprehensive
strength ranges from 300 psi to 600 psi with flexural strength of about 20% of the compressive value.

3. Portland cement concrete modulus of elasticity ranges from 3million to 6million with compressive
strength of about 3000 to 5000 psi.
The stabilized cement mixture is called ”soil cement” produced by using abundant native local materials
subdivided into three types:

• Sandy & gravelly soils containing less than 25% silt sand & clay.
• Sand with lesser amount of fines like beach sand, glacial & windblown sand.
• Silty & clayey soils
Materials having plasticity index greater than 30 is rarely used, unless lime is added. Materials with high PH or
sulfate content are not advisable for use. The cement content for stabilized mixture ranges from 5% to 14% by
volume or 3% to 16% by weight of dry aggregates. Sandy & gravelly soils required less amount of cement, unlike
the silty & clayey soils that needs higher percentage of cement.

The dry densities of cement stabilize mixture compacted by AASHTO standard methods, ranges from 135 lb per
cubic foot for a well graded gravel down to 85 lb per cubic foot for silty or clayey soils, the recommended field
density is about 95%. The quality of aggregate cment mixture is measured by its ability to resist abrasion &
disintegration. Other methods of testing for stabilize cement content is the unconfined & triaxial compression &
flexure tests.

7-4 GRADING & MAINTENANCE OF UNTREATED SURFACE

The cross slope of untreated surface gravel road must be sufficient enough to drain water to prevent
potholes & softening of the roadway, thus;
If the road materials are sufficiently stable & water tight, one inch per slope is considered satisfactory although 3/8
to ½ “ per foot slope is preferred.
If the road is steep grade, substantial cross slope is needed to direct the water into the roadside.

Untreated surface road is seldom constructed in less than 20 centimeters loose depth. When compacted, will be
compressed to about 15 centimeters thick. Road development sometimes adopted the stage construction
methods which means , step by step improvement of the roadway, depending upon the available ability of funds
& demand of increased traffic.

The sequences of improvement could be as follows:

FIRST: it might be an earth road surface
SECOND: untreated gravel road
THIRD: application of asphalt over the gravel
FOURTH: the use of stone type pavement with gravel as part of the base coarse.

Maintenance of gravel road surface is a routine activity specially in maintaining the smoothness of the surface
under the following procedures:

• By cutting off a thin layer of the road surface using road grader distributing the scraped layer uniformly
over the roadway surface. The cut is deep enough to remove the corrugations of the road surface.
• The blading sequence is once or twice a year or sometimes monthly, depending upon the finances, traffic
& equipment availability. After blading, the road is compacted by road roller to maintain the cross section
slope & the crown of the roadway.
• The most effective routine maintenance is done immediately after rainfall where the surface is soft for
the blade to drag.
• Losses of materials caused by grading & traffic wear generally ranges from ½” to 1 inch of the thickness
per wind intensity, frequency & maintenance practice or habbit.
• Compaction is effectively done by using pneumatic tired or steel wheeled rollers. Where surface is tight &
non-variable, sealing may be omitted.

7-5 DPWH Standard Specifications on Aggregate Sub-base Course

The Department of Public Works and Highways classified the aggregate sub-base course as Item
200 which consists of furnishing, placing and compacting aggregate sub-base course on a prepared sub
grade.
Item – 200Aggregate Sub-base Course

 Shall consist of hard, durable particles of fragments or crushed stone, crushed slag or crushed or
natural gravel and filler or natural crushed sand or other firmly divided mineral matter.

 Should be free of vegetable matter and lumps or balls of clay that could be compacted readily to
form a firm stable base.

TABLE 7-2 GRADING REQUIREMENTS FOR ITEM 200

Sieve Designation
Alternate US Standard Standard ,mm Mass Percent Passing
50 2” 100
25 1” 55-85
9.5 3/8” 40-75
0.075 No.200 0-12

Conditions

1. The fraction passing the 0.075mm (200) sieve should not be greater than 0.666 (2/3) of the
fraction passing the 0.425 mm No. 40 sieve.

2. The fraction passing the 0.425 mm (No. 40) sieve should have a liquid limit not greater than 35
and Plastic Index not more than 12 as determined by AASHTO T-89 and T-90 respectively.

3. The coarse portion retained on a 3.0 mm(2.0mm) (No. 10) sieve shall have a mass percent of
wear not to exceed 50 by the Los Angeles Abrasion Tests as determined by AASHTO T-96

4. The material shall have a soaked CBR value not less than 25% as determined by AASHTO T- 193.
CBR value should be obtained at a maximum dry density as determined by AASHTO T-180
Method D

Placing

 Aggregate sub-base material shall be placed at a uniform mixture on prepared subgrade

in a quantity which will provide the required compacted thickness.

 Placing shall be from vehicle especially equipped to distribute the material in a

continuous uniform layer or windrow.
Spreading & Compacting

When uniformly mixed, the mixture shall be spread to the plan thickness, for compaction.

When the required thickness is 150 mm or less, the material may be spread & compacted in one
layer. When the required thickness is more than 150 mm, the aggregate sub base shall be spread &
compacted in two or more layers of approximately equal thickness, & the maximum compacted
thickness of any layer shall not exceed 150 mm.

Immediately following final spreading & smoothening, each layer shall be compacted to the full
width by means of approved compaction equipment. Rolling shall progress gradually from the sides to
the center, parallel to the centerline of the road & shall continue until the whole surface has been
rolled. Any irregularities that develop shall be corrected by loosening the material at these places &
adding or removing material until surface is smooth & uniform.

Immediately following final spreading & smoothening, each layer shall be compacted to the full
width by means of approved compaction equipment. Rolling shall progress gradually from the sides to
the center, parallel to the centerline of the road & shall continue until the whole surface has been
rolled. Any irregularities that develop shall be corrected by loosening the material at these places &
adding or removing material until surface is smooth & uniform.

Along curbs, headers, & walls, & at all places not accessible to the roller, the sub base material
shall be compacted thoroughly with approved tampers or compactors.

Compactor

Trial Sections

Before sub base construction is started, the Contractor shall spread and compact trial sections
as directed by the engr. The purpose of the trial section is to check the suitability & the efficiency of the
equipment & construction method. One trial section of about 500 m2 shall be made for every type of
material & or construction equipment/procedure proposed for used.

After final compaction of each trial section, the contractor shall carry out such field density tests
& other tests reqd. as directed by the Engr.

If a trial section shows that the proposed materials, equipment or procedures in the Engr.’s
opinion are not suitable for sub base, the material shall be removed at the contractor’s expense, & new
trial section shall be constructed.
 If the basic conditions regarding the type of material or procedure change during the execution
of the work, new trial sections shall be constructed.

Item 201- AGGREGATE BASE COURSE

Consist of furnishing, placing & compacting an aggregate base course on a prepared

subgrade/sub base in accordance with this specification & the lines, grades, thickness & typical
cross-sections shown on the Plans, or as established by the Engineer.
Material Requirement

Aggregates for base course shall consist of hard, durable particles of fragments or crushed
stones, crushed slag or crushed or natural gravel & filler or natural crushed sand or other firmly divided
mineral matter. The composite material should be free of vegetable matter & lumps or balls of clay that
could be compacted readily to form a firm stable base.

In some areas where the conventional base course materials are non-available, the use of 40%
weathered limestone blended with 60% crushed stones or gravel shall be allowed, provided that the
blended materials meet the requirements of this item.

The base course material shall conform to table 201.1, whichever is called for in the Bill of
Quantities.

Item 201 Material Requirements

TABLE 7-3

GRADING REQUIREMENTS FOR ITEM-201

Sieve Designation Mass Percent Rating

Standard Alternate US Grading Grading
Standard
A B
mm Inch

50 2” 100 -

37.5 1- ½” - 100

25 1” 60-85 -

19 ¾” - 60-85

12.5 ½” 35-65 -

4.75 No. 4 20-50 30-35

 0.425 No. 40 5-20 8-25

0.075 No. 200 0-12 2-14

Conditions

1. That the fraction passing the 0.075 mm (No. 200) sieve shall have a mass percent of wear not to
exceed 50.

2. The fraction passing the 0.425 mm (No. 40) sieve shall have a liquid limit not greater than 25 and
Plastic Index not greater than 6 as determined by AASHTO T 89 and T 96.

3. The coarse portion retained on a 2.0 mm (No. 10) sieve shall have a mass percent of wear not
exceeding 50 by the Los Angeles Abrasion test determined by AASHTO T 96.

4. The materials passing the 19 mm (3/4”) sieve shall have a soaked CBR value of not less than
80%.

CONSTRUCTION REQUIREMENTS

Preparation of Existing Surfaces

The existing surface shall be graded & finished as provided under item 105, subgrade
preparation, before placing the base material.

Placing

It shall be in accordance with all requirements of Subsection 200.3.2, placing.

Spreading & Compacting

It shall be in accordance with all requirements of Subsection 200.3.3, Spreading &

Compacting.

Trial Sections

It shall be in accordance with all requirements of Subsection 200.3.4.

ITEM 202- Crushed Aggregate Base Course

This item shall consist of furnishing, placing & compacting crushed gravel, crushed stone or
crushed rock on a prepared subgrade/sub base in one or more layers in accordance with this
specifications & lines, grades, thickness & typical cross-sections shown on the plans or established by
the Engineer.

Material Requirements
 Crushed Aggregate

It shall consist of hard, durable particles of fragments of stone or gravel crushed to the
size & the quality requirements of this item. It shall be clean & free of vegetable matter & lumps
or balls of clay.

TABLE 7-4

ITEM 201 CRUSHED AGGREGATE BASE COURSES

Sieve Designation Mass Percent Rating

Standard Alternate US Grading Grading
Standard
A B
mm Inch

38 (37.5) 1- ½” 100 -

25 1” - 100

20 (19) ¾” 60-85 -

12 (12.5) ½” - 60-90

4.75 No. 4 30-35 35-65

0.425 No. 40 8-25 10-30

0.075 No. 200 2-14 5-15

ITEM- 202 Material Requirements

1. The portion passing the 0.075 mm (No. 200) sieve shall not be greater than 0.66 (2/3) of the
portion passing the 0.425 mm (No. 40) sieve.

2. The portion passing the 0.425 mm (No. 40) sieve shall have a liquid limit not more than 25 and
Plastic Index not more than 6.

3. The coarse portion retained on a 2.0 mm (No. 10) sieve shall have a mass percent of wear not
more than 45 by L.A. abrasion tests, and not less than 50 mass percent shall have at least one
fractured face.

4. The materials passing the 19mm (3/4”) sieve shall have a minimum soaked CBR value 80%.

Construction Requirements

Same as subsections 201.3.1 through 201.3.5

Item- 203 Lime Stabilized Road Mix Base Course

This item shall consist of a foundation for a surface course composed of soil aggregate, lime &
water in proper proportions, road-mixed & constructed on a prepared subgrade/sub base in with this
specifications & lines, grades, thickness & typical cross-sections shown on the plans or established by
the Engineer.

Material Requirements

Soil Aggregate

1. Soil aggregates refers to the combination of gravel, sand, silt and clay, or other
approved combination of materials free of vegetable or other objectionable matter that
might be encountered in the construction site or obtained from other approved sources.

2. The intent of the specification is to utilize soil existing on the roadbed if the quality is
satisfactory according to the specifications and minimizing cost.

3. On the contrary, if the material quality is poor or deficient, aggregate must be obtained
wholly or partially from an approved outside sources.

4. Materials passing the 4.75 mm (No. 4) sieve produced in the crushing operation of either
stone or gravel shall be incorporated in the base material to the extent permitted by the
gradation requirements. The plasticity index shall not be less than 4 nor more than 10.

5. The aggregate shall have a mass percent of water not exceeding 50.

TABLE 7-5

GRADING REQUIREMENTS FOR ITEM-203

Sieve Designation Mass Percent Rating

Standard Alternate US Grading Grading
Standard
A B
mm Inch

50 2” 100 100

4.75 No. 4 45-100 55-100

2.00 No. 10 37-80 45-100

0.425 No. 40 15-20 25-80

0.075 No. 200 0-25 11-35

New Soil- Aggregate

It shall conform to the applicable requirements of Subsection 203.2.1, Soil Aggregate

Salvage Soil- Aggregate

Where soil-aggregate required is already in place, the contractor shall not be

responsible for its grading or quality except for removal or oversized materials as directed by
Engr. In general, salvaged soil-aggregate to be used for lime stabilized road mix base course will
consist of material meeting the requirements given in Subsection 203.2.1, Soil Aggregate.

Hydrated Lime

It shall conform to the requirements of Item 701, Construction Lime

Water

It shall conform to the requirements of item 714, Water

Proportioning of Mixture

The amount of lime to be added to the soil aggregates shall be from 3 to 12 mass % of
the dry soil. The exact percentage to be added shall be fixed by the Engr. On the basis of
preliminary laboratory tests & trial mixes of materials furnished.

Strength Requirement

CBR Test for gravelly soils. The mixture passing the 19mm (3/4”) sieve shall be obtained
at the maximum dry density determined according to AASHTO T- 193.

Construction Requirement

Weather Limitations

Lime shall not be applied during windy, rainy or impending bad weather. In the event
rain occurs during the operations, work shall be promptly stopped & the entire section shall be
reconstructed in accordance with this Specification.

Construction Equipment

The equipment to be used includes: scarifyer, pulverizer, mixer, spreader, hauler, water
truck, compactor, & finishing machine, including slurry lime distributor equipment.
 Scarifier Mixer

Water Truck
Compactor

Spreader

Finishing Machine

Preparation of the Soil Aggregate

Case- 1 For New Soil Aggregate

1. The existing roadbed is scarified lightly and bladed to a uniform grade according to the plan ,
then rolled, watered and rolled.

2. All depressions appearing on the surface are filled, and the weak portion of the roadbed is
strengthened with new soil aggregate.
 3. Allow one day for measuring, sampling and testing of the sample for approval of the quality
and gradation before spreading the windrow for application of the hydrated lime.

4. If soil aggregate moisture exceeds two mass percent of the dry aggregate, apply aeration by
harrowing the soil aggregate until the moisture content is reduced to 2% or less.

5. Finally, spread the aggregate smoothly and uniformly over half the road or other convenient
width of the surface ready for the application of hydrated lime.

Case- 2 Salvage Soil Aggregate

1. When materials in the site are to be used for mixing, the surface should be scarified lightly
and bladed to a uniform grade conforming to the cross section of the plan.

2. The reshaped surface is scarified again to depth required leaving a foundation of undisturbed
material parallel with the profile and cross section.

3. The loosened materials are bladed into a windrow at the side of the roadway. The
undisturbed materials are then rolled, watered and rolled.

Application of Lime

Application of lime shall follow correct procedures enumerated as follows:

1. The hydrated lime is uniformly spreaded at specified percent using either the dry or slurry
(wet) methods.

2. The lime is distributed in successive applications at the amount and intervals as prescribed.

3. The mixing equipment follows immediately behind the distributor after each application to
partially mix the lime with the soil aggregate.

4. It is applied only to specific areas as can be mixed into the soil aggregate during the day of
application.

5. Dry application is either by spotting bags of lime in equal pre-determined transverse and
longitudinal intervals or by applying in bulk lime from equipped self-loading trucks.

6. If lime slurry (wet) is employed, the typical slurry ratio is 1,000 kilograms lime to 2 cubic
meters water. The actual mixing proportion depends upon the percent of lime specified, the type of soil
and its moisture condition.

7. To prevent run-off and consequent non-uniformity of lime distribution, the slurry is mixed
immediately after each spreading pass..

Mixing

Mixing procedures are enumerated as follows:

 1. After the last lime application and partial mixing, the entire mass of mixture is withdrawn on
the road surface and then mixed by blading the mixture from side to side of the road, or by
manipulation producing equivalent results until the whole mass has uniform color. The mixture should
be free from lean spots or balls of unmixed particles. During the mixing operations, care shall be taken
to avoid cutting into the underlying course. When directed, the mixing process shall be confined to part
of the width or area of the road so as to allow traffic to pass.

2. Should the mixture show an excess of deficiency or uneven distribution of lime, the condition
must be corrected by adding soil aggregate or lime then remixed. The spreading of the mix shall not be
done when the surface to be covered is in an unsatisfactory condition

3. If the mixture contains excessive amount of water or volatile matter, as may be encountered
in slurry operation, it should be bladed, aerated or manipulated until the moisture and volatile content
becomes satisfactory.

4. Whether mixing is completed or not, all loosened materials are bladed into a windrow at the
end of each day work and retained as such until operations resumed.

Spreading Compacting and Finishing

The methods of spreading, compacting and finishing are enumerated as follows:

1. The materials are spreaded by self-propelled pneumatic tired blade grader or mechanical
spreader of approved type. Cutting into the underlying course should be avoided. In spreading
from the windrow, care shall be taken to avoid cutting into underlying course.

2. After spreading, the surface is leveled to the road center line, then to the outer edges of the
road overlapping the shoulder.

3. Each pass should terminate at least 910 mm (3ft) in advance or to the rear of the end of the
preceding pass.

4. During the time of compaction, the surface is dragged or bladed as necessary to fill and remove
incipient corrugation or other surface irregularities.

5. Rolling must continue until after the surface is in uniform texture satisfactorily compacted.

6. Rolling should be stopped whenever there is an excessive pulverizing of the aggregate or

displacement of the mixture.

7. When the compacted thickness of the road mix lime stabilized base course is to be more than
150 mm, the mixture shall be spread from the windrow & compacted in two (2) approximately
equal layers, the first layer to be bladed & rolled before the second layer is spread.
Protection, Curing and Maintenance

After stabilizing the base course by lime, it is protected against rapid drying for a period
of at least 5 days by either of the following curing methods:

1. A thorough and continuous moist condition should be maintained by sprinkling water.

2. The surface must be covered with 50 mm layer of earth or sand and maintained in moist
condition.

3. The surface is applied with asphalt membrane of the type and quantity approved by the
Highway agency.

4. Apply on the surface a liquid membrane curing compound of the type & quantity approved by
the Engineer.

Trial Section

Trial sections of stabilized base shall be constructed at least 2 weeks before actual base
construction.

Tolerances

The stabilized base course shall be laid to the designed level & transverse slopes shown on the
plans. The allowable tolerances shall be in accordance with Subsection 201.3.5, tolerance.

Traffic

The contractor will not be permitted to drive heavy equipment over completed portions prior to
the end of five (5) days curing period except pneumatic tired equipment required for constructing
adjoining sections.

Item 204 Portland cement Stabilized Road Mix Base Course

This item consist of a foundation for surface course composed of soil aggregate, Portland
cement & water in proper proportions, road-mixed & constructed on a prepared sub-grade or sub-base
in accordance with this Specification & the lines, grades, & typical cross-section shown in the plans or as
established by the Engineer.

Material Requirement

Soil Aggregate

Shall conform to the grading and quality requirements of Sub section 203.2.1.

Portland Cement

Conform to item 700,hydraulic cement.

 Water

Conform to item 714,water.

Proportioning Mixture

The amount of cement added to the aggregate shall be 6 to 10 mass percent of the dry
aggregate.

Construction Requirement

Construction requirements & procedures shall be as prescribed under Subsection 203.3.1

through 203.3.1. in all cases, the word ‘lime” shall be replaced & deleted with “Portland Cement”.

Item 205 Asphalt Stabilized Road Mixed Base Course

This item shall consist of a foundation for a surface course composed of soil aggregate, &
asphaltic material in proper proportions, road-mixed & constructed on a prepared subgrade/sub base in
accordance with this specifications & the lines, grades, thickness & typical cross-sections shown on the
plans or established by the Engineer.

Material Requirement

Soil Aggregates

It shall conform to the applicable requirements of item 703, aggregates, gradation A / B

shall be used.

Asphaltic Material

Asphalt materials shall be anionic or Cationic Emulsified asphalt of the slow setting type.

Proportioning of Mixture

The amount of asphalt material to be added to the aggregate should be from 4 to 7 mass
percent of the dry aggregate. The exact percentage to be used shall be fixed by the Engr.

Construction Requirement

Construction requirements & procedures shall be as prescribed under Subsection 306.3.1

through 306.3.7. in all cases, the word ‘aggregate” shall be replaced & deleted with “soil-aggregate”.

Trial Sections shall conform to the applicable requirements of Subsection 200.3.4

The allowable tolerances shall be in accordance with Subsection 201.3.5.

Item 206 Portland cement Treated Plant Mix Base Course

This item shall consist of a foundation for a surface course composed of aggregate, Portland
Cement & water in proper proportions, mixed by a travel plant or in a central plant & spread &
compacted on a prepared subgrade/sub base in one or more layers in accordance with this
Specifications & lines, grades, thickness & typical cross-sections shown on the plans or established by
the Engineer.

Material Requirement

Same as Subsection 204.2.1

Construction Requirement

Weather Limitations

Portland cement shall not be applied during windy, rainy, or impending bad weather. In the
event rain occurs, work shall be promptly stopped & the entire section shall be reconstructed in
accordance with this Specification.

Travel Plant Method

The salvage or new aggregate shall be pulverized until at least 80 mass percent of all the
materials other than stone or gravel will pass a 4.75 mm (No. 4) sieve.

Any material retained on a 50 mm (2”) sieve & other unsuitable materials are shall be removed.
If additional material is specified, it shall be blended with existing material. All butt joints at existing
pavements or other structures shall be cleared prior to mixing.

The subgrade/sub base shall support all equipment reqd. in the construction of the base course.
Soft or yielding areas shall be corrected prior to mixing.

The soil-aggregates to be treated shall be placed in a uniform windrow & spread to a uniform
thickness to the required depth. The specified quantity Portland cement shall be applied uniformly in a
trench on top of the windows or spread uniformly over the soil-aggregates. Spread cement that has
been lost shall be replaced, without additional compensation, before mixing is started.

Mixing shall be accomplished by means of a mixer that will thoroughly blended the cement with
soil aggregate. The mixer shall be equipped with watering metering device that will introduce the reqd.
quantity of water during the mixing cycle. The cement soil- aggregate mixture shall be sufficiently
blended to prevent the formation of cement balls when water is applied.

A maximum time of 2 hours shall be permitted for wet mixing, laydown, & finishing when this
method is used.

Central Plant Method

 The soil-aggregate shall be proportioned & mixed with cement & water in central mixing plant.

The plant shall be equipped with feeding & metering devices that will introduce the cement,
soil-aggregate & water into the mixer in quantities specified. Mixing shall continue until a uniform
mixture has been obtained.

Spreading, Compacting & Finishing

The mixture shall be spread on a prepared & moistened subgrade/sub base in a uniform layer
by approved equipment. Not more than 60 min. shall elapse between the start of mixing & the time of
starting compaction of the spread mixture.

After spreading, the mixture shall be compacted & finished conforming to the
procedures/requirements specified under Subsection 203.3.6

After the compaction & finishing shall be completed within 2 hours of the time water is added
to the mixture.

Protection, Curing & Maintenance

The completed cement treated base shall be cured with a bituminous curing seal applied as
soon as possible after the completion of final rolling. The surface shall be kept moist until the seal is
applied.

The rate of application shall be between 0.5 L/m² to 1.00 L/m² of surface. The exact rate will be
determined by the Engr. Curing seal will be applied in sufficient quantity to provide a continuous film
over base. The film shall be maintained at least 5 days unless the treated base is protected by a
subsequent course.

The contractor shall be responsible for adequate maintenance of the base at all times as
specified under subsection 203.3.7

Trial Sections

Same as Subsection 203.3.8

Tolerances

Same as subsection 203.3.9

Traffic

Same as Subsection 203.3.10

7-6 Clearing and Grubbing

Clearing and grubbing is categorized under Item-100 of the DPWH standard specifications.
It consists of clearing, grubbing, removing and disposing of all vegetable matter and debris except those
objects that are designated to remain in place or are to be removed in consonance with other provisions
of the specifications. It also includes preservation from injury or defacement of all objects designated to
remain.

A specification for Clearing and Grubbing provides that:

1. All surface objects and all trees, stumps, roots and other protruding obstructions, not
designated to remain should be cleared and/or grubbed including the mowing required as
follows:

a.) Removal of undisturbed stumps and roots and non-perishable solid objects with a minimum
depth of 90 cm below sub-grade or slope of embankments will not be required.

b.) Outside the grading limits of cut and embankment areas, stumps and non-perishable solid
objects should be cut off not more than 15 cm above the ground line or below low water level.

c.) In areas to be rounded at the top of cut slope, stumps should be cut off flush with or below
the surface of the final slope line.

d.) Grubbing of pits, channel changes and ditches will be required only to the depth necessary
by the proposed excavation with such areas.

e.) Burning should be under constant care of competent watchman that the surrounding
vegetation, adjacent property, or anything designated to remain on the right of way will not be
jeopardized.

Methods of Measurement

1. Area Basis- by hectare and fractions thereof acceptably cleared and grubbed.

2. Lump Sum Basis- No measurement of area will be made for this item.

3. Individual Unit Basis (selective clearing)- The diameter of trees will be measured at a height of
1.4 meters above the ground. Trees less than 15 cm diameter will not be measured for payment.

The unit basis will be designated and measured in accordance with the following schedule of
sizes:

Diameter at height 1.4 meters -Pay item designated

Over 15 cm to 90 cm -Small

Over 90 cm -Large

7-7 Excavation

Excavation is the process of loosening and removing earth or rock from its original position in a
cut and transporting it to a fill or to waste deposit.
 Roadway excavation is classified into:

1. Unclassified excavation

2. Rock excavation

3. Common excavation

4. Muck excavation

5. Borrow excavation

Unclassified Excavation is the excavation and disposal of all materials regardless of its nature, or
not classified and included in the Bill of Quantities under other pay items.

Rock Excavation consists of igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks that cannot be
excavated without blasting or the use of rippers and all boulders or other detached stones each having a
volume of 1 cubic meter.

Common Excavation are those that are not included in the Bill of Quotations under rock
excavation or other pay items.

Muck Excavations consist of the removal and disposal of the deposits of saturated or
unsaturated mixtures of soils and organic matter not suitable for foundation materials regardless of
moisture contents.

Borrow Excavation is the excavation and utilization of approved materials for the construction
of embankment or for other portions of the work obtained from approved sources in accordance with
the following requirements:

1. Borrow Case-1: materials obtained from sources designated on the plans or in the special
provisions.

2. Borrow Case-2: materials obtained from sources provided by the contractor.

Construction Requirements

1. When there is evidence of discrepancies between the actual elevations and that shown on the
plans, a pre-construction survey with reference to the datum plane used in the approved plan is
undertaken by the contractor or agency to serve as basis for the computation of the actual
volume excavated.

2. All excavations should be finished to smooth and uniform surface. As much as possible, no
materials shall be turned to waste. Materials outside the limits of slope should not be disturbed
by the excavation operations. Excavations should be done only after the clearing and grubbing in
the area.
 3. Top soil encountered in excavation and on areas where embankment is to be placed should be
removed to the depth as the Engineer may determine and should be transported and deposited
in storage pile designated area separated from other excavated material for later use.

The Use of Excavated Materials

All suitable materials removed from the excavation area are used in the information of:

1. Embankment 4. Slope

2. Sub grade 5. Bedding

3. Shoulder s 6. Backfill for structures

Pre-Watering and Pre-Splitting

Excavation areas and borrow pits may be pre-watered before excavation. When pre-
watering is adopted, the areas to be excavated shall be moistened to the full depth from the
surface to the bottom of the excavation. The water must be controlled so that excavated
materials will contain the acceptable moisture content to permit compaction to the desired
density.

Pre-watering has to be supplemented where necessary by truck watering unit to insure

that the embankment materials contains the proper moisture at the time of compaction.

Pre-Splitting is drilling and blasting procedure that may be employed to control over
break and to give a uniform face to the back slope or rock cuts. Pre-Splitting is performed by:

1. Drilling holes at uniform intervals along the slope line.

2. Loading and stemming the holes with appropriate explosives and stemming materials.

3. Detonating the holes simultaneously.

If the pre-splitting is under contract, prior to drilling operations, the contractor shall:

1. Furnish the engineer a plan outlining the position of all drill holes, depth of drilling
type and explosive to be used, loading pattern and sequence of firing.

2. The drilling and blasting plan is for record purposes only, and will not absolve the
contractor of his responsibility for using proper drilling and blasting procedures.

3. Controlled blasting must begin with a short test section of length to be approved by
the engineer.

4. The test section shall be pre-splitted production drilled and blasted. Sufficient
materials sample to be taken for the engineer to determine if the contractor’s method is
satisfactory.
 5.The holes are charged with explosives of the size, kind, strength, and spacing suitable
for the formation being pre-splitted, and with stemming material which passes s 3 inches
standard sieve which has the qualities for proper confinement of the explosives.

6. The finished pre-split slope should be reasonably uniform and free of loose rocks.
Variance from the true plane of the excavated back-slope should not exceed 30 cm. Localized
irregularities or surface variations that do not constitute safety hazard or impairment to
drainage courses or facilities will be permitted.

7. The maximum offset of 60 cm will be permitted for construction working bench at the
bottom of each lift for use in drilling the next lower pre-splitting pattern.

8. The engineer may order discontinuance of the pre-splitting when the materials
encountered are unsuitable for pre-splitting.

7-8 Free Haul- Overhaul (Item 107)

Overhaul shall consist of authorized hauling in excess of the free-haul distance. Freehaul distance is the
specified distance that excavated material shall be hauled without additional compensation. Unless otherwise
provided in the Contract, the free-haul distance shall be 600 meters.

Unless otherwise provided in the Contract, the free-haul distance shall be 600 meters. If the hauling distance of
materials is 800 meters, considering that the free haul is 600 meters, then the excess 200 meters is considered the
overhaul.
METHODS OF MEASUREMENT

In determining what constitutes authorized overhaul, it will be assumed that material taken from
excavation will be deposited in embankment after having been hauled the shortest distance.

If the Contractor chooses to haul material over some other route, and such other route is longer, the
computation for payment shall be based on the overhaul distance measured along the route designated by the
Engineer.

The number of cubic metre-kilometres of overhaul to be paid for shall be the number of cubic meters of
overhaul material multiplied by the overhaul distance in kilometers. The unit “cubic meter-kilometer” is the
amount of hauling required to move one cubic meter a distance of one kilometer beyond the free-haul distance.

BASIS OF PAYMENT

The accepted quantities, measured as prescribed in Section 107.2, shall be paid for the contract unit price
for Overhaul, for the particular Pay Item listed below that is shown on the Bill of Quantities, which price and
payment shall be full compensation for overhaul, including all labor, equipment, tools and incidentals necessary to
complete the work prescribed in this Item.

Payment will not be made for overhaul of Borrow, Case 2, Foundation Fill, bedding materials and material
removed in the rounding of cut slopes when rounding is a separate pay item.

When the Bill of Quantities does not show estimated quantities for “Overhaul” from the Pay Item listed
below, overhaul will not be directly paid for, but will be considered as a subsidiary obligation of the Contractor
under other contract items.

Pay Item Number Description Unit of Measurement

107 (1) Overhaul Cubic Meter-kilometer

107 (2) Overhaul of Borrow, Case 1 Cubic Meter-kilometer

7-9 CONSTRUCTION OF FILLS AND EMBANKMENTS

 EMBANKMENTS

FILL

(Materials commonly used for embankment and fill construction, i.e. , aggregates, soil, and crushed paving
material)

An stable embankment is attained by spreading the materials into a thin layer then compacted at a
moisture content closer to optimum. This layered process of compaction produces uniformity and higher density
of the material and moisture content. On the other hand, filling materials which are just dumped in thick layers
even if compacted will have a varying density and moisture contents from one spot to another. This will result to
differential settlement or swell between the adjacent areas of the embankment.

The ASHTO-ARBA Joint Committee on compaction of Earthwork proposed the following amendment to the original
AASHTO density requirements to wit:

1. Granular aggregates or those with only slight degree of plasticity, should be compacted to 95%-100%

2. Fine grained aggregate possessing a low degree of plasticity is compacted to approximately 100% at
moisture content near laboratory optimum.

3. Densities for aggregate possessing moderate to high plasticity should not be so high as to lead to
subsequent swelling. Compacting procedures should not exceed the aggregate shear strength.

4. Clay soil should not be over compacted beyond about 90% to avoid post construction swelling.
EMBANKMENT CONTROL

Basically, there are two procedures employed to assure specified embankment density.

1. To specify the expected value to the minimum acceptable amount of relative compaction and to ascertain
from the fill density tests that the specified value is obtained.

2. To specify the manner and methods of constructing the embankment particularly the layer thickness,
moisture control and the number of passes by a roller of specified type and weight.

Field control is a manner of ascertaining and defining the specific procedures to be done. What is important is the
manner and methods that will yield the expected result.

Table 7-6 RECOMMENDED MINIMUM REQIUREMENTS FOR COMPACTION OF EMBANKMENTS

CLASS OF SOILS MINIMUM RELATIVE DENSITY REQUIREMENTS + EMBANKMENTS

AASHTO M-145

Under 15m high Over 15m high Subgrade

A-1, A-3 95 95 100

A-2-4, A-2-5 95 95 100

A-2-6, A-2-7 95 ** 95*

A-4, A-5, A-6, A-7 95 ** 95*

Source: AASHTO M-57-64

* Compaction at 95% of T-99 optimum content
** Use of these materials requires special design and construction
+ AASHTO Desig. M- 146 basement soil compacted soil

The problems encountered in the control of embankment construction are:

1. Difficulties in maintaining uniform moisture content. This is due to:

a) Variable wetness of the soil

b) Problems in evenly distributing and mixing in water

c) Evaporating or rainfall during compacting

2. Some soil may not easily assimilate water unless wetting agent is employed. Sometimes soil type cannot
be segregated during construction unless brought to laboratory.
 3. Materials are hauled from different sources and segregation of the same type is difficult in the actual
world.

CONSTRUCTION REQUIREMENTS AND EQUIPMENT

a) Density test requirements

b) Moisture control

c) Compaction equipment like:

1. Tamping Roller varies from light unit test weight 6,000 to 10,000 lbs. for an 8 ft. width. For giant
fully loaded roller, 75,000 lbs. for a 10 ft. width.

2. Grid Rollers is effective in breaking down clods and soft rock.

3. Pneumatic Tire Roller with rubber tires, weighing 8 tons or more 200 tons for airports

4. Smooth Tired Roller of two or three-wheeled type used to compact bases and bituminous surface.

5. Vibratory Compactor is effective in compacting stones of Macadam road.

 6. HAULING AND SPREADING EQUIPMENT

EMBANKMENT ON SWAMPY AREAS

Conventional construction of roadways in swampy area is not advisable because record shows that muck and
plate provide unstable support for fills causing failure of highway and railroads. Construction of roadway through
swampy area requires either of the following methods.

1. Removal and replacement of unsuitable materials.

2. Displacement under the following methods:

a) Surcharging method

b) Vertical sand drain

c) Fabric reinforcement
 d) Weight reduction

REMOVAL AND REPLACEMENT METHOD

This method is applicable where the unstable material is shallow or thin. Unstable materials are removed
to the level of the underlying materials before filling.

DISPLACEMENT METHOD

Imported materials are carefully placed along the advancing slope allowed to flow under the dense muck
to displace it. Sometimes a trench almost equal to the width of the embankment may be blasted out and backfilled
at once with stable materials. The blast pushes part of the muck out of the trench and the other portion is
liquefied for easy displacement.

Where muck is deeper or thick, the under-fill method is applied. The trench is blasted and a large volume
of the fill material is dropped to settle into the peak.

THE RELIEF METHOD

This is also employed after the fill materials are dumped in place. Relief ditches are blasted along the side
of the fill to displace the underlying muck.

SURCHARGING METHOD

This method is applied on low fill over shallow muck up to 30 or 40 cm. depth. Where top of the muck is
soft, displacement through careful filing is done. The fill is then built-up in compacted layers to its elevation
allowing settlement to its final grade. Surcharge of un-compacted fill material is laid to add weight and accelerate
the flow of water from the muck speeding up consolidation. Care should be exercised not to exceed the shearing
strength of the muck otherwise, displacement of the muck and settlement of the fill may take place. After a period
of consolidation, the surcharge material is removed and replaced with base course and temporary pavement.

THE VERTICAL SAND DRAIN METHOD

This provides rapid consolidation of deep layer muck. Sand drains are vertical columns of sand that
penetrate the muck almost to solid materials. Across this top is a horizontal blanket extending through the side
slope of the fill. Under the pressure induced by fill and surcharge, sub-surface water flows up the drain and out of
the fill. Rapid consolidation of the muck follows.
THE FABRIC REINFORCEMENT METHOD

This method is covering the muck with permeable fabrics.

WEIGHT REDUCTION METHOD

This is by installing a block of styro-foam over the muck to reduce the weight of the fill.

DPWH SPECIFICATIONS ON EMBANKMENT (Item-104)

MATERIAL REQUIREMENTS

Embankments shall be constructed of suitable materials, in consonance with the following definitions:

1. Suitable Material – Material which is acceptable in accordance with the Contract and which can be
compacted in the manner specified in this Item. It can be common material or rock.

 Selected Borrow, for topping – soil of such gradation that all particles will pass a sieve with 75 mm (3
inches) square openings and not more than 15 mass percent will pass the 0.075 mm (No. 200) sieve, as
determined by AASHTO T 11. The material shall have a plasticity index of not more than 6 as determined
by ASSHTO T 90 and a liquid limit of not more than 30 as determined by AASHTO T 89.

2. UNSTABLE MATERIALS are materials other than suitable materials such as:

a) Materials containing detrimental quantities of organic substances such as grass, roots and sewerage

b) Organic soils such as peak and muck

 c) Soils with liquid limit exceeding 80 and or plasticity index exceeding 55

d) Soils with natural water content exceeding 100%

3
e) Soils with very low natural density, 800 kg/m or lower.

f) Soils that cannot be properly compacted as determined by the Engineer.

CONSTRUCTION REQUIREMENTS

 General

Prior to construction of embankment, all necessary clearing and grubbing in that area shall have been
performed in conformity with Item 100, Clearing and Grubbing.

Embankment construction shall consist of constructing roadway embankments, including preparation of

the areas upon which they are to be placed; the construction of dikes within or adjacent to the roadway; the
placing and compacting of approved material within roadway areas where unsuitable material has been removed;
and the placing and compacting of embankment material in holes, pits, and other depressions within the roadway
area.

Embankments and backfills shall contain no muck, peat, sod, roots or other deleterious matter. Rocks,
broken concrete or other solid, bulky materials shall not be placed in embankment areas where piling is to be
placed or driven.

Where shown on the Plans or directed by the Engineer, the surface of the existing ground shall be
compacted to a depth of 150 mm (6 inches) and to the specified requirements of this Item.

Where provided on the Plans and Bill of Quantities the top portions of the roadbed in both cuts and
embankments, as indicated, shall consist of selected borrow for topping from excavations.

METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION

Where there is evidence of discrepancies on the actual elevations and that shown on the Plans, a
preconstruction survey referred to the datum plane used in the approved Plan shall be undertaken by the
Contractor under the control of the Engineer to serve as basis for the computation of the actual volume of the
embankment materials.

When embankment is to be placed and compacted on hillsides, or when new embankment is to be

compacted against existing embankments, or when embankment is built one-half width at a time, the existing
slopes that are steeper than 3:1 when measured at right angles to the roadway shall be continuously benched over
those areas as the work is brought up in layers. Benching will be subject to the Engineer’s approval and shall be of
sufficient width to permit operation of placement and compaction equipment. Each horizontal cut shall begin at
the intersection of the original ground and the vertical sides of the previous cuts. Material thus excavated shall be
placed and compacted along with the embankment material in accordance with the procedure described in this
Section.

1. Unless shown otherwise on the Plans or special Provisions, where embankment lower than 1.2 m. (4 ft.)
below the sub-grade is to be made, all sods and vegetable matters are removed from the surface. The
 cleared surface should be totally broken-up by plowing, scarifying or steeping to a minimum depth of 150
mm. except as provided in Subsection 102.2.2. This area shall then be compacted as provided in
Subsection 104.3.3. Sods not required for removal should be disc harrowed or scarified before the
construction of embankment.

Wherever a compacted road surface containing granular materials lies within 900 mm (36 inches) of the
subgrade, such old road surface shall be scarified to a depth of at least 150 mm (6 inches) whenever directed by
the Engineer. These scarified materials shall then be compacted as provided in Subsection 104.3.3.

When shoulder excavation is specified, the roadway shoulders shall be excavated to the depth and width
shown on the Plans. The shoulder material shall be removed without disturbing the adjacent existing base course
material, and all excess excavated materials shall be disposed of as provided in Subsection 102.2.3. If necessary,
the areas shall be compacted before being backfilled.

2. Roadway embankment on earth materials are placed in horizontal layers not exceeding 200 mm. (8 in.),
loose measurement, and shall be compacted as specified before the next layer is placed. [However,
thicker layer maybe placed if vibratory roller with high compactive effort is used provided that density
requirement is attained and as approved by the Engineer. Trial section to this effect must be conducted
and approved by the Engineer. Effective spreading equipment shall be used on each lift to obtain uniform
thickness as determined in the trial section prior to compaction.

As the compaction of each layer progresses, continuous leveling and manipulating will be required to
assure uniform density. Water shall be added or removed, if necessary, in order to obtain the required density.
Removal of water shall be accomplished through aeration by plowing, blading, discing, or other methods
satisfactory to the Engineer.

Where embankment is to be constructed across low swampy ground that will not support the mass of
trucks or other hauling equipment, the lower part of the fill may be constructed by dumping successive loads in a
uniformly distributed layer of a thickness not greater than necessary to support the hauling equipment while
placing subsequent layers.

3. When excavated material contains more than 25 mass percent of rock larger than 150 mm in greatest
diameter and cannot be placed in layers of the thickness prescribed without crushing, pulverizing or
further breaking down the pieces resulting from excavation methods, such materials may be placed on
the embankment in layers not exceeding in thickness the approximate average size of the larger rocks, but
not greater than 600 mm (24 inches).

Even though the thickness of layers is limited as provided above, the placing of individual rocks and
boulders greater than 600 mm in diameter will be permitted provided that when placed, they do not exceed 1200
mm (48 inches) in height and provided they are carefully distributed, with the interstices filled with finer material
to form a dense and compact mass.

4. Each layer shall be leveled and smoothed with suitable leveling equipment and by distribution of spalls
and finer fragments of earth. Lifts of materials containing more than 25 mass % of rock larger than 150
mm. in greatest dimension should not be constructed above an elevation of 300 mm. (12 in.) below the
finished sub-grade. The balance of embankment should be composed of suitable materials smoothed and
placed in layers not exceeding 200 mm. (8 in.) in loose thickness and compacted as specified for
embankments.
 Dumping and rolling areas shall be kept separate, and no lift shall be covered by another until compaction
complies with the requirements of Subsection 104.3.3.

5. Hauling and leveling equipment should be routed and distributed over each layer of the fill in such a
manner to make use of compaction efforts afforded by and to minimize rutting and uneven compaction.

COMPACTION

 Compaction Trials

Before commencing the formation of embankments, the Contractor shall submit in writing to the
Engineer for approval his proposals for the compaction of each type of fill material to be used in the works. The
proposals shall include the relationship between the types of compaction equipment, and the number of passes
required and the method of adjusting moisture content.

The contactor shall carry out full-scale compaction trials on areas not less than 10 m. wide and 50 m. long.
Compaction trials with the main types of fill materials to be used in the work should be completed before any work
with the corresponding materials is allowed to commence.

Throughout the period of compaction, the contractor should adhere to the compaction procedures found
during the compaction trials for each type of material being compacted, each type of compaction equipment
employed and each degree of compaction specified.

EARTH

The Contractor shall compact the material placed in all embankment layers and the material scarified to
the designated depth below subgrade in cut sections, until a uniform density of not less than 95 mass percent of
the maximum dry density determined by AASHTO T 99 Method C, is attained, at a moisture content determined by
Engineer to be suitable for such density. Acceptance of compaction may be based on adherence to an approved
roller pattern developed as set forth in Item 106, Compaction Equipment and Density Control Strips.

The Engineer shall during progress of the Work, make density tests of compacted material in accordance
with AASHTO T 191, T 205, or other approved field density tests, including the use of properly calibrated nuclear
testing devices. A correction for coarse particles may be made in accordance with AASHTO T 224. If, by such tests,
the Engineer determines that the specified density and moisture conditions have not been attained, the Contractor
shall perform additional work as may be necessary to attain the specified conditions.

At least one group of three in-situ density tests shall be carried out for each 500 m of each layer of
compacted fill.

ROCK

Density requirements will not apply to portions of embankments constructed of materials which cannot
be tested in accordance with approved methods.

Embankment materials classified as rock shall be deposited, spread and leveled the full width of the fill
with sufficient earth or other fine material so deposited to fill the interstices to produce a dense compact
embankment. In addition, one of the rollers, vibrators, or compactors meeting the requirements set forth in
Subsection 106.2.1, Compaction Equipment, shall compact the embankment full width with a minimum of three
complete passes for each layer of embankment.
PROTECTION OF ROADBED DURING CONSTRUCTION

During the construction of roadway, the roadbed should be well maintained and drained at all times. Side
ditches or gutters emptying from cuts to embankment or otherwise should be constructed to avoid damage to
embankments by erosion.

PROTECTION OF STRUCTURE

If embankment can be deposited on one side only of abutments, wing walls, piers or culvert headwalls,
care shall be taken that the area immediately adjacent to the structure is not compacted to the extent that it will
cause overturning of, or excessive pressure against the structure. When noted on the Plans, the fill adjacent to the
end bent of a bridge shall not be placed higher than the bottom of the backfill of the bent until the superstructure
is in place. When embankment is to be placed on both sides of a concrete wall or box type structure, operations
shall be so conducted that the embankment is always at approximately the same elevation on both sides of the
structure.

ROUNDING AND WARPING SLOPE

 ROUNDING

Except solid rocks, the top and bottom of all slopes including the slopes of drainage, ditches, are rounded
as planned. A layer of earth overlapping rock is rounded above as was done in earth slope.
  WARPING

Adjustment in slopes is made to avoid injury to standing trees or marring of weather head rock or to
harmonize with existing landscape feature adjusting to the gradual slope. At the intersections of cuts and fills,
slopes are adjusted and warped to flow into each other or into the natural ground surface without noticeable
break.

FINISHING ROADBED AND SLOPES

After the roadbed has been substantially completed, the full width shall be conditioned by removing any
soft or other unstable material that will not compact properly or serve the intended purpose. The resulting areas
and all other low sections, holes of depressions shall be brought to grade with suitable selected material.
Scarifying, blading, dragging, rolling, or other methods of work shall be performed or used as necessary to provide
a thoroughly compacted roadbed shaped to the grades and cross-sections shown on the Plans or as staked by the
Engineer.

All earth slopes shall be left with roughened surfaces but shall be reasonably uniform, without any
noticeable break, and in reasonably close conformity with the Plans or other surfaces indicated on the Plans or as
staked by the Engineer, with no variations therefrom readily discernible as viewed from the road.

SERRATED SLOPES

Cut slopes in rippable material (soft rock) having slope ratios between 0.75:1 and 2:1 shall be constructed
so that the final slope line shall consist of a series of small horizontal steps. The step rise and tread dimensions
shall be shown on the Plans. No scaling shall be performed on the stepped slopes except for removal of large rocks
which will obviously be a safety hazard if they fall into the ditchline or roadway.
EARTH BERMS

When called for in the Contract, permanent earth berms shall be constructed of well graded materials
with no rocks having a diameter greater than 0.25 the height of the berm. When local material is not acceptable,
acceptable material shall be imported, as directed by the Engineer.

COMPACTED BERM

Compacted berm construction shall consist of moistening or drying and placing material as necessary in
locations shown on the drawings or as established by the Engineer. Material shall contain no frozen material,
roots, sod, or other deleterious materials. Contractor shall take precaution to prevent material from escaping over
the embankment slope. Shoulder surface beneath berm will be roughened to provide a bond between the berm
and shoulder when completed. The Contractor shall compact the material placed until at least 90 mass percent of
the maximum density is obtained as determined by AASHTO T 99, Method C. The cross-section of the finished
compacted berm shall reasonably conform to the typical cross section as shown on the Plans.

UNCOMPACTED BERM

Uncompacted berm construction shall consist of drying, if necessary and placing material in locations
shown on the Plans or as established by the Engineer. Material shall contain no frozen material, roots, sod or other
deleterious materials. Contractor shall take precautions to prevent material from escaping over the embankment
slope.

METHOD OF MEASUREMENT
 The quantity of embankment to be paid for shall be the volume of material compacted in place, accepted
by the Engineer and formed with material obtained from any source.

Material from excavation per Item 102 which is used in embankment and accepted by the Engineer will be
paid under Embankment and such payment will be deemed to include the cost of excavating, hauling, stockpiling
and all other costs incidental to the work.

Material for Selected Borrow topping will be measured and paid for under the same conditions specified
in the preceding paragraph.

BASIS OF PAYMENT

The accepted quantities, measured as prescribed in Section 104.4, shall be paid for at the Contract unit
price for each of the Pay Items listed below that is included in the Bill of Quantities. The payment shall continue full
compensation for placing and compacting all materials including all labor, equipment, tools and incidentals
necessary to complete the work prescribed in this Item.

Payment will be made under:

Unit of
Pay Item Number Description
Measurement

104 (1) Embankment Cubic Meter

Selected, Borrow for topping,

104 (2) Cubic Meter
Case 1

Selected, Borrow for topping,

104 (3) Cubic Meter
Case 2

104 (4) Earth Berm Meter

7-10 SUB-GRADE PREPARATION

Sub-grade preparation is categorized under Item 105 of the DPWH standard specifications. The sub-grade
is prepared for the support of overlying structural layers extended to the full width of the roadway.

MATERIAL REQUIREMENTS
 1. Except when the sub-grade is in rock cut, all materials below the sub-grade is leveled to a depth of 15 cm.
or more as specified to meet the requirements of selected borrow toppings.

2. Prior to start of the sub-grade preparation, all culverts, cross drains, conduits and the like including the
backfill, ditches, drains and drainage outlets are thoroughly compacted. Any work on the preparation of
the sub-grade should not be allowed to start unless approved by the supervising engineer.

SUB-GRADE LEVEL TOLERANCE

The finished compacted surface of the sub-grade shall conform to the allowable tolerance specified as follows.

1. Permitted variance from design +20 mm

2. Level of service -30 mm

3. Permitted surface irregularities measured by 3 m straight +30 mm

edge

4. Permitted variance from design cross-fall of camber 0.5%

5. Permitted variance from design longitudinal grade over 25 +0.1%

m long

7-11 COMPACTION AND STABILIZATION

Whether the soil is used as foundation material to support vertical structures, roads or other structures, it is
important to know if the in-place materials possess the ff. properties:

1. That the soil must have adequate strength.

2. The soil must be relatively incompressible to avoid insignificant future settlement.

3. The soil must be stable against volume change as water content or other factors vary.

4. The soil must be durable and saved against deterioration.

5. The soil must possess proper permeability.

EQUIPMENT FOR COMPACTION

 The Pneumatic or rubber tired rollers

 The drum type roller with projecting feet or logs called sheep’s foot roller

 Vibratory compactors

 Smooth drum rollers

1. The Pneumatic Tire Roller can be used effectively on all types of soils. It compacts by kneading available as
self-propelled unit or as towed units. Load sizes vary from 20 tons to 200 tons of which, 50 tons is
commonly used.

2. Light Rollers of 20 tons type can compact 6 in. thick layer with few passes. The 40 to 50 tons roller can
compact 12” thick layer with 3-4 passes. The heavy 200 tons type was proven to compact layers up to 18”
thick with limited number of passes.

3. The Sheep’s Foot Roller is limited to cohesive soils. Its pressure varies from 700 kN/m2 to 4200 kN/m2.

4. Vibratory Compactor is the most effective compactor on non-cohesive soils available as:
 a. Vibrating Drum Type

b. Vibrating Pneumatic Tire

c. Vibrating Plate Requirement

On some vibratory compactors, the vibrating frequency can be varied by operation. The frequency ranges
between 1500 and 2500 cycles per minute that is within the natural frequencies of most soil

5. The Smooth Drum Roller has limited depth of compaction. This is not suited for compacting earth fill due
to the size of the drum and the large soil contact. This type can be utilized for compacting limited
thickness such as granular base course on highways and the like.

COMPACTION EQUIPMENT AND DENSITY CONTROL STRIPS

Compaction equipment should be capable of obtaining compaction requirements without detrimentally

affecting the compacted materials. The compacting unit may be of any type, provided that they are capable of
compacting each lift of materials as specified and meet the minimum requirements.

MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR ROAD ROLLER

1. Pneumatic Tire Roller must have smooth thread tires of equal size that will provide uniform compacting
pressure for the full width of the roller and capable of exerting ground pressure of at least 550 kN (psi).

2. Sheepfoot Tamping as grid roller should be capable of exerting a force of 45 N/mm (250 psi) of length of
roller.

3. Vibratory Steel Wheel Roller must have a minimum mass of 6 tons. The compactor is equipped with
amplitude and frequency controls.

4. Steel Wheel Roller. Other than vibratory, should be capable of exerting a force not less than 45 N/mm of
width of the compression roll/s.

TABLE 7-7 SOIL COMPACTION CHARACTERISTICS AND RECOMMENDED COMPACTION EQUIPMENT

GENERAL SOIL UNIFIED SOIL COMPACTION RECOMMENDED COMPACTION
DESCRIPTION CLASSIFICAT-ION CHARACTERIS-TICS EQUIPMENT

Sand and sand gravel Vibratory down roller

mixture (no silt or Sa, SP, Gw, Gp Good Vibratory rubber tire or
clay) Pneumatic tire equipment

Vibratory down roller

Sand or sand gravel
Sm, Gm Good Vibratory rubber tire,
with clay
Vibratory sheep’s foot
Pneumatic tire
Silt ML Good to Poor Vibratory rubber tire,
Vibratory sheep’s foot
Pneumatic tire
Vibratory rubber tire,
MH Fair to Poor
Vibratory sheep’s foot
Sheep foot type

Pneumatic tire, sheep’s foot, Vibratory

Clay CL Good to Fair
sheep’s foot and rubber tire

Pneumatic tire, sheep’s foot, Vibratory

CH Fair to Poor
sheep’s foot and rubber tire

Organic soil OI, OH, PT Not recommended for structural earthfill

8-9 Concrete Proportions

The fundamental rule to obtain good concrete is the proper selection of cement aggregate and water thus:

1. Type I or II cement is specified for concrete pavement.

2. Water for concrete must be clean, free from acids, alkali and oil. Water that is suited for drinking
purposes is acceptable for mixing cement except water containing large amount of sulfate.
3. If concrete is to be strong, sound and durable the aggregate must have similar properties.
4. The mineral aggregate of concrete is about 75% of the volume or about 80% of the weight of the normal
pavement.
5. The maximum size of coarse aggregate is 2 inches. However the use of larger aggregates according to
some experienced highway engineers increases its length and durability. This precept is supported with
reasons that, with larger aggregate, less water is needed thereby, increasing the ratio of cement to water.
Under the cement water ratio principle, concrete is stronger when water content is less.

Admixture

Admixture is a substance added in mixing to change the characteristic of concrete mixture. There are
varieties of admixtures available like, the air- entraining admixture, which is very common. Others, like water
reducer, retarder, accelerator, pozzolan and plasticizer are also used.

pozzolan accelerator water reducer

Air Entrainment

Air entrainment is the entrapment of air in the concrete mixture in the form of evenly distributed small
bubbles. It is used to increase the concrete resistance to surface scaling caused by deicing with calcium or sodium
chloride. Another working advantage of air entrainment is improving its workability and reduces bleeding in fresh
concrete.

The effectiveness of air entrainment is to increase the concrete durability that is influenced by:

1. Percentage of air present in the mixture.

2. Grading of aggregates.
3. Size and distribution of air bubbles.

Air entrainment in concrete may be attained by using Air Entraining Portland Cement or by Air entraining
Admixture added to each batch of concrete while mixing.

Cement and Water Ratio

As mentioned earlier, the strength and other desirable properties of concrete mixture varies depending
upon the ratio of concrete mixing water. A no air-entrained concrete with a water cement ratio by weight of 5
gallons of water per bag of cement may have a compressive strength of about 5,300 psi in 28 days. On the other
hand, a mixture of concrete with 7 gallons of water per bag of cement has developed strength of 3,700 psi only for
28 days.

Durability therefore, is dependent on the water-cement ratio that should be properly controlled to obtain
richness of the paste. AASHTO guide Specifications for highway construction established the maximum water
cement ratio at 6 gallons per bag of cement on normal conditions and 5 ½ gallons per bag of cement for severe
atmospheric conditions.

8-10 Concrete Mixture

Considering the high cost of cement, the objective in mixing concrete is to use more aggregates and as
little cement as possible, while maintaining the workability necessary for a successful pouring and consolidation.

For structural concrete poured in inaccessible small areas around reinforcing bars, it is necessary to over-
fill the voids or spaces around the aggregate and reinforcement using a free flowing cement in water paste form.
On the contrary, pavement where the slab is open and thin with an access to manipulate from the surface, a drier
mixture can be poured inside the form with ease and success. Thus, a higher percentage of aggregate and a less
fluid cement-water paste can be used.

On how to reduce the amount of cement-water paste and the cost of the mixture we have to:

1. Allow the larger size of aggregate that can be accommodated in the pavement slab.
2. Ascertain the aggregate is uniformly graded from coarse to fine.
3. Avail of the biggest quantity of coarse aggregate consistent with proper workability.
4. Adopt the lowest slump consistent with the proper pouring and finishing.

For concrete pavement, the specified value of slump is 1-2 or 2-3 inches. The slump test (AASHTO T-119) is the
old traditional and most widely used method in determining the consistency of concrete. A truncated cone of
metal sheet 12 inches high with the base and top diameters 8 inches and 4 inches respectively is filled in 3 layers
with fresh concrete. Each layer is rodded 25 times. Then the cone is lifted off vertically, allowing the concrete to
subside. The slump is the height in inches that the top of the specimen falls.
Types of slump

Another way of testing the consistency of concrete is by the Kelly Ball method (see ASTM C-360). The
apparatus is a metal cylinder 15 centimeters diameter and 12 centimeters high with hemisphere bottom shaped
weighing 14 kilograms. A graduated handle rising from the top of ball passes through a metal frame that is 30 cm
apart. The ball is placed on the surface of the fresh concrete. Its penetration is measured by comparing its position
with that of the frame.

The advantage of Kelly Ball method is that reading could be taken immediately on the concrete being
poured on the roadway. On the contrary, the slump test requires more time but could be conducted only on
selected samples.

Concrete mixtures is determined by the trial batch method, until after the desired mixture is obtained as
final proportion for the succeeding mixture.

8-11 Polymer Concrete

Polymer Concrete could be used alone or in combination with Portland cement to bind aggregates together
producing concrete.

Polymer mixture is classified into the following:

 1. Polymer Impregnated Concrete (PIC) is a Portland cement concrete impregnated with monomer after
curing.

2. Polymer Concrete (PC) is a mixture of polymer binder and aggregate.

3. Polymer Cement Concrete (PCC) is a pre-mixture of cement paste and aggregate wherein a monomer is
mixed before curing.

Polymer possesses a higher strength concrete, but due to its prohibitive cost, its use is being limited to bridge
deck or repair of spalled joints.

8-12 Curing of Concrete Pavement

Newly placed concrete pavement needs curing. Curing may be accomplished by several methods but
basically; all the methods could be categorized into two:

1. Those that keep the surface constantly wet or cover it with water absorbent material that is re-wetted
from time to time.
2. Those that pavement evaporated from the water already in the concrete which is retained is sufficient
enough for hydration.

The chemical action between cement and water produces strength concrete. If the concrete dries out quickly,
hydration and strength will stop, but when moisture becomes available during hydration, strength gain will
continue.

8-13 DPWH Specifications on Concrete Pavement

Concrete pavement is categorized under item 311 of DPWH standard specifications, which provides that:

This item shall consist of Portland cement Concrete pavement with or without reinforcement, constructed
on the prepared base in accordance with the plans and specifications.
Material Requirements:

Portland cement shall conform to the applicable requirements of item 0-700, hydraulic cement. Only type
I Portland cement should be used. Different brands or the same brands from different mills shall not be mixed nor
shall they be used alternately unless approved by the supervising engineer.

Cement that for any reasons become partially hardened, or which contains lumps or caked cement
including those salvaged from discarded or used bags, should not be used.

Fine Aggregates:

1. Fine aggregate shall consist of natural sand, stone screening or other inert materials with similar
characteristics or combination thereof, having hard strong and durable particles. It shall be free from
injurious amounts of organic impurities.
2. Fine aggregates from different sources of supply should not be mixed or stored in the same pile nor used
alternately.
3. Fine aggregates should not contain more than 3 mass percent of materials passing the 0.075 mm (No. 200
sieve) by washing nor more than one mass percent each of clay lumps or shale.
4. The use of beach sand will not be allowed without the approval of the supervising engineer.
5. If the fine aggregates is subjected to 5 cycles or the sodium sulfate soundness test, the weighed loss
should not exceed 10 mass percent.
6. If fine aggregate is subjected to test for organic impurities and a color darker than the standard is
produced, it should be rejected. However, when tested for the effect of organic impurities of strength or
mortar by AASHTO T-71, the fine aggregate may be used if the relative strength at 7 and 28 days is not
less than 95 mass percent.

Table 8-4 GRADING REQUIREMENTS FOR FINE AGGREGATES

Sieve Designation Mass Percent

10.0 mm 3/8” 100
4.75 mm No.4 95-100
1.18 mm No.16 45-80
0.30 mm No.50 5-30
0.15 mm No.100 0-10
Coarse Aggregate

1. Coarse aggregate shall consist of crushed stone, gravel, blast furnace, slag, or other approved inert
materials of similar character or combinations thereof, having hard, strong durable pieces free from any
adherent coatings.
2. Coarse aggregate should contain not more than one mass percent of material passing the 0.075 mm
(No.200) sieve nor more than 0.25 mass percent of clay lumps, not more than 3.5 mass percent of soft
fragments.
3. If the coarse aggregate was subjected to 5 cycle of the sodium sulfate soundness test, the lost weight
should not exceed 12 mass percent. It should have a mass percent of wear not exceeding 40 when tested
by AASHTO T-96.
4. If slag is used, its density should not be less than 1120 kg. per cubic meter. The gradation of the coarse
aggregate should conform to table 8-5. Only one grading specification should be used from any one
source.
TABLE 8-5 GRADING REQUIREMENTS FOR COARSE AGGREGATE

Sieve Designation Mass Percent Passing

mm inch Grading A Grading B Grading C
75.0 3” 100 - -
63.0 2- ½ “ 90-100 100 100
50.0 2” - 90-100 90-100
37.5 1- ½ “ 25-60 35-70 -
25.0 1” - 0-15 35-70
20.0 ¾“ 0-10 - -
12 ½“ 0-5 0-5 10-30
4.75 No.4 - - 0-5

Water

Water to be used in concrete mixing or curing or other designated applications should be clean and free
from oil, salt, acid, alkali, grass or other substances injurious to be finished product. Drinking water if used needs to
be tested.

Reinforcing Steel

The specifications states that: dowels and tie bars to be used in concrete pavement shall conform to the
requirements of AASHTO M-31 or M-42 except that rail steel shall not be used for tie bars to be bended and re-
straightened during construction. Specifications further provides that:

1. Tie bars shall be deformed bars.

2. Dowels shall be plain round bars delivered to the site with one half of each dowel length painted with one
coat of approved lead or tar paint.
3. The sleeves of dowels shall be metal of approved design to cover 50 mm plus or minus 5 mm of the
dowels, with a closed end, with a suitable stop to hold the end of the sleeve at least 25 mm from the end
of the dowel.
4. Sleeve shall be of such design that they do not collapse during construction.

Joint Fillers

Joint fillers should be mixed asphalt and mineral or rubber filler. The pre-formed joint fillers are punched
to admit the dowels. Fillers for each joint should be furnished in a single place for the full depth and width of the
joint.

Storage of Cement and Aggregate

 The storage house for cement should be waterproof with raised floor from the ground to protect the
cement from rain or dampness.

1. The provisions for storage should be ample enough and the shipment of cement as received is separately
stored in such a manner as to allow the earliest deliveries to be used first and to provide easy access for
identification and inspection of each shipment.
2. Storage house must have the capacity to accommodate sufficient quantity of cement to allow sampling at
least 12 days before the cement is used.
3. To secure uniformity of concrete mixture, the coarse aggregates are separated into two or more sizes.
Different sizes of aggregate are stored in separate bins or in separate stockpiles sufficiently remote from
each other to prevent the materials at the edge on the piles from becoming intermixed.

Proportioning, Consistency and Strength of Concrete

Prepare a design mixture based on the absolute volume method as specified in the American Concrete
Institute (ACI) standard ‘Recommended Practice for selecting Proportion for normal and heavyweight concrete”.

1. The intent of this specification is to require approximately 9.0 bags of cement per cubic meter of concrete
based on a 40 kg. Weight per bag of cement. However, leaner or richer mixture may be used in order to
meet the minimum strength requirements.
2. The engineer will determine from the laboratory tests. The materials to be used, the cement content and
the proportions of aggregate and water that will produce a workable concrete having a slump between 40
and 70 mm (11/2” to 3”) if not vibrated, or between 10 to 40 mm if vibrated and flexural strength of not
less than 3.8 Mpa (550 psi) when tested by the third-point method or a compressive strength of 24.1 Mpa
(3,500 psi) when tested at fourteen days.
3. The designer should consider the use of lean concrete (econo-concrete) mixture using local materials or
specifically modified conventional concrete mixture in base course and in the lower course of composite,
monolithic concrete pavements using a minimum of 75 mm of conventional concrete as the surface
course.

Quality Control of Concrete

For quality control of concrete in general, the DPWH specifications provides that:

“The contractor shall be responsible for the quality control of all materials during the handling, blending
mixing and placement operations. The contractor shall furnish the engineer a Quality Control Plan detailing the
production control procedures and the type and frequency of sampling and testing to ensure that the concrete
produced complies with the specifications. The supervising Engineer shall be provided free access to recent plant
production records, and if requested informational copies of design, materials certifications and sampling and
resting reports.”

Required Qualification of Workmen

Concrete Butcher- The person performing the batching or mixing operation capable of accurately
conducting aggregate surface moisture determinations and establishing correct scale weight for concrete
materials.
 Concrete Technician- The person responsible for concrete production control and sampling testing for
quality control proficient in concrete technology having a sound knowledge of the specifications as they relate to
concrete production. He shall be:

1. Capable of conducting test on concrete and concrete materials in accordance with the specifications.
2. Capable of adjusting concrete mix designs for improving workability and specification compliance and
preparing trial mix design.
3. He shall be qualified to act as the concrete batcher in the absence of the batcher.

8-14 Equipment

The equipment and tools for handling materials and performing all phase of the work shall be approved by the
supervising Engineer as to design, capacity and mechanical condition. The equipment should be at the job site
sufficiently ahead of the start of construction operations to be examined thoroughly and approved by the
Engineer.

A. Batching Plant Equipment

1. The batching plant should include bins, weighing hoppers and scales for the fine aggregate and for each
size of coarse aggregate. The weighing hopper shall be properly sealed and vented to preclude dusting
operations.
2. The batching plant should be equipped with a suitable non-resealable batch counter, which will correctly
indicate the number of batches and proportioned.
3. Bins with adequate separate compartments for fine aggregate and for each size of coarse aggregate
should be provided in the batching plant.
4. Scales for weighing aggregates and cement should be of either the beam type or the spring less-dial type.
They should be accurate within one half percent throughout the range use.
5. Poises should be designed to be locked in any position and to prevent unauthorized change. Scales shall
be inspected and sealed as often as the Engineer may deem necessary to assure their continued accuracy.
6. The batching plant should be equipped with automatic weighing devices of an approved type to
proportion aggregates and bulk cement.

B. Mixers

Concrete may be mixed at the construction site, or at a central plant or wholly or in part in truck mixers under
the following conditions:

1. Each mixer shall have a manufacturer’s plate attached in a prominent place showing the capacity of the
drum in terms of volume of mixed concrete and the speed of rotation of the mixing drum or blades.
2. Mixers at site construction- Mixing should be done in an approved mixer capable of combining the
aggregates, cement and water into a thoroughly mixed and uniform mass with the specified mixing and
discharging and distributing the mixture without segregation on the prepared grade.
3. The mixer shall be equipped with approved timing devices, which will automatically lock the discharge
lever when the drum has been charged and released at the end of the mixing period. In case of timing
device failure, the mixer may be used for the balance of the day while it is being repaired, provided that
each batch is mixed in 90 seconds.
4. Truck mixers to be used for mixing and hauling concrete and Truck Agitators used for hauling central
mixed concrete shall conform to the requirements of AASHTO M-157.
 5. Non-Agitator Trucks. Bodies of non-agitating hauling equipment for concrete shall be smooth, mortar-
tight metal containers capable of discharging the concrete at a satisfactory controlled rate without
segregation.

C. Paving and Finishing Equipment

The concrete should be placed and set with an approved paver designed to spread, screed and float finish
the freshly placed concrete in one complete pass of the machine in a manner that a minimum of hand
finishing will be necessary to provide a dense and homogeneous pavement. The finishing machine should be
equipped with at least two oscillating type of transverse screed.

Vibrator should operate at 8,300 to 9,600 frequency of impulse per minute under load at a maximum
spacing of 60 centimeters.

D. Concrete Saw

Concrete saw should be water-cooled diamond edge saw blade or an abrasive wheel conforming to the
required dimensions and rate of speed.

E. Forms
1. Forms should be made of an approved steel section with a depth equal to the thickness of the pavement
at the edge. The base of the form should be of sufficient width to provide necessary stability in all
directions.
2. The flange braces must extend outward of the base not less than 2/3 of the height of form.
3. All forms should be rigidly supported on bed during the entire operation of placing and finishing the
concrete. It should be provided with adequate devices to secure its setting so that when in place, they will
withstand without visible spring or settlement the impact and vibration of consolidating and finishing of
the concrete pavement.

8-15 Preparation of Grade

After the base or sub grade have been placed and compacted to the required density, the areas that will
support the paving machine and the grade on which the pavement is to be constructed should be trimmed to the
proper elevation by means of a properly designed machine extending the work at least 60 centimeters beyond
each edge of the proposed concrete pavement.

If loss of density results from the trimming operations, it should be restored by additional compaction
before concrete is placed. If any traffic is allowed to use the prepared sub-grade or the surface, it should be
checked and corrected immediately ahead of the placing of concrete. The sub-grade or base should be uniformly
moistened when the concrete is placed.
Setting of Forms

1. Base Support- The foundation under the forms should be hard and true to grade, so that the form when
set will be firmly in contact with its whole length at the specified grade. Any roadbed, which is below the
established grade, should be filled with approved granular materials to grade in lifts of three centimeters
or less, and thoroughly re-rolled or tamped. Imperfections or variations above the grade should be
corrected by tamping or by cutting as necessary.
2. Grading and alignment- Form shall be set, sufficiently advance from the point where the concrete is being
placed. After setting to correct grade, the base is thoroughly tamped, mechanically or by hand, at both
edge of the form base inside and outside. The forms should not deviate from the true line by more than
one centimeter at any point.
3. Grading and Alignment- The alignment and grade elevation of the forms should be checked and
corrections be made immediately before the placing of concrete. Prior to the placing of concrete, the
crown and elevation are verified by holding an approved template in a vertical position moving backward
and forward on the forms.

Conditioning the Sub grade or Base Course

1. When the side forms have been security set to grade, the base-course should be brought to proper cross
section. High areas are trimmed to proper elevation and low areas are filled and properly compacted. The
finished grade should be maintained in a smooth and compacted condition until the concrete is placed.
2. Unless waterproof base course material is specified, it should be uniformly moistened when the concrete
is placed. If it subsequently becomes too dry, the sub-grade or base course is sprinkled with water, but
the method of sprinkling should not form mud or pols of water

8-16 HANDLING, MEASURING AND BATCHING OF MATERIALS

Stockpiles are built up in layers of not more than one meter in thickness with each layer completely in
place before beginning the next that should not be allowed to “cone” down over the next lower layer.

All washed aggregates and aggregate produced or handled by hydraulic methods are stockpiled or binned
for draining at least twelve hours before being batched.

The mixer should be charged without loss of cement and batched material should be weighed for each
material required within tolerance of one percent for cement and two percent for aggregates. Water may be
measured by volume or by weight and the accuracy of measuring water shall be within a range of not more than
one percent error.
Mixing Concrete

The concrete may be mixed at the site, in a central plant or by truck mixers of approved type and capacity.
Mixing time will be measured from the time when all the materials except water are already inside the drum.

1. Ready mix concrete shall be mixed and delivered in accordance with AASHTO M-157 requirements, except
that the minimum required revolutions at the mixing speed for transit mixed concrete may be reduced to
not less than that recommended by the mixer manufacturer should be indicated on a serial plate attached
to the mixer.
2. When mixing is done at the site or in a central mixing plant, the mixing time should not be less than 50
seconds nor more than 90 seconds, unless mixing performance tests provide adequate mixing of the
concrete in a shorter time period. Mixing time ends when the discharge chute of the mixer opens. The
contents of the individual mixer drum shall be removed completely before a succeeding batch is loaded
therein.
3. The volume of concrete mix per batch should not exceed the mixers nominal capacity in cubic meter, as
indicated on the manufacturer’s standard rating plate attached on the mixer except that an overload up
to 10% above the mixers normal capacity may be permitted provided that concrete test data for strength,
segregation and uniform consistency are satisfied and no spoilage of concrete should take place.
4. The batches shall be charged into the drum with a portion of the mixing water enter in advance of the
cement and aggregates. The flow of water should be uniform that all water shall be inside the drum by
the end of the first 15 seconds of the mixing period.
5. The throat of the drum shall be kept free of concrete accumulation that may restrict the free flow of
materials into the drum.
6. Mixed concrete from the central mixing plant shall be transported in truck mixers, truck agitators, or non-
agitating trucks. The time elapsed from the time water is added to the mix until the concrete is deposited
in place at the site shall not exceed 45 minutes when the concrete is hauled in non-agitating trucks, nor 90
minutes when hauled in truck mixers or truck agitators, except that in hot weather or under other
conditions contributing to quick hardening of concrete, the maximum allowable time may be reduced by
the supervising Engineer.
7. Re-tempering concrete by adding water or by any other means shall not be permitted, except that when
concrete is delivered in truck mixers, additional water may be added to the batch materials and additional
mixing is perform increasing the slump to meet the requirements if permitted by the Engineer, provided
that all these operations are performed within 45 minutes after the initial mixing operations and the
water cement ration is not exceeded.

Limitation of Mixing

No concrete should be mixed, placed or finished, when natural light is insufficient, unless an adequate and
approved artificial lighting system is operated.
8-17 PLACING OR DEPOSITING OF CONCRETE

1. Placing of concrete between transverse joints without the use of intermediate bulkheads. Necessary hand
spreading shall be done with shovels, not rakes. Workers are not allowed to walk on.
2. Where concrete is to be placed adjoining a previously constructed lane, and mechanical equipment will be
operated upon the existing lane, that previously constructed lane must have attained the strength for 14
day concrete. If finishing equipment is carried on existing lane pavement in adjoining lanes may be
permitted only after 3 days.
3. Vibrators should not be allowed to come in contact with a joint assembly, grade or side form. In no case it
be operated longer than 15 seconds in any one location.
4. Concrete should be deposited as near as possible to the expansion and contraction joints without
disturbing them, but should not be dumped from the discharge bucket or hopper into a joint assembly
unless the hopper is well centered on the joint assembly.

Concrete Joint

Concrete Joints are constructed according to type, dimensions and at the locations as indicated on plans
or special provisions.

All joints should be protected from the intrusion of injurious foreign materials until after sealed.

Concrete pavement joints are classified into:

1. Longitudinal joint

2. Transverse joint

3. Transverse contraction joint

4. Transverse contraction joint

5. Load Transfer Device

Longitudinal Joint

1. Deformed steel bars or special length, size, spacing and materials are placed perpendicular to the
longitudinal joints. Tie bar should not be painted or coated with asphalt or other materials or enclosed in
tubes or sleeves.
2. Except those made of rail steel, tie bars maybe bent at right angles against the form of the first lane
constructed and straightened into final position before the concrete of the adjacent lane is placed.
 3. The longitudinal joints are sawed before the end of the curing period or shortly thereafter and before any
equipment or vehicles are allowed on the pavement. The sawed area should be thoroughly cleaned and if
required the joint should be filled immediately with sealer.
4. Longitudinal pavement insert type joints should be formed by placing a continuous strip a plastic material
which will react adversely with the chemical constituent of the concrete.

Transverse Expansion Joint

1. The expansion joint filler should be continuous from form to form shaped to the sub-grade and to the key-
way along the form.
2. Pre-formed joint filler should be furnished in lengths equal to the pavement width or equal to the width
of the lane.
3. Finished joint should not deviate more than 6 mm from a straight line. If joint fillers are assembled in
sections, there should be no offsets between adjacent units.
4. No plugs of concrete should be permitted anywhere within the expansion space.

Transverse Contraction Joint

The transverse contraction joint is classified into:

1. Transverse Strip Contraction Joint is installing as parting strip to be left in place as specified.
2. Formed Groove is installed by depressing an approved tool or device into the plastic concrete. The tool or
device remain in place at least until the concrete has attained its initial set, and to be removed without
disturbing the adjacent concrete.
3. Sawed Contraction Joint is made by sawing groove in the surface of the pavement. Sawing is done as soon
as the concrete hardened sufficiently to permit sawing without excessive ravelling, and the time is usually
within 24 hours.
a) Joints are sewed before uncontrolled shrinkage cracking takes place.
b) If necessary, the sawing operations should be carried on during the day or night regardless
of weather conditions.
c) The sawing of any joint is omitted if crack occurs at or near the joint location prior to the
time of sawing.
d) Sawing should be discontinued when crack develops ahead of the saw. In general, all joints
should be sawed in sequence.
e) If extreme condition, exists making it impractical to prevent erratic cracking by early sawing,
the contraction joint groove is formed prior to the initial setting of concrete.

Transverse Contraction Joint

1. Transverse contraction joint is provided when there is an interruption of more than 30 minutes in the
concreting operations.
2. No Transverse joint should be located within 1.50 meters of an expansion joint, contraction joint, plane or
weakness.
3. If sufficient concrete has been mixed at the right of interruption to form a slab of at least 1.50 meters long
the excess concrete from the last preceding joint should be removed and disposed of as directed.
Load Transfer Device

1. When dowel is used, it should be held in position parallel to the surface and centerline of the slab by a
metal device that is left embedded in the pavement.
2. The portion of each dowel painted with one coat of lead or tar should be thoroughly coated with an
approved lubricant, to prevent the concrete from binding to the portion of the dowel.
3. The sleeves for dowel should be metal, design to cover 50 mm plus or minus 5 mm of the dowels with a
water tight closed end with a suitable stop to hold the end of the sleeves at least 25 mm from the end of
the dowel.
4. In lieu of using dowel assemblies at contraction joints, dowels may be placed in the full thickness of the
pavement by a mechanical device approved by the Engineer.

TABLE 8-6 RECOMMENDED DIMENSION OF DOWEL FOR CONCRETE PAVEMENT

Pavement Thickness Dowel Diameter Dowel Length Dowel Spacing

Centimeters mm Centimeters Centimeters

15.0 20 45 30
17.5 25 45 30
20.0 25 45 30
22.5 32 45 30
25.0 32 45 30
27.5 32 45 30
30.0 32 45 30
Source: AASHTO Interim Guide and proposed revision 1980

8-18 FINAL CONSOLIDATION AND FINISHING

1. Addition of water to the surface of concrete in order to assist in finishing operations should not be
permitted. However, if the application of water to the surface is allowed, it should be applied as fog by
means of approved sprayer equipment.
 2. The concrete placed adjacent to joints shall be compacted and firmly set without voids or segregation
under and around the load transfer devices, joint assembly units, and other features designed to extend
into the pavement.
3. Concrete, adjacent to joints, should be mechanically vibrated. The finishing machine is brought forward
operating in a manner to avoid damages or misalignment of joints.
4. If the uninterrupted operation of finishing machine over beyond the joint causes segregation of concrete,
and misalignment of the joints, the finishing machine should be stopped when the front screed is
approximately 20 centimeters from the joint.
5. The front screed should be lifted and set directly on top of the joint and the forward motion of the
finishing machine is resumed. When the second screed is closed enough to permit the excess mortar in
front of it to flow over the joint, it should be lifted and carried over the joint.
6. Thereafter, the finishing machine may be run over the joint without lifting the screeds, provided that
there is no segregated concrete immediately between the joint and the screed or on top of the joint.

Finishing Machine

Non-Vibratory Method – The concrete is distributed and spread as soon. It is struck off and screened by an
approved finishing machine. The machine goes over each area of pavement as many times and at such intervals as
necessary to give the proper compaction and leave a uniform texture surface.

1. Excessive machine operation over a given area should be avoided. The top of the forms should be kept
clean by an effective device attached to the machine and the travel of the machines on forms should be
maintained true to grade without wobbling or other vibration tending to affect the precision finish.
2. During the first pass of the finishing machine, a uniform ridge of concrete should be maintained ahead of
the front screed in its entire length.
3. If uniform and satisfactory density of the concrete is not obtained by the vibratory method at joints along
the forms of the structures, and throughout the pavement, the contractor will be required to furnish
equipment and method that will produce pavement conforming to the specifications.

Hand Finishing
Hand finishing methods may be used under the following conditions:

1. Mechanical equipment breakdown

2. Narrow width or areas of irregular dimensions
3. Concrete as soon as placed is struck off and screeded by an approved portable screeder. The screed
should be at least 60cm longer than maximum width of the slab to be struck off.
4. Consolidation should be attained by the use of suitable vibrator or other approved equipment.
5. On finishing operations, the screed is moved forward on the forms with a combined longitudinal and
transversal shearing motion.
6. Movement is always in the direction where the work is progressing and manipulated that neither end is
raised from the side forms during the striking off process. If necessary, this should be repeated until the
surface is of uniform textures, true to grade and across section, free of porous areas.

Floating

1. After the concrete has been struck off and consolidated, it is further smoothened, trued, and consolidated
by means of a longitudinal float, either by hand or by mechanical method.

2. The hand operated longitudinal float should not be less than 3.60 meters long and 15 centimeters wide
properly stiffened to prevent flexibility and warping.

3. The longitudinal float is operated from a footbridge resting on the side forms and spanning but not
touching the concrete. Working with a sawing motion while held in a floating position parallel to the road
centerline, and moving gradually from one side of the pavement to the other side.

4. The movement ahead along the centerline of the pavement should be in successive advances of not more
than one half length of the float. Any excess water or soupy material is wasted over the side forms on
each pass.

5. The track from where the mechanical float operates should be accurately adjusted to the required crown
and float also accurately adjusted and coordinated with the transverse finishing machine so that small
amount of mortar is carried ahead of the float at all times.

6. The float should pass over each area of pavement at least two times. Excessive operations over a certain
area should not be permitted. Any excess water or soupy material should be wasted over the side forms
on each pass.
Straight Edge Testing and Surface Correction

1. After the floating work and excess water removed, while the concrete is still in plastic condition, the
surface of the concrete is tested for correctness by a 3.00 meters long straight edge bar.

2. The straight edge bar is held in contact with the surface in successive positions parallel to the road
centerline and the whole area gone over from one side of the slab to the other as necessary.

3. Advances along the road should be in successive stages of not more than one half of the length of the
straight edge bar. Any depression found or noticed should be filled immediately with freshly mixed
concrete, consolidated and finished.

4. The surface across the joints must strictly meet the requirements for smoothness. The Straight Edge
testing should continue until the entire surface is found to be free from humps and noticeable departures
from the straight edge bars.

Final Finish

1. If the surface texture is broom-finished, it should be applied when the water sheen has practically
disappeared. The broom should be drawn from the center to the edge of the pavement with adjacent
strokes slightly overlapping.

2. The brooming operation is executed by producing uniform appearance of corrugations produced in the
surface not more than 1.5mm depth.

3. Brooming should be completed before the concrete is in such condition that the surface will be unduly
roughened by the operations. The finished surface should be free from rough and porous areas,
irregularities, and depressions, resulting from the improper handling of the broom.

4. If the surface texture is belt finished, after straight edging and the water sheen has practically
disappeared, and just before the concrete becomes non plastic, the surface is belted with a 2-ply canvas
belt not less than 20 cm wide and at least 100 cm longer than the pavements width.

5. Hand belt must have suitable handles to permit a controlled uniform manipulation. The belt is operated
with short strokes transverse to the centerline with a rapid advance parallel to the centerline.
 6. If the surface is drag finished, use a drag, which consists of a of a seamless strip of damp burlap, or cotton
fabric, which will produce a uniform gritty texture after dragging it longitudinally along the full width of
the pavement.

7. For pavement 5 meters or more in width, the drag is mounted on a bridge, which will travel on the forms.
The burlap or fabric 1.00 m wide is in contact with the full width of the pavement surface while dragging.

8. The drag shall consist of not less than 2 layers of burlap with the bottom layer approximately 15 cm wider
than the layer. It should be maintained with a resultant surface uniform in appearance free from grooves
over 1.5mm. Drags should be maintained clean and free from encrusted mortar.

Regardless of the methods used in final finishing work, the surface pavement must have 0.25 coefficients
of friction or more. Completed pavement found to have coefficient of friction less than 0.25 should be grounded or
scored by the contractor at his expense to provide the required coefficient of friction.

Edging At Forms and Joints

1. After the final finished, but before the concrete has taken its initial set, the pavement edges along its side
of the slab and all joints, transverse construction joints, and emergency construction joints, should be
worked with an approved tool and rounded to radius required.

2. Any tool marks appearing on the slab, adjacent to the joints should be eliminated by brooming the
surface. But in so doing, the rounded slab corner should not be disturbed. All concrete on top of the joint
fillers should be removed completely.

3. All joints are tested with a straight edge and corrected if one edge of the joint is higher than the other
before the concrete completely set.

Surface Test

1. The pavement surface is tested with a 3 m straight edge or other specified device. Areas showing high
spots of more than 3mm but not exceeding 12mm in 3 m span is marked and immediately ground down
with an approved grinding tool to an elevation of where the area or spot will not show surface deviations
in excess of 3mm when tested with the 3 m straight edge.

2. Where the departure from correct cross section exceeds 12mm, the pavement should be removed and
replaced by the contractor at his expense.

3. Any area or section that was removed should not be less than 1.5m in length and not less than the full
width of the lane involved.

4. When it is necessary to remove and replace a section of the pavement, any remaining portion of the slab
adjacent to the joints that is less than 1.5m in length should be removed and replaced.
8-19 CURING

Immediately after the finishing operations and the concrete have sufficiently set, the entire surface of the
newly placed concrete is cured in accordance with either one of the following methods:

1. COTTON OR BURLAP MATS. The pavement surface is entirely covered with mats thoroughly saturated
with water. The mat is placed and weighed to remain in intimate contact with the pavement and
maintained fully wet in its position for 72 hours unless otherwise specified.

2. WATERPROOF PAPER. The top and sides of the pavement is covered entirely with waterproof paper. The
units are lapped at least 45 cm placed and weighed down to remain in intimate contact with the surface
cover. Joints are securely sewed or cemented together not to open up or separate during the curing
period. The cover should be maintained in place for 72 hours after the concrete has been placed. The
surface of the pavement is thoroughly wetted prior to the placing of the paper.

3. STRAW CURING. When straw is used for curing, the pavement is cured initially with burlap or cotton mats
until after the final set of concrete or in any case 12 hours after placing the concrete. As soon as the mat is
removed the surface and the sides of the pavement is thoroughly wetted and covered with at least 20 cm
straw or hay measured after the saturation of water to last for 72 hours.

4. IMPERVIOUS MEMBRANE METHOD. The entire surface of the pavement is sprayed uniformly with white-
pigmented curing compound, immediately after the finishing of the surface and before the setting of
concrete has taken place. The curing compound is not applied during rainy days. The spraying equipment
is equipped with a wind guard and the time and of use, the compound is thoroughly mixed with the
pigment uniformly dispersed throughout the vehicle.

During the applications, the compound is stirred continuously by an effective, mechanical means.
Hand spraying of odd widths or shapes and concrete surface exposed by the removal of forms will be
permitted.

The curing compound should have that property to harden within 30 minutes after application.
Should the film be damaged from any cause within 72 hours curing period, the damaged portion shall be
repaired immediately with additional compound.
 5. WHITE POLYETHYLENE SHEET. The top surface and sides of the pavement is entirely covered with white
polyethylene sheet. The units are lapped to at least 45 cm placing the sheet weighed down to remain in
contact with the surface covered. The sheeting should extend beyond the edges of the slab at least twice
the thickness of the pavement. The covering should be maintained in place for 72 hours after the
concrete has been placed.

8-20 REMOVAL OF FORMS

Forms for concrete pavement should remain in place undisturbed within 24 hours after pouring. The
removal could be done as follows:

1. Crowbars are used in removing forms, pulling out nails and pins but care should be exercised not to break
the pavement edges.

2. In case a portion of the concrete slab is spelled off, it should be repaired immediately with fresh mortar
mixture of 1:2.

3. Major honeycombed area will be considered as defective work, to be removed and replaced.

Protection of Pavement

Concrete pavement and its appurtenances should be protected against public traffic, and traffic caused by
the workers. Protection of the pavement includes the posting of watchmen to direct traffic and the posting and
maintenance of warning signs, lights, pavement bridges or crossovers, etc. Any damage to the pavement prior to
the final acceptance of the work shall be repaired or replaced depending upon the extent of the damaged.

8-21 CONCRETING BY THE SLIP FORM METHOD

If the contract calls for the construction of concrete pavement without using a fixed form, the following
shall apply:

THE GRADE. After the grade or base have been placed and compacted to the required density, the areas to
support the paving machine is cut to proper elevation by means of properly designed machine. The base or where
the pavement is to be constructed is brought up to proper profile.

PLACING OF CONCRETE. Concrete is deposited inside the form using an approved Slip-Form Paver designed to
spread, consolidate, screed and float finish the freshly placed concrete in one complete pass of the machine, in
such a manner that the minimum hand finish is obtained, yet provide a dense and homogeneous pavement in
conformity with the specifications.

Protection against Rain

To protect the concrete pavement against rain, the contractor is required to have available at all times
materials for protection consisting of standard metal forms or plunks having nominal thickness of not less than 50
mm and a nominal width of not less than the thickness of the pavement at its edge for the protection of the
pavement edges and covering material such as burlap or cotton mats, curing paper or plastic sheeting materials for
the protection of the pavement in case of rain.

Acceptance of Concrete

The strength level of concrete will be considered satisfactory if the average of all sets of 3 consecutive
strength test results equal or exceed the specified strength f’c and no individual strength test result is deficient by
more than 15% of the specified f’c.

Concrete which does not satisfy the above criteria, may be rejected unless the contractor could provide
evidence, by means of a core tests that the quality of concrete represented by the failed test result is acceptable in
place.

If the strength of controlled specimen does not meet the requirements, and is not feasible or not
advisable to obtain cores from the structure due to structural considerations, payment of the concrete will be
made at an adjusted price due to the strength deficiency of concrete specimen as specified.

Deficiency of Strength of Percent of Contract

Concrete Specimens in percent Price Allowed
Less than 5 100
5 to less than 10 80
10 to less than 15 70
15 to less than 20 60
20 to less than 25 50
25 or more 0

8-22 TOLERANCE AND PAVEMENT THICKNESS

Thickness of the pavement will be determined by measuring the core from the completed pavement in
accordance with AASHTO T-148 requirements.

1. The completed pavement will be accepted on a lot basis. A lot is considered to 1000 linear meters of
pavement slab when a single traffic lane is poured or 500 linear meters when two lanes are poured
concurrently.

2. The last unit in each slab constitute a lot in itself when its length is at least 1.2 of the nominal lot length.

3. If the length of the last unit is shorter than ½ of the normal lot length, it should be included in the
previous lot.
 4. Other areas like intersections, entrances, crossover, ramps, etc. will be grouped together to form a lot.
Each lot will be divided into 5 equal segments and one core will be obtained from each segment in
accordance with AASHTO T-24 REQUIREMENTS.

Pavement Thickness

1. In calculating the average thickness of the pavement, individual measurement in excess of the specified
thickness by more than 5mm, and measurements less than the specified thickness by more than 25mm,
should not be included in the average thickness.

2. When the average thickness of the lot is deficient, the contract unit price will be adjusted to the thickness
in accordance with the paragraph below re: Adjustment for thickness.

3. Individual area within the segment found to be deficient in thickness by more than 25mm will be
evaluated by the supervising engineer, and if in his judgement the deficient areas warrant removal, it
must be removed and replaced by the contractor by his expense.

4. When the measurement of any core is less than the specified thickness by more than 25mm, the actual
thickness for pavement in the area will be determined by taking additional cores at no less than 5m
interval parallel to the centerline in such direction from the affected location until a core is found in each
direction which is not deficient in thickness by more than 25mm.

Adjustment for Thickness

Deficiency Strength of Percent of Contract

Concrete Specimens in percent Price Allowed
0-5 100% payment
6-10 95
11-15 85
16-20 70
21-25 50
More than 25 Remove and replace

Methods of Measurement

The area to be paid under this item is the area in square meters of the concrete pavement placed and
accepted in the completed pavement. The length is measured horizontally along the centerline of each roadway or
ramp. Curb and gutter will be included in the area of the concrete pavement measured.

Opening to Traffic

The project engineer will decide when the pavement may be opened to traffic. The road will be opened to
traffic until after test specimens molded and cured in accordance to AASHTO T-23 have attained the minimum
strength requirements. If such tests are not conducted prior to the specified age of the concrete, the pavement
will not be opened to traffic after 14 days from the time the concrete was placed. Before opening to traffic, the
pavement should be cleaned and joints completely sealed.
9-1 HIGHWAY MAINTENANCE

As defined by AASHTO, “Maintenance is the preservation and keeping of each type of roadway, roadside,
structures and facilities as nearly as possible in its original condition as constructed or as subsequently improved
the operation of highway facilities and services to provide satisfactory and safe transportation.”

OBJECTIVES OF HIGHWAY MAINTENANCE

• 1. Highway programs and activities are measured by the amount of expenditures for construction of new
facilities and reconstruction of existing structure with the aim of keeping up with the traffic demand.

• 2. Maintenance has its own role: by giving priority to local, rural and urban facilities particularly the paving
and rehabilitation after the construction has been completed.

• 3. Maintenance is focused on the do betterment projects. It includes grading and paving for short
alignment changes, to correct steep grades or sharp curves, re-surfacing and mulching, planting, flood and
erosion control.

• A mulch is a layer of material applied to the surface of an area of soil. Its purpose is any or all of
the following:

- to conserve moisture

- to improve the fertility and health of the soil

- to reduce weed growth

- to enhance the visual appeal of the area

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE

1. Poor preparation of the base, insufficient slab thickness and poor mixture ratio will only result to the very
expensive road repair. Indeed, management absorbed the end result of design and construction
inefficiency.
2. Poor drainage design will mean erosion or deposition of materials that requires costly clean up
operations.
3. Sharp ditches and steep slopes require costly manual labor maintenance as compared to flat ditches and
slopes that allow equipment to work at a lower cost.
4. Narrow road lanes usually forced large and heavy vehicles to travel with one set of wheels near the edge
or off the pavement, giving the maintenance personnel serious problems in the care of pavement edges
and the shoulder.
5. High maintenance cost is the result of poor design or construction methods. This is the main problem that
causes numerous demolitions and unending reconstruction activities being undertaken by the highway
people.

COMMUNITY EMPLOYMENT DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM (CEDP)

• Having a main objective of giving employment to the people of the rural areas.
• The projects were summarily sacrificed when 50% of the appropriation was spent for labor payroll
without accomplishment.
MAINTENANCE IS CATEGORIZED INTO:

1. Road Surface Maintenance

2. Shoulder and Approach Maintenance
3. Bridge Maintenance
4. Traffic Services

ROAD SURFACE MAINTENANCE

Road maintenance requires:

1. For Gravel Roads, blading and periodic re-shaping or resurfacing is a routine periodic maintenance
activity.
2. For Surface Treatment of low type bituminous pavement, maintenance could be patching, seal coating,
remixing and relaying.
3. For Slick Asphalt Surface, roughening, burning or non-skid seal is required.
4. For Concrete Road, maintenance could be removal and replacement or filling of damaged areas.
Sometimes joint sealing or mud-jacking or under-sealing is relatively common maintenance work.

MAINTENANCE OF SHOULDER AND APPROACH

Maintenance of the shoulder and approaches of the highway is governed by the surface characteristics in the area.

1. Sod shoulders should be removed and periodically bladed down to the roadway elevation to avoid
entrapment of water in the traveled way.
2. Grass prevents shoulder erosion. If necessary, fertilized, re-seeded, or treated to keep them in good
conditions.
3. Gravel and earth shoulder should be maintained by blading under favorable weather conditions.
4. Rutting or setting of the shoulder should be corrected at once by reconstruction or re-surfacing.

MAINTENANCE OF ROADSIDE

The type and kind of roadside maintenance depends upon the following conditions:

1. If the roadside is full of grass, mowing closer to the shoulder is the answer. If necessary, grass at the
roadside be fertilized or treated with lime. In some areas, re-seeding may be required.
2. If the roadside has dry grass considered as fire hazard, burning or plowing is the solution.
3. If bushes cover the back-slope, trimming is necessary to maintain clearance and sight distance.

The Indigenous Machine used for Roadside Maintenance

• a. Mechanical sod cutter
• b. Combined seed and fertilizer spreader
• c. Power mowers
• d. Portable grass cutter
• e. Bush mower
• f. Bush chopper

DRAINAGE MAINTENANCE

1. Cleaning of ditches, culvert, drop inlets and catch basins to accommodate free flow of water.
2. Removal of sediments, branches and other debris gathered at trash racks, culvert and structure
entrances.
3. Repair of eroded channels and dikes.
 4. Riprap and bank protection to prevent recurrence.

BRIDGE MAINTENANCE

1. For steel bridge structure, the routine maintenance calls for cleaning by sandblasting, flame, or other
means of repainting.
2. Cleaning and re-sealing of deck joints that are extruded or filled with dirt.
3. Repair of drainage handrails.
4. Re-surfacing of rough or slicky deck surface.
5. Correct serious scour around the pier and abutments.
6. Most bridges maintenance is considered specialized work. Traveling crews exclusively for bridges work
alone is a function of the maintenance operations.
7. Concrete bridge decks normally deteriorate due to de-icing salts. The problem starts when the salt
penetrates and corrodes the reinforcing steel that spall-off the overlaying concrete.
8. Correction is to remove the concrete, clean the steel and apply new material such as polymer concrete.
9. Sometimes seal-out or overlay of asphalt materials are used as protective covering.
10. Check the bridge deck deterioration by:
• a. Applying waterproof membranes.
• b. Applying latex modified concrete.
• c. Impregnating the deck with polymers.
• d. Passing electric current through reinforcing steel.
11. If decks are dismantled,an epoxy coated reinforcing steel may be used.

TRAFFIC SERVICES

Maintenance operations of highway include the traffic services like:

1. Stripping is a continuing function.

2. Repair of road signs.
3. Maintenance of street and highway light and signals. (sometime the functions of the local government.)
4. Coping up with emergencies. Personnel on patrol to keep the road open, and rescue stranded vehicles.

9-2 MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT

• Studies showed the need for improvement on the following field.

1. Education in management technique for maintenance engineers and foreman including its
field personnel.
2. More detailed and careful planning and scheduling of work and establishing standards for the
level of maintenance.
3. Major improvement of maintenance tools and equipment.
4. Providing a better and efficient communication.
5. Establishing lines of authority and responsibilities.
6. For the maintenance organization to succeed, staffing with permanent trained and dedicated
personnel is the solution.
7. Effective management system requires efficient, accurate and fair budgeting and reporting
procedures But how to implement these, is next to impossible, because it is difficult to overcome
varied administration, and behavioral problems.

• One example is the studies made on mowing which shows that:

– 1. The use of better equipment could accomplish mowing from 3 to 6 times as much area
compared to the use of poor and antiquated tools.
– 2. Two mowers working side by side accomplish less than when they work separately.
Conversation time east most of the working time.
 – 3. Not less than one and one half of two hours a day is spent unproductively for the preparatory
operation and travel of the mower to the job site.
• There is no specific number of mowing the road shoulder per year but normally, from one to four times
depending upon the physical condition of the shoulder. Grass by nature grows faster during rainy days
than on summer time.

REQUIREMENTS FOR MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT

• 1. To stabilize the standard level of maintenance by setting performance standards for workers crew and
maintenance units. This requires Methods Time Measurement (MTM) expected output for particular
operations that are predetermined.
• 2. To develop an accurate monitoring and fair reporting system and to compare actual work with the
expected production.
• 3. To develop a management system that will give efficient work scheduling assignment.
• 4. To develop effective procedures, methods and machinery or organization to carry out individual
maintenance operations.

Effective maintenance personnel activities are measured under the following criteria:
• Personnel who are devoted to the maintenance work are not those who just kill the time and collect their
salaries.
• Personnel responsibility for keeping the roadway opens to traffic moving under all conditions.
• Personnel rescue operation in assisting stranded motorists during bad weather, heavy rain, removal of
fallen trees, flood, erosion, etc.
• Maintenance personnel are exposed to accidents, hazards during their maintenance or rehabilitation
work.

9-6 Highway Beautification

Highway beautification is a broad term that includes activities like:

• Landscaping and roadside development within the rights of way.

• Improvement of strips and land adjacent to the highway for restoration, preservation and enhancement of natural
beauty.

• Acquisition and development of publicly owned and controlled rest area, recreation area and sanitary areas
including other facilities.

Factors that contribute to beautification:

• Good location • Construction

• Good design • Maintenance

 Outdoor Advertising

The control and removal of outdoor advertising had long been controversial in the beautification in
highways. A court ruling on these aspect states that:

“The concept of public welfare, for the purpose of which the legislative may exercise police power, is broad and
exclusive, and the value it represents is spiritual and aesthetic as well as physical and monetary.”

Additional Information:

PRESIDENTIAL DECREE No. 522 July 30, 1974

PRESCRIBING SANITATION REQUIREMENTS FOR THE OPERATION OF ESTABLISHMENTS AND FACILITIES FOR THE
PROTECTION AND CONVENIENCE OF THE TRAVELLING PUBLIC

9-7 Environmental Laws

The government had passed enough laws to protect the environment. The Environmental Laws has the
following intent:

1. The government recognizes the impact of man’s activities in relation to all components of the natural environment
more particularly:

• The influence of population growth

• The high density urbanization

• Industrial expansion

• Resource exploration

• The expanding technological advances

• Restoration and maintenance of environmental quality to the welfare and development of man.

2. The present generation must fulfill the responsibility as trustees of the environment for the succeeding
generations.

3. To assure the Filipino people of a safe, healthful, productive and aesthetically and culturally pleasing
surroundings.

4. To provide the widest beneficial use of the environment without degradation and risk to health or other
undesirable consequences.

5. To preserve some important historic, cultural and natural aspect of our natural heritage and whenever possible
an environment which uphold diversity and variety of individual choice.

6. To maintain balanced distribution of population and use of resources that will give high standard of living and
wide sharing of life’s amenities.

7. To impart that all person has the responsibility to contribute to the preservation and enhancement of the
environment.

Urbanization is the increasing number of people that migrate from rural to urban areas. It predominantly results in
the physical growth of urban areas, be it horizontal or vertical. The United Nations projected that half of the
world's population would live in urban areas at the end of 2008.

Resource exploration- From mining and minerals to oil and gas, resource exploration is a fundamental aspect of
remote sensing. Hyperspectral technology allows scientists within these industries to gather information about
what lies on the ground below.

9-8 Environmental Effect on Highways

The main objections of community complaint on environmental effects of transportation are as follows:

• The air and noise problems • Accidents

• Traffic induced vibrations • Annoyance caused by water pollution, dust and dirt.
 Air Pollution Control

Air pollution be it from fixed or mobile sources is the main concern in most urban areas. Air pollution is
the result of the progress. It comes from the discharges into the air of non-reactive pollutants including carbon
monoxide, sulfur dioxide, sulfates, dust, smoke and lead. The highway pollution problems are of two dimensions.
They are:

• Area wide effects of preliminary reactive pollutants

• High concentration of non-reactive pollutants at points or corridors along or near highways.

Motor vehicles are mainly the contributor to both forms of pollutants estimated at 70% carbon dioxide,
50% hydrocarbon, and 30% of nitric acid. The area condition is acceptably worst when temperature inversions trap
pollutants near the ground surface when there is little wind or no wind at all. Concentration become extremely
high affecting human life and even some vegetation are killed, stunted or the foliage is burned.

Additional Information:

Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas that is slightly less dense than air.

Sulfur dioxide is a toxic gas with a pungent, irritating, and rotten smell.

2−
The sulfate or sulphate (see spelling differences) ion is a polyatomic anion with the empirical formula SO4 .
Sulfate is the spelling recommended by IUPAC, but sulphate is used in British English. Salts, acid derivatives, and
peroxides of sulfate are widely used in industry. Sulfates occur widely in everyday life. Sulfates are salts of sulfuric
acid and many are prepared from that acid

Lead (/lɛd/) is a chemical element in the carbon group with symbol Pb (from Latin: plumbum) and atomic
number 82. Lead is a soft and malleable heavy and post-transition metal. Metallic lead has a bluish-white color
after being freshly cut, but it soon tarnishes to a dull grayish color when exposed to air. Lead has a shiny chrome-
silver luster when it is melted into a liquid. It is also the heaviest non-radioactive element

Various approaches to reduce area pollutants were planned and employed including future approaches such as:
• By Land Use Control. One example is the limitation and control of industrial-commercial development where
their construction and land use would contribute to pollution.

• To Lower the Emission. This is by lowering the emission of pollutant from existing machineries.

• Modification of the fixed existing facilities such as substituting low sulfur coal to reduce the release of sulfur
dioxide.

• Lowering pollution coming from motor vehicles that falls under the following categories:

a. Reducing the output of pollutants by making them fuel efficient and controlling pollutant output.

b. Limiting vehicle travel by shifting travelers to other mode using electric current.

c. Cutting fuel consumption and pollutant output by improving traffic flow.

d. A set of standard to be met by new vehicles.

Noise Control

Noise is defined as unwanted sound. Noise is measured in decibels with a common unit dBA. This single
unit combine sound intensities from all frequencies above 100 per second and strongly react on human ear.

Sound at 1 dBA level could be hardly detected by human ears, but an increase of 10 on the decibel scale
means tenfold increase of intensity. In a quiet residential area at night, an ambient noise is measured from 32 to
43 dBA. In urban residential areas the range is 41 to 53 dBA. In industrial areas the range is 48 to 66 dBA, and in
downtown commercial areas with heavy traffic is 62 to 73 dBA.

In terms of conversion and communication, these sound level means that at 65 dBA a conversation is
difficult at a distance of 1 meter and at 75 dBA an ear has to be plugged by a finger in order to hear a telephone
conversation.
 Transportation noises are complex, studies shows that:

• Complaints are focused on interference with speech. TV viewing or sleep related to increase of sound above
ambient noise level.

• Increase up to 9 dBA would be widespread and there would be community reactions.

• Highway noises near residences at peak noise about 70 dBA bring few complaints at 75 dBA, complaints are likely
and 80 dBA will invite petition and protest.

9-9 Construction in Relation to Roadside Development

At the time of grading operations, topsoil should be preserved for future landscaping. Likewise, trees
outside the distance limit from the traveled way, should be protected from damages caused by man and
equipment. Removing of soil or fills from along the right of way called side borrow should be avoided, and borrow
fills out of sight from the roadway is preferable.

Objects of interests like rocks, outcrops in cut slope or trees at toes of fill should be preserved for pleasant
view. Rugged slope in borrow areas and along roadside are dressed to encourage the return of native plants and
shrubs.

9-10 Vegetation and the Highways

Ground cover is defined as low growing herbaceous or woody plants more than one meter at maturity.
Both low shrubs and vines are included.

Ground cover is an alternative to grass in controlling erosion by wind and water. It also serves as
insulation that reduces sloughing caused by freezing and thawing. Mat forming plants are considered best ground
cover for protecting slopes and other roadside areas. There are those that root at decumbent branches and those
that spread from suckers and shoots.
 Other Vegetation Desirable for Roadside Protection:

• Bushy dense foliage plants, and those producing litter with great water holding capacity are considered good
vegetation to protect the roadside against erosion.

• The rapid growing species with inconspicuous flowers to prevent distraction and vandalism are preferred.

• Fire resistant plants with the ability to sprout after burning are much desirable. The cogon grass is one example.

• Plants that are subject to disease and insect damage, poisonous or irritating to the skin or that may become
agricultural pest should be rejected.

Fire resistant plants

Examples:

• Saltbush

• Fan-flower

• Coast twin leaf

• Rounder noon flower

• Saloop

• Cogon grass
 For median strips and island, erosion control is but one of the functions of ground covers. Properly selected plants
prevent headlight glare without affecting distance and provide a contrasting background that also guide traffic
directions

Trees and Shrubs

Trees and shrubs are effective means of providing interest, variety and beauty to roadside. Those that are
native to the area are more preferred than the imported variety.

The following are important tips in planting:

• For rural roads, the objective is to preserve or create a natural foreground in harmony with a distant view. Existing
well placed trees should be preserved while ugly and obstructing growth are removed.

• Replanting should be considered only when irregular introduction of trees and shrubs serve to highlight the natural
beauty or where it is particularly desirable to screen unsightly objects.

• Trees should be planted back a distance traveled way to provide recovery area for vehicles that run off the
roadway. A minimum distance of 9 meters from the lane edge is recommended.

• Row planting along rural road is not considered a good taste. It spoils distant views with a monotonous design. The
formal arrangement of trees and shrubs should be suitable for urban freeways and expressways.

• Group planting creates an occasional point of interest or call attention to intersections, bridges or other point of
hazard.

• Continuous planting is appropriate to screen unsightly roadside conditions or to insulate residential areas from the
road.

• Avoid monotony over the long stretches of the route. The solution is to group flowering trees and vines at best and
appropriate locations.

Sloughing (pronounced "sluffing") in biology refers to the act of shedding or casting off dead tissue, such as cells of
the endometrium, shed during menstruation, or the shedding of skin in amphibians.

9-11 Parking and Rest Area

Parking turnout to accommodate stopping off the traveled way is important adjunct to major rural
highways. Wayside rest areas are necessary facilities of the highway wherein motorist stops, relaxes and use
sanitary facilities.

Wayside rest areas should be located on those with natural features that make the area:

• More attractive.
• Those that are accessible and safely located.

• Those with sufficient area and with existing shades.

• Locations where public use will create fire hazard or otherwise affect adjoining property should be avoided.

• Likewise, location closer to cities and towns are not advisable, because it will just be monopolized by the
town people. The site must have the adequate driveways and parking spaces separated from the traveled way with
bumper rails or curbs to confine vehicles, and if possible provided with fence.

• Without questions, highway rest areas are worthwhile, but highway officials and maintenance personnel
object to their establishment because motorist users are untidy and are sometimes vandals making maintenance
difficult and very expensive.
10 – 1: Road Traffic Signs:
The important of road signs have recognized worldwide because of increasing incidents of road accidents
due to the volume of traffic and bad habits of motor vehicle drivers.
October to November 8, 1968- the United Nations Conference on Road Traffic was held in Vienna, Austria under
auspices of UNESCO.
June 6, 1973 – Presidential Degree No. 207 was issued by the President Ferdinand E. Marcos which state and
partially quoted:

The three efficacy principles of:

1. Uniformity
2. Homogeneity
3. Simplicity
Uniformity – includes the prohibition to use unofficial signs and markings.
Homogeneity – requires that in the same condition, the user notices signs or marking with the same value, same
importance and located according to the same rules.
Simplicity – to avoid superabundance of signs that over strain the drivers having the tendency to neglect the given
instructions.

RAOD SIGNS HAS THE FFOLOWING OBJECTIVES:

1. To lead to a safest road traffic.
2. To facilitate this traffic.
3. To indicate or to remind some particular traffic rules.
4. To inform the drivers how to use the Highway.

DIFFERENT CATEGORIES OF SIGNALING DIVICES:

1. Road traffic signs.
2. Road traffic signals.
3. Pavement markings.
4. Guide posts and delineators.

ROAD SIGNS ARE CLASSIFIED INTO FOLLOWING CATEGORIES:

1. Danger warning signs.
2. Intersection signs.
3. Prescription signs.
a. Prohibitive
b. Obligation
4. General information signs.
5. Direction signs.
6. Agglomeration signs.
7. Railway crossing signs
8. Temporary signs (on road works)
9. Special instruction signs.

VISIBILIY AND LEGIBILITY:

  Signal devices whether horizontal or vertically installed has he following objectives:
a. To inform
b. To prevent
c. To guide
d. Act as liaison agents between the driver and highway alignment.

Visibility and Legibility of road signs or the pavement markings are dependent on three parameters:
a. The detection
b. The identification
c. The reading
Detection – is the minimum area in contrast with the environment perceptibility by human eye.
Identification – is an analysis of the form and color of the road signs to understand the message it conveys.
Reading – is the fundamental role of road signs conforming to Alpha numerical language or by the symbol of
information transmitted to the driver.
__________________table____________________

 The small type of road signs are used only when some difficulties prevent the implementation of the
normal type such as line of trees, mountainous roads, reduced shoulder, small sidewalks, etc.
 The very small type is used exceptionally in cities for aesthetical consideration.

10 – 2: Basic principles of Road Signs:

The basic principle of Road Signs is to be perceived clearly by a driver traveling at relatively high speed,
whose attention is solicited by the driving requirements.

To be useful, road signs must be efficient according to:

a. Valorization Principles
b. Concentration Principles
c. Legibility Principles
Valorization Principles – means to use only the needed and useful signs. Too many signs lessen its efficiency.
Regulatory and warning signs are installed sparingly because excessive used of these signs will only decreased their
authority.
Concentration Principles – when it is necessary that some road sign must be seen at the same time, they should be
installed for the drivers to see at a glance by night and day. The signs must be set on the same point are
complementary.
Legibility Principles – excessive efforts of reading or memory works cannot be required from the driver. The
indications or analogical message should be reduced, and if necessary, road signs should be properly distributed.

10 – 3: Warning (Danger) Sign:

Warning signs – is used to warm traffic of potentially hazardous condition on or adjacent to the roadway. Warning
signs is always triangular in shape with one vertical angle and dark blue symbols, two boarders one white and red
with reflectorized white background.

OBJECTIVES OF WARNING SIGNS:

 To attract driver attention in the areas where his watchfulness has to increase on account of the obstacles
or of the dangerous points linked to:
______________Pictures____________________
 1.The highway structure such as curves, humps, dips and narrowing.
2.Condition of the roads such as slippery, falling rocks and the like.
3.Other transportation infrastructure like opening bridge, airport vicinity, railway crossing etc.
4.The condition of vehicles and pedestrian traffic, pedestrian crossing, children area, two -
lane highway after a multiple-lane highway.
5. Local circumstances such as: factory exit, quarry exit etc.
 It is necessary to point out a potential risk and advanced danger warning sign is installed. The purpose is
to inform the driver that he is approaching the obstacle, the dangerous point or the beginning of the
dangerous zone or intersection should indicate the length repeated after intersection.

Fixed message signs includes:

1. Detailed direction to the motorist of the free-ways and warning sign regarding destination and lane
occupancy.
2. Sign to notify motorists of the change in direction.
3. For low volume rural roads, only directional and kilometric signs installed at intersection and also
signs for dangerous conditions.

Installation of regulatory and warning signs:

Regulatory and warning signs are installed sparingly because excessive use of this signs will only decrease
their authority.
1. For oversized signs on expressway and freeways, white letter on green blackboard with white border is
recommended.
2. Large sizes of signs are effective on expressway or where speed, hazard, accident experience or
competition from lights or other signs is extreme.
3. Excessive use of large signs should be avoided because it makes the regular sizes less effective.
4. Non-reflectorized signs are satisfactory for most school zone markings, parking control, men working and
other temporary warnings that are effective only in daytime or illuminated by street lighting.
5. The Traffic Manual suggest that two signs, one black on white, unreflectorized and other white on black
reflectorized be mounted on the same standard where speed limits differ between day and night.
6. Signs with significance at night should be illuminated or reflectorized.
7. The sign message must be simple. The driver in so short a time available looking at signs messages cannot
observe and assimilate large amount of information printed on it.
8. An expressway or freeways usually have two messages and no more than three regarding directions or
destination should appear on a single signboard.

Other important Place of Information should be given on separate signs. At turnoffs from limited access facilities,
directional sign may be used either:
1. To indicate the immediate meneuver without detail to subsequent one or
2. To diagram those later movements on earlier signs.

Effectiveness of Road Signs

1. Stop sign to control vehicle speed in residential areas are useless for being ineffective. Majority of the
motorists make a roll stop and few others only ignore the signs.
2. Signs like “Slow Children at Play” have no effect on speeds. Selection of sign message is important
because drivers react to them differently.
3. The “Slippery When Wet” warning sign is not threatening, but effective only when accompanied by
flashers.
 4. If signs convey incorrect information such as safe speed indicator on curve warning sign suggest a speed
slower than the driver find easy and comfortable, they will ignore subsequent messages, thinking that the
signs are only fooling them.
5. If signs tell them that there is ongoing construction or maintenance work ahead when none is actually in
progress, drivers will ignore all such signs.

10-4 Intersection Signs

Article III of the Right of Way and Signals of the Traffic Code is not clear. Therefore, it is necessary to
define the right of way rules at the junctions and intersections. The right of way can be reduced to three possible
situations:
1. General Rule

 General Rule, right priority sign W 2-1 warning sign of the intersections where the driver has to give way
to the vehicles approaching or entering the intersection on the right.

2. Priority Road

 Priority Road: Sign 12-9 punctual warning sign of the intersections where the driver has priority against all
vehicles. The thickness of the principal road is bigger to avoid confusion with another sign. Sign STOP or
GIVE WAY has be located on the other road.

3. Non-Priority Road

 The STOP sign is used to insured caution before entering an intersection. A full stop is necessary for
Safety.

R1-1 sign cannot be used alone. It is announced by R1-2 a sign installed before the intersection like a
warning sign.

 The GIVE WAY sign notifies the obligation of the driver to give way to all vehicles coming from right and
left window the obligation to stop. The use of this sign supposes that the sight triangle are effectively
implemented and maintained. It also supposes that the GIVE WAY sign is announced by R1-2b sign located
before the intersection like warning sign.

Exception of the Right of Way Rules.

1. Vehicle drivers entering a highway from private road must yield the right of way to all vehicle
approaching on such highway.

2. Driver of vehicles upon a highway of any category must yield the right of way to police or fire
department vehicles and ambulances operating on official business and the driver thereof sounding
audible signal of their approaches.

3. The indications of traffic signals or the orders of a traffic officer, prevails against the right of way
rules.

 In an intersection where some flows of traffic can be conflict, it is suggested that the driver must be:

1. Notified in time of the existence of intersection.

2. Informed of the applicable right of way rules.

3. Able to see the vehicles approaching upon the other roads.

Location of the Intersection Signs:

 In Rural Areas, the normal distance between the intersection and the warning signs is 150 meters.

 It can reach up to 400 meters on highway with good visibility and where the speed can be high. There

Exceptional cases where two very near successive intersection can justify location distance shorter than
100 meters. When signs are located more than 200 meters from the intersection, it should be repeated at
half distance, and the two should be equipped with distance sign.

Distance Indication Sign:

 Road sign located between 100 to 200 meters before an intersection do not have distance sign. Where
the distance is shorter than 100 meters or greater than 200 meters it should be indicated on the distance
distance sign. The distance is rounded to the nearest 50 meters if it is greater than 200 meters. Between
50 and 100 meters it is rounded to 50 0r 100.

 The road sign R1-2a and R1-2b are always located with a distance sign. The distance is rounded to
nearest 50 meters if it is greater than 100 meters. Between 50 and 100 meters it is rounded to 50, 75 and
100 meters. The distance sign are located under the road signs.

 The road sign should be mounted clear of roadside vegetation and clearly visible under low heatlight
illumination by night.

 In Urban Areas when the distance is smaller than 50 meters, it’s rounded to nearest 10 meters.

 The sign can be placed at 2.30 meters above the top of the curb.

Sight Triangles:

 It is associated to each conflict point between to vehicles flows.

 The sign GIVE WAY is applied only to the vehicles on the secondary road. However, it is necessary to check
if the vehicles on the secondary road have the visibility corresponding to the execution at the crossing or
insertion maneuver.

Forms of Intersection Sign:

1. Triangular in shape with one angle vertical.

2. Triangular in shape with one angle at the bottom.

3. Square and octagonal shape.

10 – 5: Prescription signs:

 It is installed only with the approval of Public Authority having jurisdiction of the premises to be removed
any time if the legal requirements of the signs become inconsistent with the prevailing conditions.

Prescription Sign is classified into Three Categories:

a. Prohibitive sign

b. Obligation sign
 c. End of prescription sign

 The Prescription Signs are circular in shape, but for the regulatory purpose of parking applied to a zone,
the circle is placed inside a square.

1. The prohibitive sign have a white background, red ring and prohibitive red bar, symbols, and letters.
Numbers are dark blue except the sign R3-1 with red background and the signs R5-10, R5-12 with a dark
blue background.

The NO ENTRY sign has only white border. The background is red with a horizontal white bar.

 In order to improve the legibility, only the following sign includes traverse bars.

a. No left turn, No right turn, No U turn

b. No stop, No parking

c. No use of Audible Warning Devices

Prohibited Traffic:

 The sign RO indicate that all traffic is prohibited on both direction for all vehicles.

No Entry for all Vehicles:

 This sign R3-1 indicates the beginning of the one way road that the vehicles can only circulate in opposite
direction.

No Left Turn – No Right Turn:

 The turn prohibition is applicable at next intersection. The sign can be completed by auxiliary sign M4
giving the category of vehicles.

No U - Turn:

 This sign is used to notify the U-TURN prohibition up to the next intersection.

No Overtaking Sign:

 The R3-16 signs the drivers that is prohibited to over pass any vehicle except the two wheel vehicles
without sidecar.

Stop Control:

 The R3-17 sign used to notify the proximity of a control point where the vehicles has to stop.
10-13 Guardrail

Guardrail is generally designed to prevent a car from leaving the highway or from colliding against an obstacle
by deflecting it so that it continues to move at reduced velocity along the guardrail and in the normal direction.
Guardrail is designed to stop vehicles whose weight is smaller than 1800 kg. The need for guardrails on fill is
related to the slope and height of the embankment. In the Philippines, guardrails are not properly set and they
may constitute additional road hazards than safety devices. For instance:

1. The beginning of the guardrail sections are not equipped with proper protection thereby constituting a
kind of sword or battering ram which can penetrate inside the car during an impact.
2. Sometimes the rails are mounted too high becoming seriously hazardous that could enter into the vehicle
and decapitate the car occupant.
3. The superimposition of the different elements of the guardrails is done in the wrong direction. During an
impact, the element can be flaked off endangering the motorists.

Other Setup Arrangements Making the Guardrail Absolutely Useless

1. Guardrails were fixed on the post transmitting directly the energy of impact to the support that cannot
sustain the shock. When the barrier collapses, the vehicle passes over easily.
2. The holes and bolts used were not in accordance with the design and specifications.
3. The supports are sometimes located very near the crest of the slope. The foundation is weak to prevent
the post from being tipped off during an impact.
4. Guardrails are frequently used to protect the structures, direction boards and traffic signs but not the
drivers.
5. Guardrail is used perpendicular to the flow of traffic in the shoulder or in the median to protect a
manhole. In case of impact, the economic cost of car damages will be greater than the cost of the
manhole repair.
6. Guardrail is often used to replace the J4 marker or barrier.

Figure 1. Guard Rails in the Philippines

10-14 Concrete Barrier

The concrete barrier was introduced in the USA. It was tested in France in 1972 under the following
conditions:

1. For light vehicles the impact angle of 30 degrees at a speed of 80km/hr.

2. For 10 tons truck with impact angle of 20 degrees at 70km/hr.

After two years of testing in real conditions, this type of Separator was authorized in the entire road network
of France. In 1977 it was used in USA, Canada, Sweden, Belgium, Germany, Ivory Coast and Morocco. Record
shows that no car or truck ever crossed this kind of separator or barrier.

The separator can ensure double functions: as guardrail and as barrier. The double concrete separator was
designed to be set-up on medians or shoulders. The single type has a reduced section and its use is limited to
particular cases. The concrete separator being solid and rigid device cannot support differential settlements. Thus
it must be set up on stabilized ground in order to eliminate the risk of rupture.

Functions:

The concrete separator is a rigid retaining device. It does not absorb kinetic energy by its own deformation.

a) For light vehicle weighing less than 1800 kg, its function is dependent on the angle of impact. If the angle
is small, the section of the separator acts on the tires to guide back the vehicle to the travel way without serious
damage. On the other hand, if the impact angle increases, more damages will be visible. The impact energy is
absorbed by friction and deformations of the car body.
b) For heavy vehicles weighing 12 tons or less, in case of impact, the inertia and adherence to the ground of
the separator will prevent the crossing by guiding back the truck to the right trajectory.
c) For heavy vehicles weighing more than 12 tons, the separator functions effectively if the impact
conditions are not very hard (low speed, small angle)

If the separator is constructed on top of an embankment, the distance between the front face of the separator
and the beginning of the rounding should be equal or greater than the width of the separator itself. It is necessary
to design a supplementary anchorage, concrete bed or a reinforced foundation beam.

When the wall is set on the centerline the width Length of the Median is:

L = 0.60 m + 2d

Two separators can be designed to reserve place for planting.

L > (2 x 0.48) + 2d + e for the single separator

L > (2 x 0.60) + 2d + e for double separator

e = the width of the planting area

 Figure 2. Concrete Barriers

10-15 The Highway and Urban Street Operations

Prior to the existence of Freeways and Expressways, Arterial Streets were the main way of traffic. Arterial
and local street operations make use of street marking signs and signals controlled in several ways by either fixed
setting or computerized system. Despite the existence of freeways and highways, arterial roads serve the major
traffic flow to the nearest access points because arterial roads offer the most advantageous route for longer trips.
In fact, these arterial roads are existing highway of considerable length wherein cross traffic is regulated by signals
and stop signs. These arterials provide access to adjacent property with restricted entry and exit locations, street
parking, cross center left turn and other difficult traffic activities.

Arterial Streets are considered substitute for a controlled access when traffic volume exceeds 20,000 vehicles
per day.
Basic considerations in planning arterial roads

1. Selection of convenient route

2. Studies of traffic volume
3. Origin and destinations
4. Accident experienced

Planning Criteria

1. Arterial road should be at least 15 meters wide.

2. Must carry at least one lane of traffic each direction.
3. It should at least one kilometer in length.
4. It must skirt the neighborhood areas and not just penetrate them.
5. It should be spaced about 600 to 900 meters apart from grid type street pattern.
6. The minimum volume to justify arterial road is 300 vehicles per average hour during the day and 450
vehicles per hour during peak periods.

There are times when the traffic volume exceeds the capacity of the arterial road of conventional two way
street during peak hour and to unload and increase the capacity of the road, the following solutions are
employed:

1. Parking is strictly prohibited during peak hour on one or both sides of the street.
2. No parking is allowed several meters away on each side of intersections.
3. Allowing right turns on red signal or providing special provisions for these turns outside through the lanes.
4. Eliminating left turn at congested intersections.
5. Reversing the flow of traffic in the center lanes to accommodate more lanes in the direction of heavier
flow.

One Way Street

One-way streets are those where traffic moves in one direction only. Making one-way traffic is based on the
number of important advantages over the two way operation such as:

1. Bigger Capacity. More vehicles are accommodated by the same street system.
2. Fewer Stops and Increasing Speed. Fewer delay at intersections because the numbers of possible
conflicts were substantially reduced.
3. Improvised Pedestrian Movement. One crosswalk is totally free from turning vehicles during each phase
of the signal at signal-controlled intersections of two one-way streets.
4. Reduced Accidents. When conflicts are eliminated, one-way operation reduces accidents of all types.
5. Elimination of Headlight Glare. Ease of movement for emergency and less attention to traffic.

The idea of making a street one-way to traffic has meet oppositions from the business group and others who
fear adverse effect on their interests. For instance, the travel distance to reach a certain location is often
increased, a condition that seriously affect a particular business.

There were instances when due is strong objections the plan to convert the street into one-way traffic was
aborted forcing the city officials to give in after public hearing. The one-way preference streets in pairs could be an
alternative.
10-16 Traffic Control

The most important traffic control devices for street operations are the STOP and YIELD signs and the Traffic
Signals. The Manual calls for Two Way Stop on the less important two intersecting street where reliance on the
right way, high speeds, or restricted sight distance indicates high accident hazard. The manual further states that
multi-way (4-way) stop sign installations should be used only where volumes on the intersection roads are
approximately equal, and only when any one of the following conditions warrants or qualification is met.

1. As an interim measure when traffic signals are needed.

2. When an accident problem (as demonstrated by five or more accidents in a year) can be corrected by
multi-way stop signs.
3. When the total vehicular volume of 500 per hour enters the intersection in 8 hours or when an average
daily combined vehicular and pedestrian volume of 200 per hour form the minor highway with an average
delay of 30 seconds to minor streets.

Sometimes there are request from the public and its local officials to install stop signs where the condition
does not warrant its placement. Example: a four way stop sign installed have been used where they could not be
justified economically or on records of accident.

The Yield Sign could be a compromise between the full stop and no control. The Traffic Manual recommended
its use under the following conditions:

1. That its benefit include decreased operation costs.

2. Lower contributions to air pollution.
3. Passage time reduction of 2 to 6 seconds.
4. Lower accident frequency.

The Manual also provides minimum warrants for traffic signal installations based on:

1. Vehicular or pedestrian volumes.

2. Accident experience.
3. Progressive movement.
4. Interruption of continuous traffic to permit cross traffic to move as part of the network.

Public pressure that forces the installation of stop signs and unrealistically low speed limit signs sometimes
contributed to the increased number of accidents.
 Figure 3. Yield Sign

Figure 4. Traffic Control Equipment

10-17 Freeway and Expressway Operations

Freeways are designed for high speed, free flowing, low accident facilities and operate without hindrances
from traffic control. This type of roadway operates well because of their isolation from the surroundings with
widely spaced access and barred pedestrians. However, because of its isolation, correction is difficult if congestion
develops to the frustration of the motorists who have no information as to its cause and duration. Indeed, because
of its isolation, it is difficult to call for and render assistance in case of accidents or vehicular breakdown.

Recommended Relief to Alleviate Congestions:

1. The most common cause of traffic breakdown is adding more vehicles on the ramp. Thus, ramp control is
necessary to prevent the flow disruption.
2. Entry of vehicles on the ramp should be restricted or stopped when breakdown o the flow of the highway
is noticed.
3. It is better to delay the few motorists who wish to enter the ramp than those motorists traveling on the
freeway.
4. A simple solution to congestion on the ramp is to close the ramp completely before the flow on the
freeway reaches critical level. That is, if the rate of flow reaches a pre-determined level or by closing the
ramp during peak periods.
5. The use of service roads or arterial streets parallel to freeways during peak hours would gain road
capacity.

Motorist Problem on Freeways and Expressways

1. The motorists are completely isolated from the surrounding community. The ramps that they could exit
are far spaced, and sometimes several kilometers apart in rural areas and toll facilities are separated in
kilometers in urban districts.
2. Walking on freeway shoulders is very dangerous.
3. It is almost impossible to walk on elevated structures that have neither shoulders nor walkways.
4. Motorist would not like to leave their vehicles for fear of robbery and attack.
5. Modern vehicles are now complex and diverse in design that repairs by the driver or passing motorists is
difficult.

Solution:

1. Highway patrol should provide systematic surveillance.

2. Emergency radio or telephone installed at roadside.
3. Emergency vehicles and crews should standby or call to remove obstructing vehicles as quickly as
possible.
4. The agencies concerned should detail patrol cars along the freeways for immediate assistance to
motorists.

10-18 Street Lighting

With the exception of major downtown arteries, highway and street lighting are generally incorporated in the
design to illuminate the roadway to provide seeing by silhouette. When an object is seen darker than the
background, discernment is by silhouette.
 On the other hand, if the object is lighter than its background, seeing is reverse silhouette. A person or object
on an illuminated roadway is viewed in silhouette because the object is darker than the surrounding background.

The AASHTO publication on Informational Guide for Roadway Lighting, NCHRP report 152 recommended an
average horizontal illumination level of 0.6 to 0.8 foot-candle when the light source is at its lowest output due to
age or dirt. It means that the light or bulb is about 1.0 foot-candle at the time of installation.

The guide also recommended adaptation of lighting on the leaving end of continuously lighted freeway to
provide for an eye adjustment to headlight illumination. The recommended level of illumination for streets and
highways are based on the level of lamp output.

1. For expressways, the standard proposed foot-candle is 10. On residential 1.4 fc in intermediate and 2.0 in
downtown areas.
2. For sidewalks on commercial areas, the recommended level of illumination is 1.0 foot-candle.
3. For residential streets the value is 0.4 foot-candle.
4. The requirements for collector road facilities fall between those for arterials and minor streets.
5. For freeways, the uniformity ratio is set at 3:1 or 4:1. The uniformity ratio is the average illumination
divided by the lowest illumination.
6. The Guide also recommended the right illumination level for low mounted bridge, railings and walls of
tunnels and underpass.

Lighting Source and Installation

Highway lighting adopt the new and more economical types high and low pressure sodium and metallic halide
but the trend is toward the use of high pressure sodium with common wattage for all types from 175 to 1000
watts.

Luminaries as Street Lights have the following Criteria:

1. Recommended practice: Install luminaries at 12.00 meters or more above the roadway, although at
present, the predominant mounting height is between 7.50 and 10.50 meters.
2. When mounting is high, a more uniform illumination can be maintained even though units are widely
spaced.
3. High mounting of lights reduces the blinding effects of glare.
4. Luminaries distribute light to a definite pattern that suits particular conditions.
5. For a higher mounting, the spacing could be in the range of 60 meters apart with fixtures mounted on
both sides of the road.
6. Uniform distribution could be adopted at intersections. A symmetrical pattern is used when the fixture is
mounted at the center of the street or an asymmetrical form when mounting is near the curb.
7. The normal practice is to suspend the luminaries over the roadway, sometimes on cables or mast arms
extending outward from the roadside.
8. For roadway interchanges, the trend is to mount the luminaries on high poles, as high as 45 meters.
 Figure 5. Street Lighting

10-19 Street Parking

Parking on the street substantially reduces the capacity of the road. It creates congestions and confusions. It
increases travel time and accidents of vehicles. Legally, the right of the government to regulate the parking of
vehicles on the street was established when Lord Ellenborough a famous jurist of England in 1805 asserted that:

“The King’s Highway should not be used as stable yard.”

He established the principle that:

“Streets are primarily for the free passage of the public and anything that impedes that passage, except in an
emergency is a nuisance that may be abated.”

“Parking of vehicles even in front of one’s owned property is classified as a privilege subject to control and not
as a right.”
 The authority to regulate parking stems from the police power the right of the government to legislate in
order to protect health, safety and morals. Under such principle, public officials are free within reasonable limits to
establish rules to control parking on street and to set penalties against violators.

Figure 6. Street Parking

10-20 Highway Capacity and Level Service

The capacity of any element of the highway system is the maximum number of vehicles with reasonable
expectation of passing over the section (either one or both directions) during a given time period under prevailing
roadway and traffic conditions. Example of capacities for modern highway element is presented in Table 10-11.

Table 10-11 Highway Capacity

Facility Capacity in Passenger Car

Freeway and Expressway away from rams
2,000
and weaving sections, per lane per hour
Two lane highways, total in both directions per hour 2,000
Three lane highways, total in each direction per hour 2,000
A 3.60 m. lane at signalized intersections per hour
1,800
of green signal time (no interference and ideal progression)
Source: The manual, TRB circular 212

Defining Terms Associated With Capacity

Maximum volume. Where traffic flow is likely to continue without breakdown and serious compositions. It
follows that at capacity, the quality of level of service is far from ideal.

Number of Vehicles. Capacity is stated in passenger cars per hour. Trucks and buses in the traffic stream can
decrease the road capacity substantially.
 Reasonable Expectations. Values for capacity cannot be determined exactly due to the may variable that
affect traffic flows, particular at high volumes, assigned values for capacity are more of probability rather than
certainties.

One Direction Against Two Directions. Traffic is one direction flows independently from that of the other. On
the other hand, on two and three lane roads there are interactions between traffic in the two directions and these
affect traffic flow and capacity.

A Given Time Period. Traffic volume and capacity are stated in vehicles per hour but traffic flow does not vary
uniformly with time, volume and capacities. This variation within an hour is expressed by a peak hour factor (PHF).
This factor which is less or equal to one in the quotient of the hourly volume divided by the shorter period volume
multiplied by the number of periods in an hour.

Example:

If the hourly volume is 1,000 and the highest 5 minutes volume is 100, the peak hour factor (PHF) will be:

1000
× 12 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑛𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑎𝑡 5 𝑚𝑖𝑛./𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
100

10
= 0.85
12
60 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: = 12
5 𝑚𝑖𝑛

Prevailing Roadway and Traffic Conditions. This includes physical features that affect capacity like lane and
shoulder width, sight distance and grades. It also reflects changes in the character of the traffic stream.

Ambient Condition is weather related conditions that affect capacity such as rain, fog, smog or wind.

Level of Service

The level of service is commonly accepted as measure of the restrictive effects of increased volume. Each
segment of the roadway can be rated at an appropriate level from A to F inclusive to reflect its condition at given
demand of service volume.

Level A = Free Flow; speed control by driver’s desire.

B = Stable Flow; operating speeds beginning to be restricted: little or no restrictions on maneuver ability
from other vehicles.

C = Stable Flow; speeds and maneuverability more closely restricted.

D = Approaches Unstable Flow: tolerable speeds can be maintained but temporary restrictions to flow
cause substantial drop in speed. Little freedom to maneuver comfort and convenience flow.

E = Volume Near Capacity: speeds in neighborhood of 45 km./hr. Flow Stable: stoppage of momentary
duration. Ability to maneuver is limited.

F = Forced Flow: low operating speeds, volume below capacity

 The ideal conditions for the roadway to have an uninterrupted flow must:

1. Have 3.60 meters lane and 1.80 meters wide shoulder.

2. Road with flat grades.
3. Sight disturbance unrestricted.
4. No trucks or buses plying the route.

If these conditions are not met, road capacity may be reduced. Enumerated below are the factors that
contribute to the reduction of road capacity and level of service:

1. Narrow lanes and shoulders, and restriction on edge clearance.

2. Sharp horizontal curves create dynamic forces to which drivers react. Short vertical curve over crests or
obstructions to vision on the inside of horizontal curves causes vehicles to slow down.
3. Commercial vehicles like truck require more highway space per vehicle than the passenger cars.
4. Effects of grade on uphill road, makes desirable vehicle spacing for higher road capacity. The 3% to 7%
road upgrades does not affect passenger cars unlike cargo trucks that are markedly affected by steeper
grade.

Weaving Section

Weaving section is defined as the crossing of two or more traffic streams traveling in the same general
directions along a significant path of highway with the aid of traffic signal.

The Traffic Circle Rotary or British “Roundabout” is considered series of weaving sections placed end to end.
Likewise, a partial and full cloverleaf interchanges are example of weaving section. Vehicle entering the freeway
must weave with those leaving the freeway.

In establishing level of service for design purposes, each highway agency establishes its own guidelines
composed of two elements:

1. The traffic volume served.

2. To proportion the basic freeway, weaving sections, ramps and ramp junctions to accommodate this flow
at the designated level of service using appropriate data.

Table 10-12 Passenger Car Equivalent of Trucks on Freeway Upgrades

Four Lanes Six or More Lanes

Grade Length
Percentage Trucks Percentage Trucks
(%) (meter)
2 10 20 2 10 20
2 400 1 2 2 2 2 2
2 2400 7 4 3 7 4 3
4 400 7 4 4 7 4 3
4 1600 17 9 9 13 8 8
6 400 9 6 6 10 5 5
6 800 28 18 18 20 14 14
 TABLE 10-11 Limiting Volumes in Passenger Cars per Hour for Freeways and
On and Off Ramps for Various Levels of Service and PHF of 1.00

Freeway Volume in One

Direction* Checkpoint Volume Weave
Level of Service Diverges***
Four Lane Eight Lane Merge** Volume****
A 1600 3280 750 800 500
B 2500 5400 1200 1300 700
C 3400 6800 1500 1650 1300
S 3850 7700 1800 1900 1550
E (capacity) 4000 8000 2000 2000 2000
F ** High Variable

Source: TRB Circular 212

* For 70 mph freeway design speed
** Lane 1 volume plus ramp volume for one lane on ramps
*** Lane 2 volume immediately upstream of off ramp
**** Weave volumes between on ramp. Off ramp pair per 500ft. of length

Factors that Affect the Capacity and Level of Service

1. The Physical and operating width approaches.

2. The Physical and operating parking conditions.
3. Physical and operating one way versus two way streets.
4. Environmental conditions – load factor
5. Environmental conditions – peak hour
6. Traffic characteristics – turning movements
7. Traffic characteristics – trucks and through buses
8. Traffic characteristics – local transit buses