CHAPTER - 13

Boiler Safety

A. Introduction
Boiler and pressure vessels have many potential hazards in common, as well as
hazards unique to their specific operations. These vessels hold gases, vapors,
liquids, and solids at various temperatures and pressures, ranging from almost a
full vacuum to pressures of thousands of pounds per square inch. In some
applications, extreme pressure and temperature changes may occur in a system in
rapid succession, imposing special strains.
Major boilers and pressure vessels explosions occur, because of their spectacular
nature.
The problem is to ensure the integrity reliability throughout the working lives of
all boilers and pressure vessels and, in the event of any defect occurring, to limit
its damaging effects.
In the interest of safety, rules for boiler operation and maintenance have been set
forth by manufacturers, engineering societies, and most importantly,
governmental jurisdictions (IBR). The engineer and boiler operator should be
familiar with those rules specifically applying to the local situation.

Causes of accidents:

Accident causes fall of broadly into two groups.

1. Personal - involving the human element of care:-

• Persons falling – short distances

• Lifting and handling
• Stepping on objects
• Hand tools
• Objects falling
• Falls from a height

2. Technical – involving the collective element of planning and control, and the
impersonal aspect of physical protection:-

• Machinery
• Hot substances
• Electricity
• Transport
• Poisonous Substances
• Explosions

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The Technical accidents are usually serious and although as a percentage of the total
number of accidents they are of low incidence, their prevention requires considerable
foresight in planning and control and in provision of adequate physical protection. The
potentially serious accident is covered by the requirements of the Factories Act.

What now follows is primarily concerned with the prevention of accident producing
situations resulting from technical causes. The emphasis is on safety in plant operation
and it should be remembered that with the larger units ad advanced operating conditions
there is greater possibility of technical trouble

Design and control systems:

All plant is designed for a certain conditions. Although operators have no control over
design, they must be aware of any limiting features in the design. For example, the
limiting design features of a boiler include:-

1. Maximum permissible steam pressure.

2. Maximum superheater metal temperature.
3. Minimum air heater temperature.

Plant must be operated to ensure that it is kept within the design working limits. To this
end all items of plant should have operating instructions and these should be explained, if
necessary, to the personnel who are responsible for their operation. Some items require
very simple instructions. Others may require very complex instructions.
Many items of plant have automatic controls. There is nothing new about this; float
switches on tanks have existed for many years, and in fact boiler control systems have
been in existence for over thirty-five years. The only difference is that today’s control
systems are more complex.
Modern units have whole sequences of operation that can be performed automatically.
However, it must be remembered that although a correctly working automatic system has
no human weaknesses, neither has it human intelligence. A computer will only do what it
has been programmed to do.
Automation takes care of many routine operations such as steam/load output variations
and logging, and this reduces the tedium of the work. On the other hand, the operator has
greater responsibility in abnormal conditions for ensuring that the plant is kept within its
design limits and it is essential the emergency drills for abnormal conditions are included
in the operating instructions. These emergency drills require practice to ensure that the
operator not only knows what to do, but has practical experience.
The majority of control systems have built-in safety features known as fail-safe systems.
for example, if the control system of oil fired burners is actuated by compressed air then
thee fuel valve is pneumatically operated, and if the air fails the fuel valve will shut.
It also ensures that the fuel valve cannot open unless the control air is available. Many
examples of the fail-safe system are found in power stations and operators should be able
to list some examples in their own particular plant.
Although equipment may be designed to fail-safe an operator is subject to human errors,
such as operating the wrong valve or pushing the wrong control button. This is rarely the
result of lack of knowledge, but is more often of forgetfulness, so that the problem
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becomes one of reminding the operator where he is and the function of the control he is
about to operate. In short, adequate identification and labeling of plant, equipment and
controls is the first essential for correct operation, and it is of utmost importance during
the commissioning period of new plant.
It is proposed to highlight certain aspects of plant operation where hazards can arise.

Boilers:

Over Pressure:
Each boiler has a maximum permissible working pressure and to prevent the pressure
rising above this level, safety valves are fitted. The superheater safety valves are set
lower then the steam drum safety valves in order to ensure a flow of steam through the
superheater.
To lift these safety valves unnecessarily, involves a loss of water and heat, but they have
to be floated after each statutory inspection. (‘Floating’ is the term used for controlled
lifting of safety valves to ensure lift at the correct over-pressure).

Loss of water:
The water level indicator is one of the essential fittings that have to be fitted on all
boilers. Another is the pressure gauge. Although various indirect indicators are fitted,
these must be considered as ‘aids’ to the operator and in the event of trouble with the
water level in the boiler drum the local gauge is the absolute gauge to be relied on. The
Safety Rules require the water level gauge to be tested daily and the mode of testing and
blowing down should be clearly laid down in the operating instructions.
The loss of water on a boiler is a most serious condition. It can arise from any of the
following:-

1. The failure of the feed pumps

2. Incorrect operation of feed check valves and/or feed regulators

3. Sudden demand of steam – lifting of safety valves

4. A failure of pressure parts within the boiler (burst tubes)

5. Inadvertent operation of blow down and/or drain valves

The ratio between the water content of a modern boiler and its rated output is
approximately one third. With this small quantity of water it is essential that any loss be
attended to within seconds by the operator.
It must be remembered that although the fuel supply may be turned off immediately on a
pulverized fuel or oil-fired boiler, there is still residual heat within the boiler. Thus, in the
case of boiler wall tube failure, the water level must if possible be maintained until the
heat in the boiler has been dissipated. What action is taken depends upon many factors,

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some of which can only be decided in the light of prevailing conditions of the plant at the
time.

Loss of ignition:
Loss of ignition or instability of the furnace flames is a condition that can lead to
dangerous situations, particularly if the unburnt fuel continues to flow into furnace. All
fuels should be shut off as soon as loss of ignition occurs and the boiler purged with air
before re-ignition.
When conditions exist that could lead to furnace instability, such as soot blowing, ashing,
etc. then the ignition equipment such as oil burners, should be placed in service to assist
in maintaining combustion. A case occurred of a serious explosion in the combustion
chamber of a 184,000 Kg/h boiler. The boiler was steaming at light load with one p.f.
mill in service and four auxiliary oil burners. Trouble had been experienced with one of
the auxiliary oil burners with lighting up. Additional load was called for and the operator
brought the second mill into operation, still keeping the auxiliary oil burners in service.
The operator then noticed that the F.D. fan pressure had dropped and that it failed to
respond to the adjustment of the controls. Also the evaporation had not increased since
the two mills had been brought in. the A.P.A. reported that the furnace looked dark and
the operator sent for the foreman. However, before the foreman arrived a severe
explosion occurred in the combustion chamber.
The cause of the explosion was that the p.f. from the second mill had not been
satisfactorily lightened, probably due to the unsuspected failure of the auxiliary oil burner
which had given trouble previously.
The operator had failed to act on thee standing instructions that when these conditions
occur the boiler should be shut down immediately.

Automatically Controlled Boilers:

The function of automatic control equipment is to provide precise control over
combustion and feed-water requirements in order to meet output fluctuations. The
Ordinance requires a steaming boiler being always attended by a "Competent Person" in
possession of a Certificate of Competency awarded for the type of boiler. It is essential,
in the interest of safety of the boiler plant that the operators are competent to carry out the
normal duties in connection with such plants and it is the responsibility of the owners to
ensure that operators employed by them are properly trained.
The automatic controls failure is the most frequent cause of boiler failure than other
damages. The automatic controls failure sometimes result in boiler overheating due to
low water level, boiler explosion due to low water level, boiler explosion due to unburned
oil vaporize to hydrocarbon gases inside the furnace and fusing of heating element of the
electrically heated boilers.
Many cases of damage arising from failure of automatic controls have been caused by
lack of knowledge of controls on the part of the boiler attendants. Attendants with
experience limited to manually controlled boilers may be unfamiliar with modern
automatic boiler controls. Before they take charge of such boilers it is essential that they
should be properly trained in the safe operation of such plant the action to be taken in
emergencies and to carry out the tests set out.

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Explosions due to coal dust in mills and p.f. pipework:
If any combustible dust in suspension, whether it be flour, coal, cork, etc. is ignited, an
explosion will occur. Coal mills and p.f. lines contain dust at all times, and if this dust is
disturbed and a source of ignition is present an explosion will follow, often resulting in
damage to the paint and injury to personnel. The most likely cause of p.f. mill explosion
is blowback from the furnace along the pulverized fuel pipe work to the mill and there is
a hot spot in the mill due to excess hot air being supplied.

Following a series of p.f. explosions in 1950/55 a Committee drew up a Code of Practice

for the Safe Operation of P.F. Plant. Included among the recommendations were the
following:-

1. The training of operators

2. Cleanliness and care of operation

3. The temperature of standing mills

4. Automatic means of isolating standing mill fuel lines

5. Indication of loss of coal feed

6. Need of ignition equipment to be available and used if unstable furnace conditions

prevailed

7. Mill air scrolls to be kept clean

8. Need for air flow to be maintained through a tube mill when it is running light

Similar dangers exist when unburnt p.f. is carried through the furnace and deposited in
hoppers or heaters etc. Explosions have occurred when hopper doors have been opened
and air has come into contact with hot unburnt fuel. To prevent this, care must be taken
when operating boiler plant under light load conditions to ensure that the level of dust in
hoppers is kept to a minimum. Oil fuel deposits can also lignite under similar conditions.

During pre-commissioning safety valve tests in a large unit, an explosion occurred in a

pressure type mill as a result of overheating of the mill casing.

An inspection showed that:-

1. There was no control of tempering air to the individual mills. (‘Tempering air’ is
cold air).

2. The temperature indication was faulty.

3. The alarm system has not been connected.

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This incident is typical in that there were several factors which combined to lead to this
situation, and the absence of any of them could well have prevented the actual accident.

Air heater fires:

Air heater fires in pulverized fuel fired systems are generally associated with the frequent
and prolonged use of lighting-up oil burners for pre-commissioning steam raising and
low load operation. Both in these and in oil-fired boilers the contributory causes can be
summarized as:-

1. The carry over of unburnt oil due to delayed ignition or leakage

2. Inefficient combustion resulting in incomplete burning of oil which leads to the

carry over of oil vapour, coke and/or soot which collects in the cooler parts of the
flue gas system; the air heater is particularly vulnerable to these deposits.

In order to reduce air heater damage the following measures should be adopted.

1. Adequate instrumentation and equipment for the satisfactory control and

operation of both oil burners and air heaters must be available.

2. All air heaters should be provided with adequate inspection and cleaning access
and a high level of cleanliness should be maintained.

3. Fuel oil should be burnt with the highest efficiency. This may entail an adjustment
of burners, the use of low viscosity oil during commissioning, gas tight furnaces,
and the cleanliness of the air heater, gas side. When the unit is shut-down the
furnace should be purged and the fuel dampers closed. The air heater temperature
should be observed at frequent intervals during banked conditions.

Air receiver:
Compressed air is widely used in all industrial undertakings, e.g. pneumatic control
systems and for various pneumatic tools and cleaning equipment etc. Compressed air are
either arranged to run continuously since they are fitted with unloading devices to allow
running light when desired supply line pressure is reached, or have pre-set cut in and cut
out pressure switches. Supply of clean, dry compressed air is required from the well-
designed, correctly installed and maintained air receivers. Any air receiver shall be
examined by an appointed examiner within 26 months after the date of fitness issued.
Also it is contravention of the Boiler and Pressure Vessels Ordinance to "alter" the safety
valve pressure set by the appointed examiners.
Air pressure vessels inside buildings should not be located near sources of heat, such as
radiators, boilers, or furnaces.

Dynamic Pressure Hazards:

The pressures in cylinders of compressed air, oxygen, or carbon dioxide are over 2000
psig when the cylinders are full. A large cylinder, such as that used for oxygen for
oxyacetylene welding, will weigh slightly more than 200 pounds. The force or thrust

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generated by gas flowing through the opening left when a valve breaks off a cylinder can
be 50 to 20 times greater than the cylinder weight. This can be compared to the
propulsion system of a rocket or guided missile. Spectacular accidents have occurred
when such charged cylinders were dropped or struck so the valve broke off. The cylinder
would then take off, in some cases smashing through buildings, rows of vehicles, and
creating the tremendous havoc that a heavy steel projectile traveling at high speeds can
generate.

Excessive pressures from non-thermal sources:

A vessel or container can be over pressurized so it fails. The simplest example is the
bursting of a child’s balloon. Practically all pressure vessel failures occur at flaws in the
material where stresses are concentrated. If the flaw is serious enough, failure may occur
at or below the normal operating pressure. If the vessel is over pressurized, it will fail at a
weak point, where a flaw exists.

Safeguards against air receiver explosion:

The safeguards are:
• Adequate cooling by provision of intercooler and aftercooler to restrict the operating
temperature.
• Plant should be kept in good order; clean internally and externally and supplied with
specially compounded compressor oil of the correct characteristics for the job.
• A suitable temperature fusible plug could be incorporated, designed to melt and blow at
a temperature a little lower than the closed flash point of the lubrication oil
• Regular inspection will help to minimize the risk of a failure by detecting the symptoms
at an early stage.

Whipping of Hoses and Lines

Whipping of flexible hoses can also generate injury and damage. In one instance, the end
fitting of a compressed air line was not tightened adequately when the line was
connected. The line separated when it was pressurized. It then began whipping about
until it hit and killed a worker by crushing his skull.

Water Hammer
Water hammer is caused by a sudden stoppage of liquid flow so a shock effect occurs
which can cause the rupture of a line. The mass of liquid has momentum. If the flow is
terminated abruptly by closing a valve at the downstream end of a line, the momentum of
the liquid is transformed into a shock wave (water hammer) which is transmitted back
upstream. The shock is transmitted back through the liquid because liquids are practically
incompressible. The energy shock involved may be adequate to break fittings and lines,
especially if they are made of brittle materials which do not stand shock well. To avoid
damage to liquid lines, the use of quick-closing valves should be avoided. If they must be
used, the shock can be alleviated by a suitable air chamber or accumulator connected to
the lines slightly upstream of the valve.

Testing of Pressure System

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Each pressure system should be tested prior to use, and pressure vessels should be tested
periodically after that to determine their adequacy for continued service. Wherever
possible, hydrostatic testing, using water and not a gas such as steam or compressed air,
should be used. If the vessel being tested fails suddenly, the rapid expansion of gas might
cause the rupture to be violent, possibly generating a blast wave with injury or damage.
Hydrostatic testing, using water as a fluid, has two major advantages. Leaks created by
pressurization of a vessel can be detected easily. The test can then be interrupted or
continued with increased care. Because fluids expand little, in case of a vessel’s rupture,
no shock wave will be generated.

Chlorine
Chlorine is used to prevent the growth of algae in C.W. systems in river water stations
and to control the mussel growth in sea-water stations. Chlorine is well known as a
poisonous gas and one part per million is the maximum permissible concentration. A rule
of thumb is that if you smell chlorine it is time to evacuate from the area.
Operators concerned with chlorine plant should be conversant with and practiced in the
use of compressed air breathing apparatus which should be readily available.
Chlorine is supplied in liquid form either in bulk or in drums. The liquid chlorine passes
through a vaporizer and the gas is dissolved in water before it is added to the C.W.
system. The major hazard occurs when changing over the connections on the drums,
since an ill fitting connection or a leaking valve can result in the discharge of the chlorine
gas.

Liquid chemicals:
The demineralization method of water treatment is in common use and the regeneration
of the various units associated with this type of plant involves the use of sulphuric acid
and caustic sods. These are both very corrosive liquids and can burn the skin. They
should never be mixed together and neither should water be added to them; the dilution
of acid/alkali must always be made by adding the liquid to the water. They are supplied
in road or rail bulk tankers and care must be taken that the connections are made to the
appropriate tank. Any spillage should be washed away with copious supplies of water and
a douching shower should be available to douche any person contaminated with these
liquids. In addition eye wash bottles should be readily available.
Other chemicals used are hydrazine, compounds of ammonia and potassium, and certain
volatile alkaline.
No chemicals should be used in power stations until the precautions for its storage and
handling have been laid down by the Station Chemist. It is particularly important to
protect the face, eyes and hands when handling these types of chemicals.

Entry into confined spaces:

Entry into confined spaces, such as oil tanks, is forbidden unless the space has been
certified safe for entry without breathing apparatus or under conditions laid down. Where
the person enters a confined space wearing an approved breathing apparatus, he must be
attached by a life line that is being held by another person outside.

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FOLLOW THESE SAFETY RULES
A better accident history can only result from the combined efforts of all. Carelessness
accounts for the majority of accidents. Go over this list and see how many apply to your
job.
1. Never wear frayed clothing which might catch in machinery or cause tripping.
2. Never wear shoes that could cause slipping, or with worn soles that permit easy
puncture.
3. Never fail to wear a helmet-type hat where there is danger of head injury from
electric wiring or falling objects.
4. Never expose your eyes to flying particles or the extended ray of a welding
machine.
5. Never leave your hands unprotected from burning, slivers, or abrasions.
6. Never use a flashlight unless it gives suitable light and is dependable, so as not to
leave you in the dark in some remote area of a large vessel or boiler.
7. Never use an extension light with a weak or frayed cord, or without a cage
around the bulb.
8. Never experiment with electrical hook-ups beyond your knowledge.
9. Never take a step in a dark area if you can’t see where you are putting your foot
down.
10. Never enter the furnace of an automatically-fired boiler without making sure that
the firing mechanism is in the locked out position and is tagged to this effect.
Never enter the furnace of a water-tube boiler without watching for falling slag.
11. Never enter a boiler installed in battery without making sure that all stop valves
in the connecting pressure lines are securely closed and tagged. If there are bleed-
off connections between the stop valves, open them.
12. Never drain a vessel or boiler without opening a suitable vent. This will prevent
collapse and permit complete drainage.
13. Never remove a handhole or manhole cover plate from a vessel or boiler unless
you are sure that it is empty.
14. Never enter a boiler or pressure vessel unless a reliable person is stationed nearby
to note any personal mishap or weakness.
15. Never use a ladder without checking for worn rungs and loose side rails.
16. Never use a ladder that is too short. In trying to reach up, the angle of the ladder
and user becomes such as to cause falling backward. When trying to enter an
inspection opening, the ladder should extend to or above it. Climbing from the
uppermost rung can cause the ladder to tip out at the top or kick out at the
bottom. In placement watch out for electric wiring.
17. Never use a ladder not properly adapted to the job. The bottom ends of the rails
should be fitted with spikes or cleats to prevent slipping. If a ladder is not so
equipped, or is placed on a metal floor, secure the bottom to some fixed object.
Do not rely on someone to hold the ladder, as he may be called away on another
mission or emergency.
18. Never risk your life by removing fuses from high-voltage electrical circuits with
your bare hands. Use tongs or fuse pullers.
19. Never use ladders as bridges.
20. Never enter a pressure vessel that contained a toxic agent or may contain dead air
without thorough purging. If necessary, wash and clean the surfaces.
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21. Never use a rope ladder or bosun’s chair without first inspecting the rope. Also,
be sure that you are physically able to make an inspection from such flexible
equipment.
22. Never inspect a boiler or pressure vessel while it is under hydrostatic pressure
test without using due care. Always make sure a vessel is completely vented of
air before a hydrostatic test is applied.
23. Never operate soot blowers unless the burners are operating at a high firing rate.
Air flow should be adjusted to insure a high carbon dioxide but low oxygen
content in the flue gases.
24. Never enter a building or other enclosure in the presence of ammonia fumes,
sewer gas, natural gas or any other toxic gas without proper clothing and
respiratory equipment – and then only with extreme caution.
25. Never at any time stand in front of the discharge opening of a relief valve –
particularly attempting to test it.
26. Never blow down an appliance on a boiler without first observing the point of
discharge – your foot may be under it.
27. Never blow down a boiler under pressure by opening the slow-opening valve
first. Always open the cock first and then the slow-opening valve. After
blowdown close the slow-opening valve first. This prevents a sudden back
pressure wave on the connecting piping.
28. Never shut a valve off suddenly in a pressure line except under extreme
emergency. The sudden change in flow may result in rupture at some weakened
location. Also, never open a valve suddenly (particularly in a steam line) where
water hammer might result.
29. Never operate a pressure vessel with only part of the head or cover plates, lugs or
clamps in place.
30. Never continue to use any bolt, pin, lug, or clamp after it becomes worn, sprung,
stripped or otherwise weakened.
31. Never release the holding mechanism of any quick-opening door or end closure
until sure that the chamber is void of pressure.
32. Never depend on automatic controls as safety devices unless they are kept clean
and are checked, tested and otherwise regularly maintained.
33. Never operate boilers, pressure vessels or machines at pressures or speeds above
rated.
34. Never take someone else’s word for something you should have checked
yourself.
35. Never resort to horse-play.
36. Never neglect your fire protection. Check fire buckets and extinguishers
regularly, and never leave a water line valve shut off to a sprinkler system
through lack of maintenance. Red tag it and stay with it until corrections or
alterations have been completed; and then return all valves to their proper
positions for service.

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