See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/337826434

Plant Resources & Utilization - Class notes

Chapter · December 2019

CITATIONS READS
0 664

1 author:

Abdul Hameed
Government Arts College for Men (Affiliated to Periyar University, Salem) Krishnagiri, Tamil Nadu, India.
5 PUBLICATIONS   0 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

My Research View project

Botany - Class Notes View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Abdul Hameed on 08 December 2019.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 M.Sc. Botany Class Notes –
Plant Resources and Utilization

PLANT RESOURCES AND UTILIZATION

1. PLANT BIODIVERSITY

Biodiversity is the variety of different types of life found on Earth.

It is a measure of the variety of organisms present in different ecosystems. This

can refer to genetic variation, ecosystem variation, or species variation (number
of species) within an area, planet.

Terrestrial biodiversity tends to be highest near the equator, which seems to be

the result of the warm climate and high primary productivity.

Biodiversity is not distributed evenly on Earth. It is the richest in the tropics.

Marine biodiversity tends to be highest along coasts in the Western Pacific,

where sea surface temperature is highest and in the mid-latitudinal band in all
oceans. There are latitudinal gradients in species diversity.

Biodiversity generally tends to cluster in hotspots, and has been increasing

through time but will be likely to slow in the future.

Rapid environmental changes typically cause mass extinctions. More than 99

percent of all species, amounting to over five billion species, that ever lived on
Earth are estimated to be extinct.

Estimates on the number of Earth's current species range from 10 million to 14

million, of which about 1.2 million have been documented and over 86 percent
have not yet been described. The total amount of related DNA base pairs on
Earth is estimated at 5.0 x 1037, and weighs 50 billion tonnes.

In comparison, the total mass of the biosphere has been estimated to be as

much as 4 trillion tons of carbon.

The age of the Earth is about 4.54 billion years old. The earliest undisputed
evidence of life on Earth dates at least from 3.5 billion years ago.

The Phanerozoic eon (the last 540 million years) marked a rapid growth in
biodiversity via the Cambrian explosion—a period during which the majority
of multicellular phyla first appeared.

Dr. Abdul Hameed, Dept. of Botany, GAC, KGI 1

 M.Sc. Botany Class Notes –
Plant Resources and Utilization

The next 400 million years included repeated, massive biodiversity losses
classified as mass extinction events. In the Carboniferous, rainforest collapse
led to a great loss of plant and animal life.

The most recent, the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, occurred

65 million years ago and has often attracted more attention than others because
it resulted in the extinction of the dinosaurs.

The period since the emergence of humans has displayed an ongoing

biodiversity reduction and an accompanying loss of genetic diversity.

The reduction is caused primarily by human impacts, particularly habitat

destruction. Conversely, biodiversity impacts human health in a number of
ways, both positively and negatively.

The United Nations designated 2011–2020 as the United Nations Decade on

Biodiversity.

About 7,000 species of plants have been cultivated for consumption in human
history.

The great diversity of varieties resulting from human and ecosystem

interaction, guaranteed food for the survival and development of human
populations throughout the world in spite of pests, diseases, climate
fluctuations, droughts and other unexpected environmental events.

Presently, only about 30 crops provide 95% of human food energy needs, four
of which (rice, wheat, maize and potato) are responsible for more than 60% of
our energy intake.

Due to the dependency on this relatively small number of crops for global food
security, it will be crucial to maintain a high genetic diversity within these
crops to deal with increasing environmental stress and to provide farmers and
researchers with opportunities to breed for crops that can be cultivated under
unfavourable conditions, such as drought, salinity, flooding, poor soils and
extreme temperatures.

Dr. Abdul Hameed, Dept. of Botany, GAC, KGI 2

 M.Sc. Botany Class Notes –
Plant Resources and Utilization

Plant genetic resources are the basis of food security and consist of diversity of
seeds, planting material of traditional varieties and modern cultivars, crop wild
relatives and other wild plant species.

The plant genetic resources are used as food, feed for domesticated animals,
fibre, clothing, shelter and energy.

The loss of these resources or a lack of enough linkages between conservation

and their use deals a severe threat to the world’s food security in the long term.

The potential of plant genetic resources for food security, sustainable

livelihoods, sufficient nutrition and adaptation to climate change is enormous,
if managed in a sustainable manner.

FAO - Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations:

FAO is dedicated to improve knowledge and conservation of plant genetic

resources to ensure the sustainable provision of food in the long term.

And contributing to make full use of the genetic resources available, including
wild relatives of main crops currently used.

The United Nations designated 2011–2020 as the United Nations Decade on

Biodiversity.

The conservation and sustainable use of PGRFA (Plant Genetic Resources for
Food and Agriculture) is necessary to ensure crop production and meet
growing environmental challenges and climate change.

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2. THE IMPORTANCE OF PLANT DIVERSITY

The diversity of plant life is an essential foundation of most of our terrestrial

(land) ecosystems.

Humans and most other animals are almost totally dependent on plants,
directly or indirectly, as a source of energy through their ability to convert the
sun's energy through photosynthesis.

Dr. Abdul Hameed, Dept. of Botany, GAC, KGI 3

 M.Sc. Botany Class Notes –
Plant Resources and Utilization

Worldwide several thousands of species of higher plants, and several hundred

lower plants, are currently used by humans for a wide diversity of purposes as
food, fuel, fibre, oil, herbs, spices, industrial crops and as forage and fodder for
domesticated animals.

In the tropics alone it has been estimated that 25,000 - 30,000 species are in use
and up to 25,000 species have been used in traditional medicines.

In addition, many thousands of species are grown as ornamentals in parks,

public and private gardens, as street trees and for shade and shelter.

Another important role of plant life is the supply of ecosystem services the
protection of watersheds, stabilization of slopes, improvement of soils,
moderation of climate and the provision of a habitat for much of our wild
fauna.

While it is generally accepted today that the conservation of all biodiversity

should be our goal, especially through the preservation and sustainable use of
natural habitats, this is an ideal to be achieved and there are convincing
scientific, economic and sociological reasons for giving priority to the
conservation of the major centres of plant diversity throughout the world,

Especially, it’s also lead to the conservation of much animal and micro-
organism diversity as well.

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

3. CONCEPTS AND STATUS OF PLANT BIODIVERSITY IN INDIA:

India has a rich and varied heritage of biodiversity, encompassing a wide

spectrum of habitats from tropical rainforests to alpine vegetation and from
temperate forests to coastal wetlands.

India figured with two hotspots — the Western Ghats (situated west side of
Tamil Nadu and boarder area of Tamil Nadu and Kerala) and the Eastern
Himalayas.

Recently, Norman Myers and a team of scientists have brought out an updated
list of 25 hotspots in world wide.

Dr. Abdul Hameed, Dept. of Botany, GAC, KGI 4

 M.Sc. Botany Class Notes –
Plant Resources and Utilization

In the revised classification, the 2 hotspots that extend into India are; The
western Ghats/Srilanka and Indo-Burma region (covering the Eastern
Himalayas); and they are included amongst the top eight most important
hotspots.

In addition, India has 26 recognised endemic centres that are home to nearly a
third of all the flowering plants identified and described to date.

Of the estimated 5 – 50 million sepecies of the world’s biota, only 1.7 million
have been described to date and the distribution is highly uneven.

About 7% of the world's total land area is home to half of the world's species,
with the tropics alone accounting for 5 million.

India contributes significantly to this latitudinal biodiversity trend and with a

minimum 2.4% of the world's area.

Some salient features of India's biodiversity:

India has two major area of interest called the Palaearctic and the Indo-
Malayan, and three biomass, namely the tropical humid forests, the tropical
dry/deciduous forests, and the warm desert /semi deserts.

India has 10 biogeographic regions including the Trans-Himalayan, the

Himalayan, the Indian desert, the Semi-arid zone, the Western Ghats, the
Deccan Penisula, the Gangetic plain, North-East India and the islands and
coasts.

India is one of the 12 centres of origin of cultivated plants.

India has 5 world heritage sites, 12 biosphere reserves, and 6 Ramsar wetlands.
Amongs the protected areas, India has 88 national parks and 490 sanctuaries
covering an area of 1.53 lakh sq. km.

The endemism of Indian biodiversity is high. About 33% of the country's

recorded flora are endemic to the country and are concentrated mainly in the
North-East, Western Ghats, North-West Himalaya and the Andaman and
Nicobar islands.

Dr. Abdul Hameed, Dept. of Botany, GAC, KGI 5

 M.Sc. Botany Class Notes –
Plant Resources and Utilization

Of the 49,219 plant species, 5150 are endemic and distributed into 141 genera
under 47 families corresponding to about 30% of the world's recorded flora,
which means 30% of the world's recorded flora are endemic to India.

Of these endemic species, 3,500 are found in the Himalayas and adjoining
regions and 1600 in the Western Ghats alone.

India is considered to be the centre of origin of 30,000 - 50,000 varieties of rice,

pigeon-pea, mango, turmeric, ginger, sugarcane, gooseberries, etc and ranks
seventh in terms of contribution to world agriculture.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

4. THE CONCEPT OF IDENTIFYING PLANT INTRODUCTION

CENTRES OF DIVERSITY AND ENDEMISM:

“Endemism is the ecological condition of a plant species being unique to a

defined geographic location”.

In simple words: Some plant species are presents only in specific location is
called as Endemism.

Geographic location: such as an island, country or defined zone (Sanctuaries,

National Parks, Mangroves, Biosphere Reserve Forests, Wetlands)

or Habitat type (thorn forests, dry deciduous forests, moist deciduous forests,
dry evergreen forests and wet evergreen forests, woodlands, and grasslands
surrounding our towns and cities.

India has 26 recognised endemic centres that are home to nearly a third of all
the flowering plants identified and described to date.

The endemism of Indian biodiversity is high. About 33% of the country's

recorded flora are endemic to the country and are concentrated mainly in the
North-East, Western Ghats, North-West Himalaya and the Andaman and
Nicobar islands.

Of the 49,219 plant species, 5150 plant species are endemic and distributed into
141 genera under 47 families corresponding to about 30% of the world's
recorded flora, which means 30% of the world's recorded flora are endemic to
India.
Dr. Abdul Hameed, Dept. of Botany, GAC, KGI 6
 M.Sc. Botany Class Notes –
Plant Resources and Utilization

Of these endemic species, 3,500 are found in the Himalayas and adjoining
regions and 1600 in the Western Ghats alone.

The extreme opposite of endemism is cosmopolitan distribution.

A native species, such as a native plant, is one that is considered to have been
endemic for a relatively long period of time.

The idea of seeking out high concentrations of diversity among plants, animals
or both has a long history in biogeography in one form or another.

Attention has frequently been paid to the floristic or faunistic richness of

certain areas, such as the tropics of Asia, Africa and the Americas, the
Mediterranean climatic regions, and the concentrations of species on islands,
such as Madagascar and Indonesia.

Particular significance has been given to the large numbers of species that are
endemic to such areas.

More recently, the concept of sites or centres of high diversity has attracted the
attention of conservationists, both as a tool for helping determine which areas
should receive priority attention, and also as a challenge as to how to
undertake the conservation action necessary.

Such efforts to seek out areas of high priority for conservation increased
urgency of the losses throughout the world of natural habitats and the
biodiversity they contain, as a result of human action and the growth of the
world's population.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

5. PLANT INTRODUCTION:

Plants are essential to the balance of nature and in people’s lives.

Green plants, i.e., those possessing chlorophyll, manufacture their own food
and give off oxygen in the process called photosynthesis, in which water and
carbon dioxide are combined by the energy of light.

Dr. Abdul Hameed, Dept. of Botany, GAC, KGI 7

 M.Sc. Botany Class Notes –
Plant Resources and Utilization

Plants are the ultimate source of food and metabolic energy for nearly all
animals, which cannot manufacture their own food.

Besides foods (e.g., grains, fruits, and vegetables), plant products vital to
humans include wood and wood products, fibres, drugs, oils, latex, pigments,
and resins.

Coal and petroleum are fossil substances of plant origin. Thus plants provide
people not only food but shelter, clothing, medicines, fuels, and the raw
materials from which innumerable other products are made.

Plant, any organism of the plant kingdom, as opposed to one of the animal
kingdom or of the kingdoms Fungi, in the five-kingdom system of
classification.

A plant may be microscopic in size and simple in structure, as are certain one-
celled algae, or a gigantic, many celled complex system, such as a tree.

Plants are generally distinguished from animals in that they possess

chlorophyll, are usually fixed in one place, have no nervous system or sensory
organs and hence respond slowly to stimuli, and have strong supporting cell
walls containing cellulose.

In addition, plants grow continually throughout life and have no maximum

size or characteristic form in the adult, as do animals. Plants also differ from
animals in the internal structure of the cell and in certain details of
reproduction.

In higher plants the meristem tissues in the root and stem tips, in the buds, and
in the cambium are areas of active growth.

There are exceptions to these basic differences: some unicellular plants (e.g.,
Euglena) and plant reproductive cells are motile; certain plants (e.g., Mimosa
pudica, the sensitive plant) respond quickly to stimuli; and some lower plants
do not have cellulose cell walls.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Dr. Abdul Hameed, Dept. of Botany, GAC, KGI 8

 M.Sc. Botany Class Notes –
Plant Resources and Utilization

6. THE PLANT KINGDOM:

The systems of classification of the plant kingdom vary in naming and placing
the larger categories (even the divisions) because there is little reliable fossil
evidence, as there is in the case of animals, to establish the true evolutionary
relationships of and distances between these groups.

However, comparisons of DNA sequences in plants are now serving to clarify

such relationships among plants as well as other organisms.

The plant kingdom traditionally was divided into two large groups, or sub-
kingdoms, based chiefly on reproductive structure.

These are the thallophytes, which do not form embryos, and the embryophytes,
which do. All embryophytes and most thallophytes have a life cycle in which
there are two alternating generations.

The plant form of the thallophytes is an undifferentiated thallus lacking true

roots, stems, and leaves.

The vascular plants have true roots, stems, and leaves and a well-developed
vascular system composed of xylem and phloem for transporting water and
food throughout the plant; they are therefore able to inhabit land.

The remaining divisions include the dominant vegetation of the earth today:
the ferns, the cone-bearing gymnosperms, and the angiosperms or true
flowering plants.

The two classes (gymnosperms and angiosperms), because they both bear
seeds, are often collectively called spermatophytes, or seed plants.

The gymnosperms are all woody perennial plants and include several orders,
of which most important are the conifer, the ginkgo, and the cycad.

The angiosperms are separated into the monocotyledonous plants - usually

with one cotyledon per seed, scattered vascular bundles in the stem, little or no
cambium, and parallel veins in the leaf.

Dr. Abdul Hameed, Dept. of Botany, GAC, KGI 9

 M.Sc. Botany Class Notes –
Plant Resources and Utilization

And the dicotyledonous plants—which as a rule have two cotyledons per seed,
cylindrical vascular bundles in a regular pattern, a cambium, and net veined
leaves.

There are some 50,000 species of monocotyledon, including the grasses (e.g.,
bamboo, cereals as corn, rice, and wheat), lilies, bananas, and orchids.
The dicotyledons contain nearly 2 lakhs species of plant, from tiny herbs to
great trees; this enormously varied group includes the majority of plants
cultivated as ornamentals and for vegetables and fruit.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

7. ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF PLANTS AND PLANT

COMMUNITIES:

Plants and plant communities (places where a variety of plants live together)
are very important to humans and their environment. Here are some of the
important things plants provide.

Aesthetics (for beauty): Plants have great “aesthetic” value which means they
add to the beauty of the places that we live. How many of us would be want to
live without the plants around us, including the forests, woodlands, and
grasslands surrounding our towns and cities? Native grasses and wildflowers
provide use with a link to our history.

Medicine: Throughout history plants have been of great importance to

medicine. 80% of all medicinal drugs originate in wild plants. In fact, 25% of all
prescriptions written annually in the India contain chemicals from plants.

In spite of all the medical advances, only 2% of the world's plant species have
ever been tested for their medical potential. That means there are many
important drugs yet to be discovered.

Food: Although some 3,000 species of plants have been used as food by
humans, 90% of the world's food comes from only 20 plant species. Three
species of grasses—rice, wheat, and corn—are the most important food plants.

Industrial Products: Plants are also very important for the goods they provide.
Fibres from plants provide clothing. Wood used to build our homes depends

Dr. Abdul Hameed, Dept. of Botany, GAC, KGI 10

 M.Sc. Botany Class Notes –
Plant Resources and Utilization

on plants. Some fuel products are made from plants, like ethanol made from
sugar-cane, corn, and soy diesel made from soybeans.

Recreation (Entertainment): Plant communities form the basis for many

important recreational activities, including hiking (long walk), fishing, hunting,
and nature observation.

Air Quality: The oxygen in the air we breathe comes from the photosynthesis
of plants. The quality of the air can be greatly influenced by plants. Plants can
stop the movement of dust and pollutants. Through the intake of carbon
dioxide, plants can also reduce the greenhouse effect caused from the burning
of fossil fuels like coal, petrol and diesel.

Water Quality: Plants are extremely important to the quality of the water we
use. A different cover (protection) of plants aids in maintaining healthy
watersheds, streams, and lakes by holding soil in place, controlling stream
flows, Erosion control and filtering sediments from water.

Climate: Regional climates are impacted by the amount and type of plant cover
(protection). For example forest and marshes, can cool local climates. Natural
disasters, such as drought, have been blamed on the destruction of forests and
other critically important plant communities.

Fish and Wildlife Habitat: Plants and plant communities provide the
necessary habitat (a place to live) for wildlife and fish populations.

Ecosystem: “The word ‘Ecosystem’ means the way in which humans, plants
and animals all are live together supporting each other”. Every species serves
an important role or purpose in their community.

“Plants are extremely important in the lives of people throughout the world”.
People depend upon plants to satisfy such basic human needs as food, clothing,
shelter, and health care. These needs are growing rapidly because of a growing
world population, increasing incomes, and urbanization (in tamil
Nagaramayamakkaml).

Plants provide food directly, of course, and also feed farm animals. In addition,
plants provide the raw materials for many types of pharmaceuticals.

Dr. Abdul Hameed, Dept. of Botany, GAC, KGI 11

 M.Sc. Botany Class Notes –
Plant Resources and Utilization

The fibre industry depends heavily on the products of cotton, and the lumber
(furniture waster material) products industry needs on wood from a wide
variety of trees and wood fuel is used primarily in rural areas).

Approximately 2.5 billion people in the world still dependent on farming to

satisfy their basic needs, while the rest are joined into increasingly provide
food, fibre and fuel. The capability of plants to satisfy these growing needs is
not a new concern.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the world population was about 6 billion
in 2000, world population is expected to be 9 billion by the year 2050 and the
challenge to satisfy human needs and wants still exists.

As income grows, plants become more valuable because people want to buy
more and higher- quality products to satisfy basic needs.

Increasing urbanization leads to an increase in demand for services as

populations relocate from rural areas to urban areas.

This urbanization demands more services to large quantities of foods from

production centers to consumption(use) centers.

Value of Plants:

According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, the
estimated export value of major plant commodities (pala sarakku porutkal)
traded in world markets is ever increasing day by day.

Markets, a place where people buy and sell goods and services, determine the
economic value of plants. The value depends on the expected uses and benefits
provided.

The economic value of plants is measured by their prices in a market economy.

Demand and supply determine the price.

World Trade Organization (WTO) - through trade agreements such as those

that come from the, the value of plants will likely become more equal among
countries.

Dr. Abdul Hameed, Dept. of Botany, GAC, KGI 12

 M.Sc. Botany Class Notes –
Plant Resources and Utilization

8. USEFUL ASPECTS OF ALGAE:

Algae constitute an important group of plants. They are important to man and
his plants and animals.

Their economic importance is manyfold. They are used as food, fodder and
manure. They are of importance in the fields of industry and agriculture.

1. Algae as Food: Many fresh water and marine algae have been utilized as a
direct source of food by people of different parts of the world.

Algae are rich in proteins, carbohydrates, oils, vitamins A,B,C and E and
minerals.

The algae possess minerals like Cu, Fe, Zn, I, Co, V, Mn, Br and Cr.

Chlorella vulgaris play an important role in the formation of gold deposits in

sediments laid down by rivers.

About 20 different sea weeds are used as a source of food. The commonly used
edible algae: Nostoc, Microcystis, Spirulina (Single cell protein), Chlorella (Single
cell protein), Spirogyra, Caulerpa, Ulva, Oedogonium, Laminaria, Sargassum,
Porphyra and Chondrus.

2. Algae as fodder: Many sea-weeds are directly used as feed for cattle, poultry
and aquatic organisms. Sargassum is used as cattle feed.

Laminaria and Fucus are also used as feed for increases the egg-laying capacity
of hen and some birds and the resulting eggs contain high level of iodine and
carotenes.

3. Algae in Agriculture: In agriculture algae are used as green manure,

nitrogen fixers and as agents for correcting the pH of the soil.

3.1. Algae as Green manure: Sargassum, Laminaria, Macrocystis and Gracilaria

are used as green manures in agriculture.

Sea weed manure increases the yield of barley, potato, coconut, palms, etc.

Dr. Abdul Hameed, Dept. of Botany, GAC, KGI 13

 M.Sc. Botany Class Notes –
Plant Resources and Utilization

3.2. Algae as Nitrogen Fixers (Biofertiliaers): Many blue-green algae have the
ability to fix the atmospheric nitrogen in the soil. The important blue green
algae used as biofertilizers are Nostoc, Anabaena, Tolypothrix, Oscillatoria and
Spirulina.

3.3. Algae used for Reclamation of soils: Saline and alkaline soils can be
converted into productive ones by growing some blue-green algae on the soil.
Nostoc, Anabaena, Rivularia, Spirulina are used for the reclamation of alkaline
soils.

4. Algae in Industries: In industries many algae have been used as sources for
the extraction of commercial products such as agar-agar, carrageenin, algin and
diatomite.

4.1. Agar-agar: Agar-agar is a gelatinous, polysaccharide obtained from some

red-algae such as Gelidium, Gracilaria and Gigartina. The algae which yield agar-
agar are called agarophytes.

Agar - agar is used in many ways. a. Agar-agar is an inert material. So it is used

for making artificial culture media for algae, fungi, bacteria and plant tissues in
biological laboratories.

b. It is used as emulsifier in the preparation of ice-creams, fruit jellies and dairy

products.

c. It is used as sizing agent in leather and textile industries.

d. It is used in paper making.

e. It is used in the manufacture of shaving creams, cosmetics and shoe polishes.

4.2. Algin: Alginic acid is extracted from algae such as Fucus, Laminaria,
Macrocystis and Ascophyllum. The salts of alginic acid are called alginates.
Alginic acid and alginates are collectively called algin.

Alginic acid is used in making antibiotic capsules like aureomycin. It is used as

painting pastes in textile industry. It is used as thickeners in cosmetics,
pharmaceutical products, paints and polishes.

Dr. Abdul Hameed, Dept. of Botany, GAC, KGI 14

 M.Sc. Botany Class Notes –
Plant Resources and Utilization

Alginates are used as emulsifiers in tooth paste, ice-creams, etc. They are also
used in the production of plastics, rubber and artificial fibres.

4.3. Carrageenin: Carrageenin is a mucilaginous substance extracted from red

alga Chondrus crispus and Gigartina. It is used in food industry, textiles,
pharmaceutical industry and leather industry. It is a remedy for cough. It is
also used in making toothpastes and paints.

4.4. Diatomite: Diatomite is a rock-like deposit formed by the deposition of

siliceous cell walls of diatoms over millions of years back.

It is also known as diatomaceous earth, it is porus and light in weight. Some of

the uses of diatomaceous earth are;

i. Diatomite is used as filtering medium for oils and solvents.

ii. It is used as cleaning agent for some solvents.
iii. It catalyses dehydrogenation of vegetable oils.
iv. It is used in the insulation of refrigerators, boilers, pipes, etc.
v. It is employed in wine making and paper making.
vi. It increases cementing action of cements.
vii. It is also used in the manufacture of tooth powder, bleaching powder,
dinamite, paints, lipsticks and so on.

5. Algae in Sewage disposal: Sewage water contains various kinds of organic

and inorganic substances and low in oxygen content.

Being rich in salts, sewage use for irrigational and agricultural practices. But,
before it is used for irrigation, it should be treated check the foul smell and the
organic and inorganic subtances should be converted into useful nutrients for
plants.

Algae like Chlorella, Chlamydomonas, Euglena, Oscillatoria etc, are used for
breaking the organic substances. These algae release oxygen during
photosynthesis, which is utilised by aerobic bacteria during the decomposition
of organic substances present in the sewage. As a result, the sewage becomes
suitable for agricultural use.

6. Algae and Research: Some algae are extensively used in solving some
scientific problems. The effects of pesticides, herbicides, heavy metals and
Dr. Abdul Hameed, Dept. of Botany, GAC, KGI 15
 M.Sc. Botany Class Notes –
Plant Resources and Utilization

ultraviolet rays can be studied by culturing algae in the laboratory. Some useful
algae are Chlorella, Nostoc, Scenedesmus, Anabaena, Gloeocapsa, etc.

7. Algae producing growth hormones: Growth hormones like indole acctic

acid (IAA) is extracted from algae like Laminaria, Fucus, etc.

8. Algae as antibodies and in medicines: Chlorella, Cladophora, Lyngbya,

Polysiphonia, Laminaria and Halidrys synthesize antibiotic substances. Chlorellin
the first antibiotic obtained from Chlorella. Extract of Ascophyllum nodosum is
effective against gram positive and gram negative bacteria.

9. Algae as a source of renewable energy: Scenedesmus, Chlamydomonas,

Dunaliella, Porphridium and Oscillatoria posses enzyme hydrogenase which can
be employed for the production of hydrogen from water. Anabaena -
nitrogenase enzyme is the chief hydrogen producing enzyme. Hydrocarbon
produced by Botryococcus braunii may also serve as liquid or gaseous fuels.

10. Algae as Pollution Indicators: Some algae grow well in polluted water.
Such species are more tolerant towards the pollutants. Since these algae
indicate the presense of pollutants in water, they are known as pollution
indicators.
i. Indicators of copper wastes - Sceniedesmus obliquus, Calothrix braunii.
ii. Indicators of paper mill wastes – Ulothrix.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

9. USEFUL ASPECTS OF LICHENS:

Lichens are composite plants formed by the association of algal and fungal
components, living together in an intimate symbiotic relationship.

The branch of Botany that deals with the study of lichens in called Lichenology.

Lichens have 400 genera and 2600 species. They grow on the barks of trees, dry
logs of wood, and bare rocks. Common examples of lichens are Usnea, Cladonia,
Parmelia.

Lichens are wonderful gift on nature. They are the source of food, medicines,
flavours, and stains.

Dr. Abdul Hameed, Dept. of Botany, GAC, KGI 16

 M.Sc. Botany Class Notes –
Plant Resources and Utilization

1. Lichens are used as food. The ‘Bread of Heaven' or the manna of the
Israelites is the lichen named Lecanora esculenia. The lichen Cetraria or iceland
moss is used as food. Cladonia, the Reindeer moss serve as food for reindeer.

2. Rosella is a kind of lichen, which yields a dye called litmus. It is used in the
preparation of litmus paper, which is used as an acid-base indicator to find out
the pH in the chemical laboratory.

3. Lichens are used as medicines. Usnic acid, obtained from Usnea is used to
stop bleeding. Cladonia, Parmelia - lichens have medicinal value.

4. Lichens are pioneer plants which help in colonisation of bare rocks. They
excrete organic acids which disintegrate the rocks forming the soil.

5. Lichens are important constituents of culture media used for the culture of
fungi and bacteria in laboratories.

6. Lichens are used in the manufacture of soaps and perfumes (Evernia).

7. Some lichens are used as tanning agent in leather industries (Cetraria).

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
10. USEFUL ASPECTS OF FUNGI:

Fungi play a significant role in our daily life. They are our greatest friends as
well as enemy.

Fungi are beneficial to us in many ways. They provide food, medicines and
several other useful products.

1. Fungi as food: Some fungi are used as food of man. Several mushrooms and
morels are used as food. Mushrooms contain protein (2 l - 3 0%). They are also
rich in vitamins, carbohydrates, minerals and amino acids. Agaricus campestris
is an edible mushroom cultivated all over the world.

Yeast is an important source of vitamin B and D. Single cell protein (SCP), is

obtained from Yeast, Penicillium and Neurospora.

A popular food 'sufu' is"produced from species of Mucor

Dr. Abdul Hameed, Dept. of Botany, GAC, KGI 17

 M.Sc. Botany Class Notes –
Plant Resources and Utilization

2. Fungi as medicine: Several fungi are used in the production of medicines.

(i). Ergot: It is prepared from the fungus Claviceps purpurea. It contains alkaloids
which are used to induce uterine contraction and to check haemorrhages.

(ii). Antibiotics: Some fungi are used in the manufacture of antibiotics. The
'wonder drug' Penicillin is obtained from Penicillium notatum by Alexander
Fleming in 1944. It is used in bacterial diseases such as pneumonia, tonsillitis,
etc.

(iii). Ephedrine: It is synthesized from benzaldehyde by action of yeast and it is

used in the treatment of asthma.

(iv). Steroids: Many fungi have the capacity of synthesis steroids. It is prepared
by fermentation of plant glycosides by Rhizopus nigricans and Aspergillus niger:
Steroids against rheumatoid arthritis;

(v). Vitamins: Yeasts are good source of Vitamin – B complex. Ergosterol - a

precursor or vitamin D is synthesized some molds and yeasts.

Many edible mushrooms have the ability to lower blood cholesterol.

3. Fungi in production of Organic Acids:

(i) Citric acid is produced by fermenting sucrose and by Aspergillus niger.

(ii) Fumaric acid is obtained by fermentation of sugars Rhizopus stolonifer.

(iii) Rojic acid is produced by fermentation of sugars by Aspergillus oryzae.

4. Industry: (i). In Brewery: Alcoholic fermentation with the help of fungi is the
basis of brewing industries. Wine is produced by fermenting rice with
Aspergillus oryzae.Yeast is used in the production of beer.

(ii). In Baking industry: Fermentation of carbohydrates Saccharomyces cerevisiae

produces ethyl alcohol and CO2.

(iii). In Cheese industry: Some species of Penicillium for cheese production.

Dr. Abdul Hameed, Dept. of Botany, GAC, KGI 18

 M.Sc. Botany Class Notes –
Plant Resources and Utilization

5. Production of Enzymes: a. Zymase: the enzyme zymase is obtained from

yeast. Amylase: Aspergillus niger is used in the production of amylase enzyme.

6. In Agriculture: They act as scavengers and decompose complex organic

substances into simpler ones. In this way they increase fertikity of the soil.

Fungi play an important role in biological control of diseases. For example, the
fungus Trichoderma is used to control blight of tomato.

Growth hormons like gibberellin is produced by Gibberella.

Mycorrhiza: A symbiotic relationship between fungal hypae and roots of

higher plants is known as mycorrhiza. The fungal partner supplies mineral
elements to the other plant.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

11. CEREALS & MILLETS:

The cereals are the most important source of plant food for man. They
constitute the most important group in the food plants of India.

The cereals are the members of family Gramineae (Poaceae), the term ‘grain’ is
applied to this type of fruit.

There are six true cereals; Rice, Wheat, Maize, Barley, Oats and Rye, of this
wheat and maize, are most important, and they if have played an important
part in the development of civilization.

Sometimes the millets and sorghums are erroneously referred to as cereals.

Cereals contain a high percentage of carbohydrates, together with a
considerable amount of proteins and some fats. Even vitamins are present.

Rice - Oryza sativa Linn; English – Rice (Paddy) : Family: Gramineae

(Poaceae).

History. The earliest mention of rice cultivation is connected with China.

According to Stanislas Julien, a ceremony was established in that country about
2800 B.C., by the Emperor Chin-nung, in which the sowing of five kinds of
grain is the chief observance.

Dr. Abdul Hameed, Dept. of Botany, GAC, KGI 19

 M.Sc. Botany Class Notes –
Plant Resources and Utilization

However De Candolle, confirms that rice cultivation in India, though

subsequent to that of China, in point of date of first record, has been a valued
crop since classic periods.

One of its Sanskrit names Dhanya means the supporter or nourisher of

mankind. By the Hindus it is regarded as the emblem of wealth or fortune.

Paddy plant occurs mainly in Tamil Nadu, Orissa, Bengal and Kerala. The
Chief wild habitat of the plant is from south India.

The cultivation of rice appears to have spread from there eastward to China,
perhaps 3,000 years before the Christian era, and at perhaps a slightly more
recent date, westward and northward, throughout India to Persia and Arabia,
and ultimately to Egypt and Europe.

It can be said that the Chinese were the first to cultivate rice (approximately
4000 B.C.).

It is believed that the cultivation of rice in India dates back to ancient periods
even earlier than 3000 B.C. (Parthasarathy, 1954). The cultivation of rice was
introduced into India before the time of Greeks, and then reached Syria and
Northern Africa.

India has the largest area, 79 million acres in the world under rice cultivation,
and production is about 28 million tons per year. India and Indo-China are
supposed to be the centres of origin of rice.

Of all the principal crops grown in the country, rice has the largest area under
it, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Maharashtra,Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu,
Orissa, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal are the main producing states; together
they account for more than 90% of the total acreage under the crop.

Cultivation - The rice grows best on damp soils underlaid with a semi-
impervious subsoil in places where it can be flooded. A considerable interest
has been aroused in India during last two decades in the Japanese method of
rice cultivation.

This combines improved cultural practices with proper manuring and plant
protection measures. The increased acre yields obtained by this method have
naturally led to its popularity.
Dr. Abdul Hameed, Dept. of Botany, GAC, KGI 20
 M.Sc. Botany Class Notes –
Plant Resources and Utilization

With this aim in view, there has been started an intensive hybridization
programme between the japonica and indica varieties of rice. The japonica
varieties are high yielding, while the indica varieties have a better tillering
capacity and are resistant to disease and adverse climatic conditions.

The resulting grain is very nutritious for it contains protein and fat as well as
starch.

In the commercial preparation the impurities are removed and the paddy is
passed between millstones to break up the husk. Now the grain is pounded in
huge mortars and a portion of the bran layer and embryo is removed.

The waste is called rice bran. The white rice is then scoured by friction and
polished. In polishing the embryo which contains proteins, vitamin and oils is
knocked out due to lack of strong link between the embryo and the endosperm.

During this process the outer, more nutritive parts of the grain are removed.

Use – The chief use of rise is as food, the rice is generally eaten with pulses
(legumes) or some other food rich in proteins.

A diet of rice and soybeans makes the food of millions.

The rice straw is used for making straw boards, paper and mats.

Rice bran oil is used for making soaps and cosmetics.

Rice starch is much used in European, important beverage of Japan, Sake is

prepared by fermenting rice.

In India also in some parts of Orissa and Andhra Pradesh intoxicating (Alcohol
drinks) beverages are prepared from rice.

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
12. PULSES (Legumes):

Legumes are next in importance to cereals as sources of human food. They

contain more protein material than any other vegetable product, and so are
nearer to animal meat in food value.

Dr. Abdul Hameed, Dept. of Botany, GAC, KGI 21

 M.Sc. Botany Class Notes –
Plant Resources and Utilization

Carbohydrates and fats are also present. The proteins occur as small granules
in the same cells with the starch grains.

The high protein content is correlated with the presence, on the roots of many
legumes, of tubercles that contain nitrogen fixing bacteria.

These bacteria are able to utilise free atmospheric nitrogen and convert it into
nitrates, thus augmenting the supply of nitrogenous material available for the
plants.

The legumes or pulses all belong to the great family Leguminosae, which is
characterized by having a special kind of fruit, a legume, which is a pod that
opens along two sutures when the seeds are ripe.

Nearly 11,000 species of legumes are known, and many are of importance as
industrial, medicinal, or food plants.

They have been cultivated and used for food for centuries all over the world.

The seeds are of greatest importance; Legumes are easily grown, mature
rapidly, and highly nutritious.

They are not only rich in proteins but also in minerals and vitamin B. They are
an absolute necessity in countries where little meat is eaten.

They constituted a great part of the food of the poorer classes in Europe.
Legumes a high energy content and are particularly well adapted for use in
weather or where physical work is involved.

The immature also serve as a food. Owing to the fact that not only the seeds but
all other parts of the plants are rich in protein, legumes are very valuable as
field and forage crops.

They are an excellent fertiliser and greatly the nitrogenous content of the soil.

The Soybeans (Glycine Max) is a small, bushy, erect or prostrate annual plant.

It is a much better crop, the soybean is one of the oldest crops grown by man.

Dr. Abdul Hameed, Dept. of Botany, GAC, KGI 22

 M.Sc. Botany Class Notes –
Plant Resources and Utilization

It was cultivated in China centuries before the first written records in 2838 b.c.

It is a native of Southeastern Asia, where over 1000 varieties are grown.

It is the most important legume in the Far East, where soybeans, fresh,
fermented, or dried, are used everywhere in the daily diet of the people to
supplement rice.

The seed is the richest natural vegetable food known. Soybean sauce, made
from cooked beans is widely used.

The flour, with a low carbohydrate and high protein content, is an excellent
food for diabetics.

Soybean milk, extracted from the seed, is used in cooking and is recommended
for small babies.

Soybean sprouts (mulaiththa vithaikal) are a favorite food.

It is an important aid to agriculture, a valuable commercial crop, a good feed

for livestock, and the source of numerous raw materials for use in industry.

Soybean oil, an important drying oil, soybean protein is extensively used to

produce the foam liquid used for extinguishing oil fires and as the source of a
synthetic fiber, similar to the casein fibers.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

13. VEGETABLES:

In a technical sense all plants are vegetables. The term, however, is usually
applied to edible plants which store up reserve food in roots, stems, leaves, and
fruits and which are eaten cooked, or raw as salad plants.

Vegetables constitute a large and varied group of considerable importance in

the world’s commerce.

The food value of vegetables is comparatively low, owing to the large amount
of water present (70 to 95 per cent). Even so, they rank next to cereals as
sources of carbohydrate food.
Dr. Abdul Hameed, Dept. of Botany, GAC, KGI 23
 M.Sc. Botany Class Notes –
Plant Resources and Utilization

This is usually present in the form of starch, although occasionally sugar,

pectins, or other substances may occur.

Proteins, save in legumes, are rarely available, and fats are stored only in very
slight amounts.

However, by the presence of the indispensable mineral salts and vitamins.

For convenience the vegetables may be classified as earth vegetables, herbage

vegetables, and fruit vegetables.

EARTH VEGETABLES: The earth vegetables include all forms in which food
is stored in underground parts (Potato).

The storage organs may be some different morphologically. Some are true
roots, while others represent modified stems, such as rootstalks, tubers, corms,
and bulbs.

All these structures are especially well adapted to storage because of their
protected position.

Many wild, as well as cultivated, species have fleshy underground parts, and
these have played a role in the development of civilization and agriculture
second only to the cereals and legumes.

From earliest time roots and tubers have furnished food for man and animals.

Even though the amount of stored material is less than that in dry fruits and
seeds, these are extremely valuable since they are readily digested and have a
high energy content.

One objection to them is the high water content, which not only reduces the
amount of available food material but impairs their keeping qualities as well.

Their bulk, too, makes it impossible to transport and store them as efficiently as
cereals, legumes, or nuts.

Dr. Abdul Hameed, Dept. of Botany, GAC, KGI 24

 M.Sc. Botany Class Notes –
Plant Resources and Utilization

Root crops, as these earth vegetables are often called, are an important phase of
agriculture all over the world.

In most countries they are grown fully as much for stock feed as for human
consumption.

The various earth vegetables will be grouped according to their morphological

origin. Of the many hundreds that are used for food throughout the world,
only the most important can be considered.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

14. FIBRES AND FIBRE PLANTS - COTTON:

Fruit Fibres - Cotton is one of the fruit fibres have commercial importance.

Cotton is the most widely used for our fibre needs. Cotton fibres are unicellular
hairs (trichomes) that emerge from the seed coat after fertilization.

Cotton fibres exhibit two forms: The long “lint” fibres that are twisted into
thread and woven into fabrics, and short “fuzz” fibres that are used for paper
production.

Single-celled lint fibres grow rapidly and expand approximately 2,500-fold

(from 0.020 to 50 millimeters) during maturation.

Cultivated for over four thousand years, cotton fibre has historically been
obtained from two diploid species (G. arboreum, G. herbaceum) native to Africa
and Asia, and two tetraploid species (G. barbadense, G. hirsutum) native to the
Americas.

Presently, the tetraploid species account for nearly all of the worldwide
production of cotton fibre.

Plants yielding fibres have been second only to food plants in their usefulness
to humans and their influence on the furthering of civilization.

Primitive humans in their attempts to obtain the three most important

necessities for life: food, shelter and clothing, focused on plants. Even though

Dr. Abdul Hameed, Dept. of Botany, GAC, KGI 25

 M.Sc. Botany Class Notes –
Plant Resources and Utilization

animal products were available, some form of clothing was needed that was
lighter and cooler than skins and hides.

Very early on plant fibres have had a more extensive use than silk, wool and
other animal fibres.

Gradually as humans needs multiplied, the use of vegetable fibres increased

greatly until presently they continue to be of great importance even after the
onset of plastics.

Textile Fibres: These fibres must be long and possess a high tensile strength
and cohesiveness with pliability(bend) . They must have a fine, uniform and
must be durable and abundantly available.

Cotton is one of the greatest of all industrial crops. It is the principal fibre plant
as well as one of the oldest and most economical.

There are references to cotton by the ancient Greeks and Romans. Cotton was
found in India before 1,800 B.C. The Hindus were believed to be one of the first
people to weave cloth in the Eastern Hemisphere.

Although reference to Cotton was introduced to Europe by the Arabs who

called the plant “qutn".

Cotton Characteristics: Several species of the genus Gossypium provide what

we call cotton. The fine fibrous hairs that occur on the seeds constitute the raw
material.

These hairs are flattened, twisted and tubular. Their length and other qualities
vary with the different varieties.

The plant is a perennial shrub or small tree naturally, but under cultivation it is
treated as an annual. It branches freely and grows to a height of 4 - 8 ft.

Cotton grows in sandy soil in humid regions that are near water. This
environment is typified in the river valleys of India and Egypt.

Cotton matures in 5 - 6 months and is ready to harvest soon after.

Dr. Abdul Hameed, Dept. of Botany, GAC, KGI 26

 M.Sc. Botany Class Notes –
Plant Resources and Utilization

Kinds of Cotton: Hundreds of varieties have been developed from wild

ancestors or produced by breeding during the long period of cultivation.
Varieties differ in fibre character as well as other morphological features.

Cultivated cottons of commercial importance are usually referred to one or

another of four species: Gossypium barbadense and G. hirsutum in the Western
Hemisphere and G. arboreum and G. herbaceum in the Eastern Hemisphere.

Gossypium barbadense Probably originated in tropical South America. The flowers

are bright yellow with purple spots. The fruit or boll has three valves, and the
seeds are fuzzy only at the ends.

Two distinct types exist: Sea—Island Cotton: This type has never been found
in the wild as it was already being cultivated at the time of Columbus.

It has fine, strong and light cream-colored fibres that are regular in the number
and uniformity of the twists and they have a silky appearance.

These characteristics are valuable and sea-island cotton was formerly in great
demand for the finest textiles, yarns, and lace and spool cotton.

Egyptian Cotton: This cotton is grown in the Nile basin of Egypt where it was
introduced from Central America. Its length, strength, and firmness make this
cotton suitable for thread, undergarments and fine dress goods.

Egyptian cotton was brought to the United States in 1902 as an experimental

crop and 10 years later it was recommended to farmers in the semiarid regions
that were under irrigation.
Gossypium hirsutum is a native American species that was grown by Pre-
Columbian civilizations. It is usually called Upland Cotton and is the easiest
and most economical kind of cotton to grow.

It constitutes the greater part of the cultivated cotton of the world. The flowers
are white or light yellow and unspotted. The bolls are four- or five-valved, and
the seeds are covered with fuzz.

There are over 1210 named varieties, many of which were developed through
breeding experiments.

Dr. Abdul Hameed, Dept. of Botany, GAC, KGI 27

 M.Sc. Botany Class Notes –
Plant Resources and Utilization

Gossypium arboreum is the perennial tree cotton of Africa, India and Arabia. It
was most likely the first to be used commercially, but production is now
confined to India.

Gossypium herbaceum is the principal cotton of Asia. It was grown in Indian in

ancient times and continues to be used locally there and in Iran, China and
Japan.

Its chief use is for fabrics, carpets and blankets and is often blended with wool.

Cotton Uses: Cotton used to be an expensive material because it was difficult

to remove the fibres from the seed.

Cotton is used either by itself or in combination with other fibres in the

manufacture of all types of textiles.

Loose cotton is extensively used for stuffing purposes. Treating the fibres with
caustic soda, which imparts a high luster and silky appearance, makes
Mercerized Cotton.

Absorbent Cotton - consists of fibres that have been cleaned and from which
the oily covering layer has been removed. It is almost pure cellulose and makes
up one of the basic raw materials of various cellulose industries.

Fibres from jute (Corchorus) have been used since biblical times, and it
remains the world's most important source of fibres, yielding twice as much
fibre as all other sources combined.

Jute has been used almost extensively as cotton even though it is much less
valuable than either cotton. It is a fibre obtained from the secondary phloem of
two species of Corchorus of Asia.

The best quality is from C. capsularis, a species with round pods that is grown
in lowland areas subject to flooding. The plant is a tall, slender, somewhat
shrubby annual with yellow flowers that grows to a height of 8-10 ft.

It requires a warm climate and a rich, loamy alluvial soil. Fibre from C. olitorius,
and upland species with long pods, is somewhat inferior but the two are not
separated in commerce.
Dr. Abdul Hameed, Dept. of Botany, GAC, KGI 28
 M.Sc. Botany Class Notes –
Plant Resources and Utilization

Harvest occurs within 3-4 months after planting and while the flowers are still
in full bloom.

The pale-yellow fibres are very long, from 6-10 ft. in length, and they are very
stiff being highly lignified. They have a silky luster.

Jute has been used mainly for rough weaving into bags, gunnysacks and covers
for cotton bales.

The fibre is also used for twine, carpets, curtains and coarse cloth. Short fibres
and pieces from the lower ends of the stalks make up jute butts that have been
used in paper manufacture.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

15. THE MEDICINAL PLANTS - PHARMACOGNOSY

1. Introduction: The ecosystems of southern peninsular India including the

southern Western Ghats contain more than 6000 species of higher plants
including an estimated 2000 endemic species.

Of these, 2500 species representing over 1000 genera and 250 families have
been used in Indian systems of medicine.

Medicinal plants which constitute a segment of the flora provide raw material
for use in all the indigenous systems of medicine in India namely Ayurveda,
Unani, Siddha and Tibetan Medicine.

According to the World Health Organisation (WHO), 80% of the population in

developing countries relies on traditional medicine, mostly in the form of plant
drugs for their health care needs.

Additionally, modern medicines contain plant derivatives to the extent of

about 25%.

On account of the fact that the derivatives of medicinal plants are no side
effects, the demand for these plants is on the increase in both developing and
developed countries.

Dr. Abdul Hameed, Dept. of Botany, GAC, KGI 29

 M.Sc. Botany Class Notes –
Plant Resources and Utilization

There are estimated to be around 25000 effective plant based formulations

available in Indian medicine. Over 1.5m practitioners of the Indian system of
medicine in the oral and codified streams use medicinal plants in preventive,
promotional and curative applications.

It is estimated that there are over 7800 medicinal drug manufacturing units in
India, which consume about 2000 tonnes of herbs annually.

The branch of medical science which deals with the drug yielding plants is
known as pharmacognosy. The study of the action of the drugs is known as
pharmacology.

This science is concerned with the history, commerce, collection, selection,

identification and preservation of crude drugs and raw materials.

There are several thousand drug yielding plants all over the world. Most of the
plants are known and utilized by herb (siddha) doctors and ayurvedic
vaithiyars.

Only a few drug plants are cultivated. Most of the supply of drugs is obtained
from wild plants growing in all parts of the world and, especially in tropical
regions.

The drug-yielding plants are collected and prepared in crude indigenous

(Paarambaria murai) way. The medicinal value of drug plants is due to the
presence of some chemical substances in the plant tissues which produce a
definite physiological action on the human body.

The most important chemical substances are alkaloids, carbon compounds,

hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, glucosides, essential oils, fatty oils, resins,
mucilages, tannins, gum etc. Some of these substances are powerful poisons,
and, therefore, the preparation and administering of drugs should be done by
competent (thaguthivaintha) physicians.

Dr. Abdul Hameed, Dept. of Botany, GAC, KGI 30

 M.Sc. Botany Class Notes –
Plant Resources and Utilization

2. CLASSIFICATIONS OF DRUGS:

The classification of drugs in the present text is based on the morphology of the
plant organ from which the drug is obtained. Here the drug plants have been
considered and arranged on a morphological basis. The general categories of
the drug plants are as follows:

2.1. Drugs obtained from roots.

2.2. Drugs obtained from underground stems.
2.3. Drugs obtained from bark.
2.4. Drugs obtained from stem and wood.
2.5. Drugs obtained from leaves.
2.6. Drugs obtained from flowers.
2.7. Drugs obtained from fruits.
2.8. Drugs obtained from seeds.
2.9. Drugs obtained from all parts of plant.

2.1. Drugs Obtained From Roots:

Indian Sarsaparilla (Nannaari) - Hemidesmus indicus R. Br. of family

Asclepiadaceae Eng.: Indian sarsaparilla

This is a twining shrub, commonly found in South India.

Uses: - The roots are used as substitute for sarsaparilla; they are sweet,
demulcent(disease curable), blood purifier, diuretic (urine purify) and tonic.
They are given in loss of appetite(Pasi – Pasiyinmai), dyspepsia (Vayirtru
mantham), fever, skin diseases, genito-urinary diseases (Urinary organ related),
chronic cough (Neediththa erumal), etc.

Asafoetida (Perunggayam) – Ferula asafoetida Linn. of family Umbelliferae,

Eng. Asafoetida. This is an unpleasant smelling perennial herb, commonly
grown in the Punjab and Kashmir.

Uses - The oleo-resin (Pisin) gum that exudes(kasivathu) from the root –
stock(vearthandhu) is carminative(vayitru marunthu), antispasmodic(Nadukkam
nikkum marunthu), nervine (narambu kolaaru pokkum marunthu) , stimulant
(Thunduthal), digestive, sedative (amaithippaduththum), expectorant(Kabam

Dr. Abdul Hameed, Dept. of Botany, GAC, KGI 31

 M.Sc. Botany Class Notes –
Plant Resources and Utilization

neekkum marunthu), diuretic (urine purify) and anthelmintic (Kudarpulu neekkum

marunthu).

It is prescribed in dyspepsia (Vayirtru mantham), asthma, cholera(Vanthi beathi),

cough, spasmodic disorders, etc. The fried gum is given either as a solution or
emulsion or pills.

2.2. Drugs Obtained From Underground Stem:

Turmeric - Curcuma longa Linn. of family Zingiberaceae; Eng. Turmeric

(Manjal). A herb, cultivated commonly in Maharashtra, Bengal, Tamil Nadu,
Andhra Pradesh and Orissa for its rhizomes (verthandu).

Uses—The rhizome is aromatic, stimulant (Thunduthal), antiperiodic

(aduththaduththu varuvathai thaduppathu), tonic, alterative and carminative.
It is given in diarrhoea, fevers, jaundice, liver disorders and urinary troubles.

Onion - Allium cepa Linn. of family Liliaceae: This is a bulbous biennial herb
with a peculiar smell. It is widely cultivated throughout India.

Uses: The bulb or onion is a stimulant diuretic expectorant. As a diuretic it is

eaten raw; its juice is prescribed for piles. Its decoction is given in cough;
cooked with vinegar the bulb is given in jaundice, splenic enlargement and
dyspepsia; taken with salt it is a common remedy for colic and scurvy. It is also
used in obstruction of the intestines, prolapse of the anus and as a sedative.

Ginger (Ingee) - Zingiber oflicinale Rosc. of family Zingiberaceae: This is a

perennial herb; the root stock is horizontal, tuberous and aromatic; native of
South-East Asia but now cultivated mainly in Kerala, Uttar Pradesh, West.
Bengal, Maharashtra, Himachal Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh for the rhizomes.

Uses - The rhizome is used as a stimulant, carminative and flavouring agent. It

is given in dyspepsia and flatulent colic. It is administered as an adjunct to
many tonic and stimulating remedies.

The juice of fresh rhizome, with honey is a remedy for coughs and asthma. A
paste of ginger is a local stimulant and rubefacient in headache and toothache.

Dr. Abdul Hameed, Dept. of Botany, GAC, KGI 32

 M.Sc. Botany Class Notes –
Plant Resources and Utilization

2.3. Drugs obtained from Barks:

Cinnamom (Pattai) - Cinnamomum zeylanicum Bl. of family Lauraceae. This is

native of Ceylon but grown in the Nilgiris, South Karnataka, Kerala and
Assam.

Uses — The bark is aromatic, cordial, astringent, carminative and stimulant; it

is given in diarrhoea, nausea, gastric irritation, flatulence, vomiting, spasmodic
affections of the bowels, toothache, paralysis of the tongue and labour caused
by defective uterine contractions.

The oil obtained from the stem bark is used as a carminative, antiseptic and
astringent.

2.4. Drugs Obtained From Stems And Woods

Long Needled Pine - Pinus roxburghii Sar. of family Pinaceae;

This tree is found in the Western and Eastern Himalayas.

Uses. The oleo-resin is stimulant, stomachic and diuretic. It is given in

gonorrhoea, gleet and other disorders of the genito-urinary organs. This is a
useful dressing for fowl ulcers. It is a common ingredient of medicinal plasters
and ointments.

2.5. Drugs obtained from Leaves: Adhatoda - Adhatoda vasica Nees. of family
Acanthaceae; Eng. Malabar nut;

This is a perennial shrub. An evergreen shrub about 4-8 feet in height. Leaves
elliptic, lanceolate, acuminate, dark green, pale beneath. Flowers in short dense
axillary peduncled spikes, white with pink or purple stripes.

Uses: The leaves contain the alkaloid vascine; they are a powerful expectorant
and antispasmodic; they are commonly used chest diseases.

A decoction of the leaves their powder is also given, especially for chronic
bronchitis and asthma. The leaf juice is given in diarrhoea and dysentery.

Dr. Abdul Hameed, Dept. of Botany, GAC, KGI 33

 M.Sc. Botany Class Notes –
Plant Resources and Utilization

2.6. Drugs Obtained From Flowers:

Saffron (Kunguma Poo) - Crocus sativus Linn. of family Iridaceae; This is a

herb, cultivated in Kashmir (Pampur) and Chaubattia in Uttar Pradesh.

Uses—The dried stigmas and tops of the styles make the saffron of commerce.
It contains the bitter principle picrocrocin. Saffron is mild stimulant, stomachic,
carminative, antispasmodic, nerve sedative, mild narcotic, diuretic.

2.7. Drugs Obtained From Fruits: Bael – Aegle marmelos Corr. of family
Rutaceae. This is a tree.

Uses - The fruit is of great medicinal value. The ripe fruit is aromatic,
astringent, cooling and laxative. The unripe or half-ripe fruit is astringent,
stomachic, antiscorbutic and digestive. It is best given in sub-acute or chronic
cases of diarrhoea and dysentery and in irritation of the elementary canal; it is a
useful adjunct in after treatment of bacillary dysentery.

2.8. Drugs Obtained From Seeds:

Lesser Cardamom (Elakkai) - Elettaria cardamomum Maton. of family

Zingiberaceae;

This is a herb; native of India, cultivated in Kerala, Karnataka, Maharashtra,

Assam and Tamil Nadu.

Uses—The seeds are aromatic, stimulant, stomachic, carminative, diuretic,

cooling, abortifacient, emmenagogue and antidotal; they are useful in asthma,
bronchitis, piles, diseases of the bladder, kidney, liver, uterus, rectum and
throat. They are also remedy of scabies, headache, earache and toothache.

Fenugreek (Venthayam) - Trigonella foenum-graecum Linn. of family

Papilionceae.

A herb; native of South Europe, grown mainly in Northern India.

Uses - The seeds are aromatic, diuretic, nutritive, tonic lectngogue, astringent,
emollient, carminative and aphrodisiac. The seeds are given boiled or roasted,
in dyspepsia, diarrhoea, dysentery, colic, flatulence, dropsy, rheumatism,

Dr. Abdul Hameed, Dept. of Botany, GAC, KGI 34

 M.Sc. Botany Class Notes –
Plant Resources and Utilization

chronic cough, liver and spleen enlargements. The seeds contain the alkaloid
trigonelline.

2.9. Drugs Obtained from All Parts of Plants:

Neem - Azadirachta indica A. Juss. (Syn. Melia azadiracita Einn.) of family
Meliaceae;
It is native of Burma but, grown all over India.

Uses - The leaves are carminative, expectorant, anthelmintic, antidotal, diuretic

and insecticidal.

The fresh juice of the leaves is given for intestinal worms; with honey the juice
is prescribed for jaundice and skin diseases. An infusion of the fresh leaves is a
bitter vegetable tonic and alterative, especially in chronic malarial fevers,
because of its action on the liver.

Externally the leaves are applied over skin diseases as a discutient, stimulant
and antiseptic; they are specially used for boils, chronic ulcers, eruptions of
small pox, syphilitic sores, glandular swellings, wounds etc.

The bark is also a bitter tonic, astringent, alterative, anthelmintic,

antispasmodic and stimulant. It is used in the same way as the leaves. The root
bark has the same properties as the bark of the stem.

The neem gum is a stimulant and demulcent tonic. The fermented sap that
exudes from the trunk is a refrigerant, nutrient, stomachic and alterative tonic.

The fruit is recommended for urinary diseases, piles, leprosy, intestinal worms
etc. The seeds are emetic, laxative and anthelmintic.

Seed oil is applied as an antiseptic dressing in leprosy and chronic skin

diseases.

Dr. Abdul Hameed, Dept. of Botany, GAC, KGI 35

View publication stats