Lecture notes of Engr.

Sourav Ray

Measurement of Precipitation

All the forms of precipitation are measured on the basis of vertical depth of
water that would accumulate on a level surface of precipitation remained where
it fell.

In metric system precipitation is measure in millimeters and tenths.

Any open receptacle with vertical side can be used as a gauges for measuring
rainfall. These refined receptacles with vertical side can be used as a gauges for
measuring rainfa1. Non-recording rain gauges:

Non-recording rain gauges are commonly used. They do not record the data
and collect only rain and this collected rain is then measured in a graduated
cylinder.

Depth of rain = volume of rain collected in cm3/area of aperture of gauges in

cm2

This type of gauges measures precipitation for only a specified period.

Example: Symons’ gauge: book page 20-21

2. Recording gauges:

Those which automatically record rainfall without any bottle reading. The
worker is not required to record the reading but instead mechanical
arrangements are there by which total rainfall is recorded automatically on
graph paper.

A graph of total rainfall VS time which is known as mass curve of rainfall is

plotted by the gauges.

Its three types commonly used are:

Tipping bucket gauges

Weighing type gauges

Float recording gauges

1. Tipping bucket gauges:

In TBG the collector is funneled into two compartment

buckets. When one compartment of bucket is filled with
rain water it becomes over balanced and tips such that
 Lecture notes of Engr. Sourav Ray

the other compartment takes its place beneath the funnel.

As the bucket is tipped it automatically activates an electronic circuit.

This type of gauges is not suitable for measuring snow (without heating the
collector).

2. Weighing type gauges:

It consists of a storage bin, which is weighed to record the mass. It weighs rain
or snow which falls into a bucket, set on a platform with a spring or lever
balance. The increasing weight of the bucket and its contents are recorded on a
chart. The record shows accumulation of precipitation.

Measurement of Rainfall:

We can measure Rainfall by using Raingauge. Raingauge is a cylindrical-vessel

assembly kept in the open place to collect rain.

Standard rain gauge

To set a Raingauge in any area we should look at these points:

1. The ground must be level and in the open.

2. The instrument must present a horizontal catch surface.

3. The gauge must be set as near the ground as possible to reduce wind effects.

4. But it must be sufficiently high enough to prevent splashing, flooding etc.

5. The instrument must be surrounded by a strong fence of 5.5m * 5.5 m.

6. No object should be nearer to the instrument than 30 m or twice the height

of the obstruction.

Raingauge Network

Book PP-24

World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) recommendation:

In flat regions of temperate, Mediterranean and tropical zones

Ideal – 1 station for 600-900 km2

Acceptable – 1 stations for 900-3000km2

 Lecture notes of Engr. Sourav Ray

In mountanainous region of temperate, Mediterranean and tropical zones

Ideal- 1 station for 100 – 250 km2

Acceptable – 1 stations for 25-1000km2

In arid and polar zones: 1 stations for 1500 to 10000 km2 depending on the
feasibility

Snowfall measurement:

Snowfall is often measured with regular rain gauges. Snowfall is measured by

the depth of snow using snow survey. Such survey is particularly useful in
mountains.

While installing rain gauges following points should be kept in mind.

Flatter ground

Avoid steep hill side

Avoid sloping down towards prevailing wind

Site should not be too closed to building or forested area.

All obstruction should be avoided.

Interpretation of precipitation

ADEQUACY OF RAIN GAUGE STATIONS

If there are already some rain gauge stations in a catchment, the optimal
number of stations that should exist to have an assigned percentage of error in
the estimation of mean rainfall is obtained by statistical analysis as

N=( ) ……..(2.3)

Where N= optimal number of stations, = allowable degree of error in the estimate

of the mean rainfall and = coefficient of variation of the rainfall values at the
existing m stations (in per cent). If there are m stations in the catchment each
recording rainfall values P1, P2, Pi, Pm in a known time, the coefficient of variation
is calculated as:
 Lecture notes of Engr. Sourav Ray

100 ∗
=

∑ ( )
Where, = [( ]

= Precipitation magnitude in the station

= (∑ )= mean precipitation

In calculating N from Eq. (2.3) it is usual to take = 10%. It is seen that if the
value of small, the number of rain gauge stations will be more.

According to WMO recommendations, at least 10% of the total rain gauges should
be of self-recording type.
EXAMPLE 2.1 A catchment has six rain gauge stations. In a year, the annual
rainfall is recorded by the gauges are as follows:
Station A B C D E F
Rainfall 82.6 102.9 180.3 110.3 98.8 136.7
(cm)

For a 10% error in the estimation of the mean rainfall, calculate the optimum
number of stations in the catchment.
Solution
For this data,

m=6 , =118.6, =35.04 = 10

∗ .
= =29.54
.

.
N=( ) =8.7≈9 stations

The optima] number of stations for the catchment is 9. Hence three more additional
stations are needed.
PREPARATION OF DATA

Before using the rainfall records of a station, it is necessary to first check the
data for continuity and consistency. The continuity of a record may be broken
with missing data due to many reasons such as damage or fault in a raingauge
during a period. The missing data can be estimated by using the data of the
neighboring stations. In these calculations the normal rainfall is used as a
standard of comparison. The normal rainfall is the average value of rainfall at a
particular date, month or year over a specified 30-year period. The 30-year
 Lecture notes of Engr. Sourav Ray

normals are recomputed every decade. Thus the term normal annual
precipitation at station A means the average annual precipitation at A based on
a specified 30-year* of record.

Estimation of missing data

Given the annual precipitation values, P1, P2, Pi, . . . Pm at neighboring M

stations 1 ,2, 3, ..., M respectively, it is required to find the missing annual
precipitation Px at a station X not included in the above M stations. Further,
the normal annual precipitations N1, N2, ..., Ni...at each of the above (M + 1)
stations including station X are known. If the normal annual precipitations at
various stations are within about 1 0% of the normal annual precipitation at
station X, then a simple arithmetic average procedure is followed to estimate Px
Thus

Px= [ 1 + 2+. . . + ]……….(2.4)

If the normal precipitations vary considerably, then Px is estimated by weighing

the precipitation at the various stations by the ratios of normal annual
precipitations. This method, known as the normal ratio method, gives Px as

Px= [ + +…. ]…………(2.5)

EXAMPLE 2.2 The normal annual rainfall at stations A, B, C, and D in a basin

are 80.97, 67.59, 76.28 and 92.01 cm respectively. In the year 1975, the
station D was inoperative and the stations A, B and C recorded annual
precipitations of 91.11, 72.23 and 79.89 cm respectively. Estimate the rainfall
at station D in that year.

SOLUTION: As the normal rainfall values vary more than 10%, the normal ratio
method is adopted. Using Eq. (2.5),

. . . .
= [ + + ]=99.48 cm ans.
. . .
 Lecture notes of Engr. Sourav Ray

Consistency of Precipitation Data

A double-mass curve is used to check the consistency of a rain gauge record:

compute cumulative rainfall amounts

for suspect gauge and check gauges

plot cumulative rainfall amounts

against each other (divergence from a
straight line indicates error)

multiplying erroneous data after change

by a correction factor k where

Precipitation Analysis
Areal precipitation estimation

Depth-area analysis

Precipitation frequency

Intensity-duration analysis

Intensity-duration- frequency analysis

Areal Precipitation Estimation

Arithmetic mean method

Thiessen method

Isohyetal method
 Lecture notes of Engr. Sourav Ray

Arithmetic mean method

When little variation is shown at various station of catchment, then the avg.
⋯
precipitation of that catchment = = *∑

Theissen Method

Divide the region (area A) into

sub-regions centred about
each rain gauge;

Determine the area of each

sub-region (Ai) and compute
sub-region weightings (Wi)
using: Wi = Ai/A

Compute total aerial rainfall

using