Gender and Development

Colonial perspective:

-Colonization itself was a gendered act, carried out by imperial workforces, overwhelmingly men, drawn
from masculinized occupations such as soldiering and long-distance trade. The rape of women of
colonized societies was a normal part of conquest. Raewyn Connell

- Beginning with the expansion of England and other European countries in colonial conquest, agents of
globalization, leaders and troops, have been men

- The concept of gender was introduced by Western colonisers and became a tool for domination that
designates two binary oppositions and hierarchical social categories; women became defined by their
subordinate relation to men in all categories.

-America:
-18th century women expected to help men in labour tasks to survive, housekeeping, raising children,
making households goods to use & sell & taking care of animals
-Middle class & rich women shared some but had servants
- Homes in poor conditions (no toilets, running water & heating)
-Towns dirty with no garbage collection (diseases often with few doctors + limited medical knowledge)
-By 20 women married & bore many children if not social humiliation
- After/Before marriage no control over earnings, inheritance, property, vote, sue in court & no public
office holding etc

-America: Revolutionary war brought women into new causes

- Mid 1700s organizations involved in politics->
-1766- ‘Daughters of Liberty’ active-> Boycott to British clothing & materials led to women organizations
spin clothing
- Anti-tea leagues-> Spin new uniforms for soldiers in war
- During war women had to learn & use some sort of protection (threaten & kill someone in defense)
- After war government began to write laws & constitution- Women campaigned for changing common law
of male superiority eg “Remember the Ladies” bu Abigail Adams to husband on Continental Congress->
Colonial times prepared women for change

-America:
-Wealthy European Colonial women-> Wealth enable them to live in great town houses + colonial
mansions-> Clothes made of velvet, silks etc
Social life: Visit other women + arrange special social events where husbands could meet contemporaries

-Asia-> Women freedom movement from British colonialists- Focus national sovereignty not personal
autonomy from patriarchal shackles-> Independence 1957- Basic rights such as voting & equality before
law gained as Malaysian constitution came

-Women in Colonial Africa

- Europeans in late 19th century intense colonialism/political control over communities.
-Lost power & economic autonomy with the arrival of cash crops & women’s exclusion from market place
-Women typically worked growing food for family’s consumption while men earned wages by working on
tea & plantations
- Laws established based on male testimony that gave men advantages over women in marriage &
divorce
- Before members of associations for politics but no longer
Capitalist Perspective:

-Colonialism gave rise to Capitalism. Women started contributing financially besides family.
- Gender has been a resource for globalizing firms as they seek out new sources of low-wage labor.
- In global cities pink collar jobs so that global managers can go easily about their business
-The labor power for these tasks is to a large extent provided by immigrants, disproportionately women,
from Third World countries.
-Moore argued that capitalism added to the oppression of women
- In some countries such as Malaysia, the religious beliefs are an obstacle for the employment of women.
The capitalist market seeks profit and cannot accommodate religious practices at workplace.
- In many countries, the employment of women increased many folds, but this was due to the cheap labor
offered by the women workforce. Women working more hours at work & paid less Judith Stacey
-Gerson & Jacob: “The Work-Home Crunch” explains when children enter into family mothers cut back
hours but father do not.
-Most companies favor employing young, single mothers, as they are seen to have better family values
and a greater sense of responsibility
-Dress code in companies creates an environment of staff loyalty by giving women importance, and by
this employers are in stronger position to exploit the women workers by paying them lower wages.
- Increased labor participation by women can be viewed as a positive result by capitalism but it has come
at a cost of lower wages than men and poorer working conditions.
- A large number of women are still dependent on both their employers and their husbands. American
capitalist economy- >Women find themselves at disadvantage in terms of wages- Current incomes
average $0.77 to $1.00 her male counterpart
- Inequality and dire poverty are gendered outcomes of globalization
- Women are responsible for what Boulding called the roles of “breeder-feeder-producer”. She observed
that women have had a triple role of reproduction (breeding), taking care of others (feeding), and
engaging in productive work (producing).

-Positives: Italian women receive 20 weeks of paid maternity leave while Americans receive only 12
weeks of unpaid leave under Family & Medical Leave Act

Modernization theory

- Modernization theory developed out of mainstream United States economics and sociology in the
1950s-60s.
-Modernization theorists proposed that economic development is linear and all countries progress through
similar processes.
-Capitalist version: These theorists believe all countries will “naturally” develop and that poorer countries
would follow paths similar to Western countries such as the United States and the United Kingdom. As
nations developed, economic development & social change would lead to democracy
-Many modernization theorists e.g. W.W.Rostow argued: when societies transitioned from traditional
societies to modern they would follow a similar path-> Further theorized: Stages of development for every
developing country:

 Traditional- An agricultural based society

 Pre-conditions for Take-off- characterized by an abundance of entrepreneurial activity
 Take-off- a period of rapid economic growth
 Maturation- economic development slows to a more consistent rate
 Mass production or mass consumption- a period in which real income increases
-Samuel Huntington-
-Social mobilization & economic development were driving forces behind modernization
-Meant individuals & societal groups changed their aspirations
- Increase eco development
-Capabilities of new modern society would change
- Huntington argued these societal changes would inevitably lead to democratization

--According to modernization theorists, internal problems within a county explained why some poorer
countries lagged behind in economic development compared to wealthier countries. In fact-> Rostow’s
(1960) first stage of economic growth, the preconditions for take-off, are cultural preconditions.

-Another popular version during height of cold war-Under developed nations remained so as product of
unsound traditionalist, religious & communal values that hindered progress-> According to Parsona there
is a need for cultural change in the LDC if development is to come about
-Religions are considered as anti-science & anti-secular + responsible for population explosions
- Further theorization that Western democracies e.g U.S dispelled underdeveloped nations backward
notions by instilling modern values (Discredited in 1970s as ethnocentric)

-The solution proposed for countries that lagged behind was to adopt economic, political, and cultural
guidelines from industrialized, Western countries, which would lead to economic growth.

-Critics
-No room for alt development?
- Does it account for obstacles to late development by early developing countries
- There is evidence from Japan & the Asian Tigers that the traditional institutions can exist successfully
alongside the modern
-The social & economic problems that are common in those societies, e.g. high divorce-rates, crime,
poverty, suicide etc.
-Western encouragement of LDC elites has created inequalities in wealth & power which have led to
human-right abuses
-In particular, the USA has propped up abusive right-wing regimes because they are anti-communist
In its emphasis on internal obstacles, M.T, underestimates the external obstacles to development
- Modernization theorists have not considered gender when theorizing about development and have
treated development and income inequality as a gender-neutral phenomena
- A feminist response to the omission of women in modernization theory resulted in Women in
Development.

Structural Functionalism

-Pre-Industrial society required a division of labour based on gender-> Women out of biological necessity
(feeding infants), remained in the home performing such as functions as bearing, nursing & caring for
children->Men who were physically stronger were responsible for providing food, clothing & shelter for
families-> Division of labour functional for society & overtime became natural/normal

-Structural Sexism- Ways social structure & institutions subordinate individuals & groups (mainly women)
based on sex classification

i)Education & Structural Sexism->

-Literacy rates low- Women less likely to read & write with millions denied basic edu
- On average women in South Asia have only half many years of education as male counterparts
-From early age exposed to models of feminity stressing imp of domestic family life
ii)Income & Structural Sexism
-Higher the edu, higher the income but even if both m & identical levels of edu achievement women on
average earn less
- Occupational pay is gendered
-Women paid less as work socially defined as less valuable
Human capital hypothesis-> pay difference due to difference in women’s & men’s level of edu, skills,
training Tam (1997) -Better explanation

iii)Work & Structural Sexism

-Women 1/3 labour force-> Jobs: Less prestige & low pay & low authority
- Occupational sex segregation: Female dominated pink collar jobs
- Glass ceiling
- Women over represented in semi skilled & unskilled but men in administrative/managerial positions

iv) Political and Structural Sexism

-America champions democracy but never had woman president or vice president e.g. Hillary Clinton
defeated by Trump in 2016
- Highest ranking women to serve ever Madeleine Albright (Secretary of State) 1997
- World Bank report: Less than 10% seats held in national & local legislature
-1996 Brazil law- Minimum 20% of each party’s candidates women-> Why absence of women? –
Structural limitations (Large sums of money needed, political backing of powerful individuals & interest
groups & willingeness of voters to elect women

Women in Development (WID)- 1960s

- Integration of women into the global economies by improving their status and assisting in total
development.
- Coined by a Washington-based network of female development professionals in the early 1970s to
question trickle down existing theories of development by contesting that economic development had
identical impacts on men and women.
i) New tech in agriculture directed at men as women for reproductive role not productive
ii) Most projects improved male opportunities & tech knowledge but not women
iii) In industries women relegated to lowest paying monotonous jobs due to low education & culture
-It challenged the invisibility of women in development process.
Boserup’s book “Women’s role in economic development 1970” challenged welfare approach of
modernization theory-> Intro of agriculture tech marginalized women to subsistence sector with low
income & power so trickle down not beneficial
-WID an integrationist approach because women productive members/active contributors of welfare
programmes
- 1973 Percy Amendment to Foreign Assistance Act 1971 of USAid to integrate women in to national
economics of countries-
-Motto- Equal Opportuntity for women came out of liberal feminism
-WID represents merging of modernization & liberal feminist theories- no challenge to existing social
structures
-Typica WID projects income generating activities e.g focusing on trad women skills e.g sewing-WID
adopted by UN, WB, IMF

- Criticisms:
- It failed to focus on cultural difference in experience of women
-The approach does not address the root causes of gender inequalities- Patriarchy/Private
-Assumption:Third World women were not already participating in development, thus downplaying
women's roles in household production and informal economic and political activities.

-Caroline Moser (1993) 5 policy approaches:

1) The Welfare approach->Focus on women’s reproductive roles and includes family planning
programmes to control population growth (primary cause of poverty & malnutrition
2) Equity approach -> Women relatively underprivileged so more resources towards them so outcome
same for men & women
3) Anti-Poverty Approach-> Concentrated on enhancing women’s productive role through small scale
income generating projects & skill generating projects thus neglecting strategic needs (NGOs)
4)Efficiency Approach-> Half pop of women must be used efficiently in labour force e.g factories in
restructured economies to achieve eco growth to increased equity & efficiency (USAID, WB)
5)Empowerment Approach Through greater self reliance by means of supporting grassroots mobilization
e.g microcredit scheme (redistribution of power)

Women and Development (WAD): 1970s, traced to the First World Conference on Women in Mexico City
in 1975, organized by the UN. -> Neo-Marxist approach

- Emerged in latter half of 1970s from a critique of modernization theory & WID
-THIRD world feminists criticized that they were integrated into development process that exploited them
(Integrated as always)
-International systems of inequality between rich North & poor South problematic
-Women only development projects to remove women from the patriarchal hegemony
WAD focuses on the relationship between patriarchy and capitalism.
-Neo- Marxism: Dependency Theory & World Systems Theory- As long as 1st world states rely on natural
resources & cheap labour of 3rd world poor working women will be at disadvantage
-Subsistence eco into capitalist eco- Benefits men more
- Marxist feminists: Capitalism has produced oppressive society for women as treated like commodities
- If capitalism & class structure abolished women’s problems resolved
- Existing global structures of inequality (based on class domination, imperialism & neo-colonizaiton of 3 rd
world affects women

Criticisms:
-Women only development projects would struggle due to their scale, and the marginalized status of
these women.
-The WAD perspective suffers from a tendency to view women as a class, and pay little attention to the
differences among women including race and ethnicity
-WAD has been criticized for its singular preoccupation with the productive side of women’s work, while it
ignores the reproductive aspect of women’s work and lives
- Value is placed on income-generating activities, and none is ascribed to social and cultural reproduction

Gender and Development (GAD)- 1990s Props: Oakley & Rubin

-Ultimate goal by UN to achieve gender equity

- The Gender and Development (GAD) -redress the problem in WID, using gender analysis to develop a
broader view
-Concerned with relationships, the way in which men and women participate in development processes,
rather than strictly focusing on women's issues.
-Focus on women alone is not sufficient for addressing unequal gender power relationships underpinning
poverty
Emphasis on social & cultural relations b/w men & women & engaging men in gender-aware
programming to change unequal gender relations
- Two major frameworks ‘Gender roles’ and ‘social relations analysis’ are used in this approach:-WID
projects small scale isolated projects of income generation for women so criticized it had little potential in
changing women’s situation
- GAD recognizes that improvements in women’s status requires analysis of relations b/w men & women
as well as concurrence & cooperation-> How unequal relations can lead to exclusion of women from
development process->
-Participation & commitment by men required to alter social & eco position of women
-GAD egalitarian in view as women should be trained in male skills not just female skills like WID had
done
-Caroline Moser & Steinburg theory two types of interests: practical gender interests & strategic gender
interests
- In response to pervasive gender inequalities, Beijing Platform for Action established gender
mainstreaming in 1995 as a strategy across all policy areas at all levels of governance for achieving
gender equality.

Criticisms:

- Emphasizes the social differences between men and women while neglecting the bonds between them
and also the potential for changes in roles.
- Does not dig deeply enough into social relations and so may not explain how these relations can
undermine programs directed at women.
- In practice, a program seem to have the element of the two. Whilst many development agencies are
now committed to a gender approach, in practice, the primary institutional perspective remain focused on
a WID approach.

Structural Adjustment Programmes

-By 1970s 3rd economies began to stagnate-> Situation exacerbated with OPEC countries
raised prices in 1973 & 1979 resulting in developing countries seeing eco growth rates plummet
due to higher energy costs-> Cumulative effect (Debt crisis)-> Several developing countries esp
L.A found it hard to pay back money borrowed-> IMF loaned Mexico money to make its
payments (IMF condition: Mexico should enact economic reforms for eco growth)-> Subsequent
bailouts IMF to L.A & Africa & Asia over next 2 decades-> IMF structural adjustment
programmes were cure of debt crisis-> But nature of cure dependent on IMF’s diagnosis of the
problem->

-IMF blamed misguided eco policies of developing nations as cause of poor growth not own
conditions-> Critics blames capitalist global system that makes rich richer & poor poorer-

- Structural Adjustment Policies are economic policies which countries must follow in order to
qualify for new World Bank and International Monetary Fund (IMF) loans and help them make
debt repayments on the older debts owed to commercial banks, governments and the World
Bank. Although SAPs are designed for individual countries but have common guiding principles
and features which include export-led growth; privatisation and liberalisation; and the efficiency
of the free market.
-IMF conditionality: Demands fiscal discipline & balanced budgets (more revenue & reduce
expenditures)-> Mostly latter course- concentrate on social & welfare programmes because
reduced military spending runs risk of angering powerful military establishments + governments
find it easiers to reduce expenditures by charging fees at clinics & school-> Burden on poor
mostly

-SAPs generally require countries to devalue their currencies against the dollar; lift import and
export restrictions; balance their budgets and not overspend; and remove price controls and
state subsidies.

- Balancing national budgets can be done by raising taxes, which the IMF frowns upon, or by
cutting government spending, which it definitely recommends. As a result, SAPs often result in
deep cuts in programmes like education, health and social care, and the removal of subsidies
designed to control the price of basics such as food and milk. So SAPs hurt the poor most,
because they depend heavily on these services and subsidies.

- Structural adjustment programmes (SAPs) consist of loans provided by the International

Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank (WB) to countries that experienced economic crises.
The two Bretton Woods Institutions require borrowing countries to implement certain policies in
order to obtain new loans (or to lower interest rates on existing ones). The conditionality clauses
attached to the loans have been criticized because of their effects on the social sector.

-These programs include internal changes (notably privatization and deregulation) as well as
external ones, especially the reduction of trade barriers. Countries that fail to enact these
programmes may be subject to severe fiscal discipline. Critics argue that the financial threats to
poor countries amount to blackmail, and that poor nations have no choice but to comply.

-Structural Adjustment and Poverty: The Case of Pakistan, research paper by Tilat Anwar in
Pakistan development review shows that an economic crisis in 1988 lead to an implementation
of a medium term structural adjustment programme within the framework of the IMF and the
World Bank. The research concludes that the intensity and severity of poverty increased
significantly by all poverty lines and poverty measures over the period of adjustment. Structural
adjustment created new poor in urban areas amongst the low income groups (mainly Clerical
and Sales workers) whose real wages were eroded over the period.

-Impact Evaluation of Structural Adjustment Program: A Case of Pakistan, b y Rana Ejaz Ali
Khan and et al.

-Impact on girls & women-> Women expected to expand domestic responsibilities to

compensate for decreasing state investment in children’s edu or health->.Increase in fees for
government services can have perverse impact on girls from poor families in societies with
gender bias towards male children-> When govt stops subsidies to industry women workers
usually laid off-> Trade liberalization & opening economics to FDI has deleterious impact on
poor-> Without government subsidies or protections from foreign competition: domestic
industries of poor world forced to reduce costs by lowering wages/lay off workers- first to suffer
women-> MNCs attracted by cheap labour- Salaries given to poor women are meager-> IMF
exploiting tool for rich states-> In poor states poor women suffer more than men due to
patriarchal system rampant
-The term "Structural Adjustment Program" has gained such a negative connotation that the
World Bank and IMF launched a new initiative, the Poverty Reduction Strategy Initiative.

Globalization & Gender

-Globalization alone cannot empower women and decrease gender inequality, public policy at various
levels within a country needs reshaping.
- The employment opportunities offered by the globalization are mostly of low cadre involving repetitive
jobs at factories, while the top executive and policy making jobs are mostly held by men.
-Modernization theorists- Eco development linked with emancipation of women from traditional roles->
Patriarchal control + subjugation of women one of key hierarchies flourishing traditional societies->
-The growth of market based capitalist relations brings with it powerful drive towards individualism (value
people on basis of achieved status & contribution to productive process)-Opportunities for women to gain
edu & enter careers also expands as modernization creates need for more skilled & literate workforce
-UN’s ranking of countries on the basis of Gender related Development Index (GDI) & Gender
Empowerment Measure (GEM), developed countries consistently outperform developing ones- Gender
equality= Modernity-> - With globalization, gender inequality can negatively affect a country’s standing in
international affairs.
-Globalization has resulted in job opportunities for women esp in developing world leading to global
‘feminization of work’- In all eco sectors
- Access to information and trade openness have created job opportunities for women, translating into
increased wages.
-Access to information have also increased awareness about the role of women, thus a shift toward more
egalitarian society.
-Developed world has witnessed growth of feminized jobs (pink collar jobs) in service sector such as
retailing & data processing
-From feminist perspective this conception of modernity constructed on basis of essentially masculine
norms (refer to WID, WAD, GAD)- This result is ‘feminization of poverty’
-UN report: “Women are half the world’s people: perform 2/3 rds of the world’s working hours; receive 1/10th
of world’s income; and own only 1/100th of world’s property”
-Some 70% of the world’s poor are women. They exploited, paid less & encounter glass ceiling

Authority: Valerie Duffy’s analysis

-Women alone cannot achieve gender equality without involvement and support from men. This is why
men as fathers, husbands, teachers, politicians, chiefs, ministers, heads of state, religious leaders, are
being encouraged to become involved in addressing the social infrastructure and institutions that hinder
the equal development and opportunity for women with the view to bringing about change and
improving the situation for everyone. GAD approach

Critical Analysis: Why women are important for development?

-About 50% of population so linear progress globally not possible with half of the population not
participating
-Women bring different opinions on the table of men which leads to better action plan
-Obama: Women show more empathy then men-> Women in politics can reduce chances of conflicts and
wars leading to more focus on development
-Without their involvement projects implemented by men would be only for the benefit of men not
benefiting 50% of the population leading to inequitable growth
-Will prevent violence against women as pro-women laws