Physics 133 Lab 1

AC Circuits and Complex Impedance

Austin Provansal

Abstract:
In this lab, we investigated the various properties of AC and DC circuits. Most intensively, the
relationship between a circuit's impedance and the provided frequency. This information was then used
to estimate the potential configurations of multiple, unknown circuits. The unknown sections of our
circuits were contained in small boxes labeled A-F so that they could contribute to the rest of our circuit
but keep their contents hidden. We then connected the box in a simple loop circuit with a certain
frequency provided by a sine wave generator, these frequencies were in the range of 1 Hz to 100 kHz.
Also in the circuit was a dedicated resistor box that could be set to resistances in a range from 1-1x10^7
Ohms. Then, measuring our circuit was a 2-channel oscilloscope, which was taking in the voltage
across our unknown box and then across our resistor. Both voltages were displayed digitally and
graphed over time on the oscilloscope. Based on our given text on complex impedance, we calculated
the impedances for each box with varying frequencies using our known resistance and measured
voltages. How the impedance changed with the provided frequency informed us on what potential
circuits were in the unknown boxes.
Other experiments in this lab included confirmations on three observations regarding circuits.
One involving the behavior “9 Volt” batteries as they age, and confirming that they behave in
accordance to Ohm's Law. We also determined the output resistance of the batteries, which is similar to
the impedances of the boxes above. We used a similar set-up for measurement as above, using a fixed
resistance box, a frequency generator and an oscilloscope for measurement. We found that the batteries
do indeed comply to Ohm's Law, and that as the batteries age, their usable voltage decreases
significantly.
The other two experiments involved observing two types of diodes, the first was a regular
diode, and the second a Zener diode. Once again using the above set-up for measurement, we observed
the intended behavior of diodes which allows them to prevent current flow until a certain threshold
voltage is reached, after which a large amount of current is passed through the diodes. The Zener diode
had the interesting characteristic that unlike the regular diode, it had a certain “breakdown voltage” that
was equal but opposite in magnitude for it's threshold voltage, in which it also allowed a large amount
of current to pass through the diode.
 Introduction
In this lab, we will be observing the behavior of various circuits. We conducted three
experiments in order to better understand certain properties of circuits. In the first experiment
(Experiment 1), we were given multiple black, metal boxes (fig A) and were tasked with determining
what kind of circuits were contained within them. Our method for accomplishing this was to determine
how the impedance of the circuit varied with different applied frequencies. Depending on how the
impedance behaves, whether is is directly or inversely proportional to frequency, and if that
relationship is linear or exponential, for example, would give us a hint as to how the circuit was set up.
The configuration of resistors, capacitors, inductors, and their connections, that the circuit had.
The next experiment (Experiment 2) involved two 9 Volt batteries, one that was brand new and
another that has been well used. Our goal was to determine the output resistance of the battery when
measured and to observe any differences in quantities between the two batteries. We predicted the
batteries should behave according to Ohm's Law and that both the open voltage and output resistance
should differ between the two. A higher open voltage and lower output resistance for the newer battery,
and the opposite for the older one. This would most likely be due to the chemical reactions inside the
battery are gradually subsiding over use, also making it more difficult for the energy provided by the
battery to over come it's own internal resistance.
The final experiment (Experiment 3) we performed was observing two different diodes, one was
a standard diode, while the other was a Zener diode. For both devices, we should hope to see the
current passing through them mostly zero, until a certain point when they will let a large amount of
current through very quickly.
We measured all of these components in a similar method using the devices and procedures
given below.

Apparatus
Oscilloscope: Our main device for measuring. It measures across two points in our circuit, with each
reading going into it's own channel. Both of these values are then digitally displayed, along with being
graphed out over time.
Signal Generator: The device that provides the signal that is passed through the circuit. Both the
frequency and the amplitude of the produced wave can be changed. The range of frequencies produced
are 1 Hz to 100 kHz.
Resistor: A dedicated resistor that will contribute to our circuit. It's value can be changed manually on
a range from 1 to 1x10^7 Ohms.
Boxes (A-F): Devices that have specific internal circuitry that needed to be estimated. They act just as
a singular point on our circuit that can be easily measured across. However, we will only display the
results and analysis of boxes, B, C, and F.
Multimeter: Device used to measure the voltage of our batteries in Experiment 2 and confirm the
given resistances of our resistor.

Procedures
Experiment 1: To perform our measurements, we constructed a circuit as pictured in figure A.
Where the box in between points A and B is whatever device we were measuring at the time, and our
resistor was between points B and C. Ch 1 and Ch 2 of the oscilloscope are included in the circuit
diagram, but are internally connected through a ground inside the device, meaning that they did not
meaningfully interfere with the flow of the current. Because of this, the current through one component
like our resistor, for example, would be the same as the current passing through the box we were trying
to observe. The oscilloscope also clearly measured the voltage drop between both the resistor and the
box, so with the voltage and previously known resistance of the resistor, we could determine the
current through both devices. Now with the voltage and current passing through the box, we could
determine the impedance of the device.
We took measurements of the impedance this way while varying the frequency. The results are
posted in the data section below.

fig A. Circuit used for measurement.

Experiment 2: This experiment was much simpler in terms of steps taken. We had two 9 Volt
batteries, one was previously used, and the other was not. To measure the batteries, we made a circuit
with a battery as our voltage source. Our circuit also contained the resistor we used in the previous
experiment and a multimeter to measure the voltage across the resistor. We measured the voltage of
each battery at five values of increasing load resistance. The output resistance of the source is
determined by changing the load resistance, which is the resistance provided by an outside component,
and observing the changes in the voltage and current across the resistor. Since the voltage is being
measured by the multimeter and the load resistance is fixed, the current can also easily be determined.
The results of the experiment are also given below.
Experiment 3: The final experiment was more to observe the behavior of two devices. The first
device was a regular diode, while the second was a Zener diode. We measured both devices in the same
way we measured the boxes in Experiment 1. We then reconfigured the output of the oscilloscope to
graph the voltage vs. the current over the diodes and observed the results, which are given below.
Data
Experiment 1:
Beginning with Box B, as our date below shows (graph B), the frequency and impedance of
Box B is linearly proportional, meaning that as our frequency increased, so did out impedance.
According to our text, this behavior implies the presence of an Inductor.

Box B
Frequency vs. Impedance
500
Impedance (Ohms)

400
300
200
100
0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000
Frequency (Hz)
graph B. Box B Frequency vs. Impedance
Moving on the Box C, we see the opposite behavior in our data, (graph C). The relationship
between frequency and Impedance is inversely proportional, not only that, but it is also an exponential
decrease in impedance when the frequency is increased. The inverse behavior is most likely due to a
capacitor inside of the box. Then when converted Impedance is converted to admittance, the line
becomes linear which is a more useful form.

graph C Box C Frequency vs. Impedance

graph D Box C Frequency vs. Admittance

Using the slope and intercept of this line, we can determine various quantities like the
capacitance and resistance inside the box.
 Finally, our data for Box F shows that the frequency and impedance of this box is inversely, but
linearly proportional. This makes a much stronger case for Box F having containing just a capacitor.
This is also more likely since after taking these readings, we connected only Box F to our multimeter
and it read a resistance of 2348 Ohms. A capacitor, which acts like an open wire in a circuit, could be
responsible for this large resistance that is unaccounted for when we reconnect the box to our previous
circuit.

Box F
Frequency vs. Impedance

2500
Impedance (Ohms)

2000
1500
1000
500
0
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000 11000
Frequency (Hz)

graph E Box F Frequency vs. Impedance

Experiment 2:
After measuring the batteries, we measured the following voltages.

Battery Voltage 0 Ohms 100 Ohms 200 Ohms 300 Ohms 400 Ohms 500 Ohms 600 Ohms 700 Ohms

New Battery 8.57 Volts 8.21 Volts 8.38 Volts 8.43 Volts 8.49 8.50 8.53 8.54

Old Battery 7.28 Volts 4.13 Volts 5.05 Volts 5.52 Volts 5.80 6.00 6.13 6.23
fig C Voltages for our two batteries

We were then able to take this date, compute the current going through both the battery and the resistor.
Graphing all of the results we see that the new battery behaves mostly linearly which is what was
expected, the older one however is exponentially decreasing.
 graph F Old Battery Voltage vs. Current graph G New Battery Voltage vs. Current

Experiment 3: For our two diodes, we observed the following patterns when we set the oscilloscope to
graph the voltages vs the currents across them. The first diode (fig D) shows a certain point where the
current is suddenly allowed through, while the second diode (fig E) has two such points. These points
are both an equal distance away from the origin and both represent points where a large amount of
current is passing through the diode.

fig D Regular Diode fig E Zener Diode

For both diodes, the point where the current begins to pass through is 1V. And for the Zener Diode, it's
second point is the same magnitude but opposite sign, it's “breakdown voltage” is around -1V.

Conclusion
For all of these experiments, most measurements relied on digital or otherwise electronic
measurements, so while still not wholly accurate, the margin of error should be considerably low. Most
of our findings matched with the predictions given to us by our text. The two that stand out are the
Zener diode graph and the measurements for the new battery. Regarding the new battery, we should
have seen a negative slope when graphing the voltage vs the current, the most likely cause of this error
is a miscalculation on our part. As the resistance increased the voltage should have dropped to meet
with the output resistance, giving the graph a negative slope. For the Zener diode, it seems interesting
that the regular diode's current was positive around the 1V mark, but the Zener diode's current went in
the opposite direction. It seems from the graph that the Zener diode is reversed from the standard diode,
meaning that it's intended use is to direct current the opposite way that the standard diode does.
The analysis regarding the unknown boxes is limited due to a confusion regarding the nature of
how impedances of different components (resistors, capacitors, and inductors) add together and how to
determine this effect. This lead us to make estimations based solely on the overall curve of the graph.
We also never observed any measurements that were not monotonic, which the text says implies a
resonant circuit. This may either be due to poor measurements, or that the three boxes we chose did not
contain any resonant components.
Overall, more consistent measurements would have benefited all three of our experiments but
we still learned quite a bit about the nature of complex impedance and how they can be used in various
circuits.