PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE
URDANETA CAMPUS

APL 413

ARCHITECTURAL STRUCTURES
(CONCRETE DESIGN)

RESEARCH 01
DATE DUE: FEB. 19, 2020

STUDENT INSTRUCTOR

UMINGA, PRECIOUS R. ENGR. ANGELINA TIU

CONCRETE
Concrete is made up of two components, aggregates and paste. Aggregates are
generally classified into two groups, fine and coarse, and occupy about 60 to 80 percent
of the volume of concrete. The paste is composed of cement, water, and entrained air
and ordinarily constitutes 20 to 40 percent of the total volume. In properly made
concrete, the aggregate should consist of particles having adequate strength and
weather resistance and should not contain materials having injurious effects. A well
graded aggregate with low void content is desired for efficient use of paste. Each
aggregate particle is completely coated with paste, and the space between the
aggregate particles is completely filled with paste.

Desirable Properties of Concrete

Durability: Ability of hardened concrete to resist deterioration caused by weathering,
chemicals, and abrasion
Workability: Ease of placing, handling, and finishing
Weather Resistance: Resistance to deterioration caused by freezing and thawing,
wetting and drying, and heating and cooling
Erosion Resistance: Resistance to deterioration caused by water flow, traffic, and wind
blasting
Chemical Resistance: Resistance to deterioration caused by de-icing salts, salt water,
sulfate salts
Water Tightness: Resistance to water infiltration

INGREDIENTS IN CONCRETE
Hydraulic Cement
Portland Cements and Blended Cements are hydraulic, since they set and harden to
form a stone-like mass by reacting with water. The term Hydraulic Cement is all
inclusive and is the newer term to be used for both Portland Cement and Blended
Cement.

Portland Cement.
After blending, the prepared mix is fed into the upper end of a kiln while burning fuel,
producing temperatures of 2600 °F to 3000 °F (1425 °C to 1650 °C), is forced into the
lower end of the kiln. During the process, several reactions occur which result in the
formation of Portland Cement clinker. The clinker is cooled and then pulverized. During
this operation gypsum is added as needed to control the setting time of the cement. The
pulverized finished product is Portland Cement. It is ground so fine that nearly all of it
passes a sieve having 40,000 openings per sq. inch (1.6 openings per mm2) .
There are five types of Portland Cement (Types I, II, III, IV, V) and two types of Blended
Cement (Types I-P, I-S). Each type is manufactured to meet certain physical and
chemical requirements for specific purposes.

13 TYPES OF CEMENT AND THEIR USES

1. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)

Ordinary Portland cement is the most widely used type of cement which is suitable for
all general concrete construction. It is most widely produced and used type of cement
around the world with annual global production of around 3.8 million cubic meters per
year.  This cement is suitable for all type of concrete construction.

2. Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC)

Portland pozzolana cement is prepared by grinding pozzolanic clinker with Portland
cement. It is also produced by adding pozzolana with the addition of gypsum or calcium
sulfate or by intimately and uniformly blending portland cement and fine pozzolana.
This cement has high resistance to various chemical attacks on concrete compared with
ordinary portland cement and thus it is widely used. It is used in marine structures,
sewage works, sewage works and for laying concrete under water such as bridges,
piers, dams and mass concrete works etc.
3. Rapid Hardening Cement
Rapid hardening cement attains high strength in early days it is used in concrete where
formworks are removed at an early stage and is similar to ordinary portland cement
(OPC). This cement has increased lime content and contains higher c3s content and
finer grinding which gives greater strength development than OPC at an early stage.
The strength of rapid hardening cement at the 3 days is similar to 7 days strength of
OPC with the same water-cement ratio. Thus, advantage of this cement is that
formwork can be removed earlier which increases the rate of construction and
decreases cost of construction by saving formwork cost.
Rapid hardening cement is used in prefabricated concrete construction, road works, etc.

4. Quick setting cement

The difference between the quick setting cement and rapid hardening cement is that
quick setting cement sets earlier while rate of gain of strength is similar to Ordinary
Portland Cement, while rapid hardening cement gains strength quickly. Formworks in
both cases can be removed earlier.
Quick setting cement is used where works is to be completed in very short period and
for concreting in static or running water.

5. Low Heat Cement

Low heat cement is prepared by maintaining the percentage of tricalcium aluminate
below 6% by increasing the proportion of C2S. This makes the concrete to produce low
heat of hydration and thus is used in mass concrete construction like gravity dams, as
the low heat of hydration prevents the cracking of concrete due to heat.
This cement has increased power against sulphates and is less reactive and initial
setting time is greater than OPC.

6. Sulphates Resisting Cement

Sulfate resisting cement is used to reduce the risk of sulphate attack on concrete and
thus is used in construction of foundations where soil has high sulphate content. This
cement has reduced contents of C3A and C4AF.
Sulfate resisting cement is used in construction exposed to severe sulphate action by
water and soil in places like canals linings, culverts, retaining walls, siphons etc.

7. Blast Furnace Slag Cement

Blast furnace slag cement is obtained by grinding the clinkers with about 60% slag and
resembles more or less in properties of Portland cement. It can be used for works
economic considerations is predominant.

8. High Alumina Cement

High alumina cement is obtained by melting mixture of bauxite and lime and grinding
with the clinker. It is a rapid hardening cement with initial and final setting time of about
3.5 and 5 hours respectively.
The compressive strength of this cement is very high and more workable than ordinary
portland cement and is used in works where concrete is subjected to high temperatures,
frost, and acidic action.

9. White Cement
It is prepared from raw materials free from Iron oxide and is a type of ordinary portland
cement which is white in color. It is costlier and is used for architectural purposes such
as precast curtain wall and facing panels, terrazzo surface etc. and for interior and
exterior decorative work like external renderings of buildings, facing slabs, floorings,
ornamental concrete products, paths of gardens, swimming pools etc.
10. Colored cement
It is produced by mixing 5- 10% mineral pigments with ordinary cement. They are widely
used for decorative works in floors.
 
11. Air Entraining Cement
Air entraining cement is produced by adding indigenous air entraining agents such as
resins, glues, sodium salts of sulphates etc. during the grinding of clinker.
This type of cement is especially suited to improve the workability with smaller water
cement ratio and to improve frost resistance of concrete.

12. Expansive Cement

Expansive cement expands slightly with time and does not shrink during and after the
time of hardening . This  cement is mainly used for grouting anchor bolts and
prestressed concrete ducts.

13. Hydrographic cement

Hydrographic cement is prepared by mixing water repelling chemicals and has  high
workability and strength. It has the property of repelling water and is unaffected during
monsoon or rains. Hydrophobic cement is mainly used for the construction of water
structures such dams, water tanks, spillways, water retaining structures etc.

TYPES OF PORTLAND CEMENT

Type I is a general-purpose cement. It is suitable for all uses when the special
properties of the other types are not required. Type II cement is used
when sulfate concentrations in ground water are higher than normal.

Type II will usually generate less heat at a slower rate than Type I or Normal
cement. Therefore, it may be used in structures of considerable mass,
such as large piers, heavy abutments, and heavy retaining walls. Its use
will minimize temperature rise, which is especially important in warm
weather pours.

Type III is a high-early-strength cement which will develop higher strength at an

earlier age. It is used when early form removal is desired. Richer mixes
(higher cement content) of Types I and II may be used to gain early
strength.
Type IV cement is used in massive structures, such as dams. This type of cement
is used where the heat generated during hardening is critical.

Type V cement is used in concrete exposed to severe sulfate action, and is used
mainly in the western section of the United States.

Type I-P blended cement is a combination of Portland Cement and a pozzolan. A

pozzolan, such as wash, by itself has no cementing qualities, but when
combined with moisture and calcium hydroxide (in the Portland Cement) it
produces a cementing effect.

Type I-S blended cement is a combination of Portland Cement and blast-furnace

slag. The slag constitutes between 25 and 65 percent of the weight of the
blended cement.

AGGREGATES FOR CONCRETE

Aggregates must conform to certain requirements and should consist of clean, hard,
strong, and durable particles free of chemicals, coatings of clay, or other fine materials
that may affect the hydration and bond of the cement paste. The characteristics of the
aggregates influence the properties of the concrete.

Characteristics of Aggregates
Resistance to FreezeThaw:
(Important in structures subjected to weathering) - The freeze-thaw resistance of an
aggregate is related to its porosity, absorption, and pore structure. Specifications
require that resistance to weathering be demonstrated by the magnesium sulfate test.
Abrasion Resistance:
(Important in pavements, loading plat-forms, floors, etc.) - Abrasion resistance is the
ability to withstand loads without excessive wear or deterioration of the aggregate.
Chemical Stability: (Important to strength and durability of all types of structures) -
Aggregates must not be reactive with cement alkalies. This reaction may cause
abnormal expansion and map-cracking of concrete.

Particle Shape and Surface Texture: (Important to the workability of fresh concrete) -
Rough textured or " at and elongated particles, due to their high surface area, require
more water to produce workable concrete than do rounded or cubical aggregates.
Grading: (Important to the workability of fresh concrete) - The grading or particle size
distribution of an aggregate is determined by sieve analysis.

Specific Gravity (Density): The specific gravity of an aggregate is the ratio of its
weight to the weight of an equal volume of water at a given temperature. Most normal
weight aggregates have a specific gravity ranging from 2.4 to 2.9. It is not a measure of
aggregate quality. It is used for certain computations in a mix design.

Absorption and Surface Moisture:. They are designated as:

a. Oven-Dry: fully absorbent
b. Air-Dry: dry at the surface but containing some interior moisture, thus somewhat
absorbent
c. Saturated Surface-Dry: neither absorbing water from, nor contributing water to, the
concrete mix
d. Wet with Free Moisture: containing an excess of moisture on the surface

Dry-rodded Unit Weight:

Dry-rodded unit weight is the mass (weight) of one cubic meter (foot) of dry coarse
aggregate that is compacted, by rodding in three equal layers, in a standard container.
For any one aggregate, the dry-rodded unit weight varies with the size and gradation.

Deleterious Substances in Aggregates

Harmful substances and their effect on concrete include the following:
1. Organic Impurities: affect setting time and hardening, and may cause deterioration
2. Material tinier than the #200 (75µm) sieve: affect bond and increases water demand
3. Lightweight Materials (coal, lignite): affect durability, and may cause popouts and
stains
4. Soft Particles: affect durability and wear resistance
5. Friable Particles: affect workability and durability, break up in mixing, and increase
water demand
6. Clay Lumps: absorb mixing water or cause popouts Admixtures for Concrete
Admixtures include all materials other than cement, water and aggregates that are
added to concrete.

Admixtures can be broadly classified as follows:

1. Air-entraining admixtures
2. Retarding admixtures
3. Water-reducing admixtures
4. Accelerating admixtures (Used only in special circumstances)
5. Pozzolans
6. Workability agents
7. Miscellaneous, such as permeability-reducing agents, gas forming agents, and
grouting agents
8. Water reducing and retarding admixtures
9. Water reducing and accelerating admixtures (Used only in special circumstances)

Deleterious Substances in Aggregates

Harmful substances and their effect on concrete include the following:
1. Organic Impurities: affect setting time and hardening, and may cause deterioration
2. Material finer than the #200 (75µm) sieve: affect bond and increases water demand
3. Lightweight Materials (coal, lignite): affect durability, and may cause popouts and
stains
4. Soft Particles: affect durability and wear resistance
5. Friable Particles: affect workability and durability, break up in mixing, and increase
water demand
6. Clay Lumps: absorb mixing water or cause popouts

ADMIXTURES FOR CONCRETE

Admixtures include all materials other than cement, water and aggregates that are
added to concrete. Admixtures can be broadly classified as follows:
1. Air-entraining admixtures
2. Retarding admixtures
3. Water-reducing admixtures
4. Accelerating admixtures (Used only in special circumstances)
5. Pozzolans
6. Workability agents
7. Miscellaneous, such as permeability-reducing agents, gas forming agents, and
grouting agents
8. Water reducing and retarding admixtures 9. Water reducing and accelerating
admixtures (Used only in special circumstances)

Air-Entraining Admixtures
An air-entrained concrete contains microscopic air bubbles that are distributed, but not
interconnected, through the cement paste. The air bubbles are small and invisible to the
naked eye. Visible entrapped air voids occur in all concrete and the amount of
entrapped air is largely a function of aggregate characteristics. Variations in air content
can be expected with variations in aggregate proportion and gradation, mixing time,
temperature and slump. Adequate control is required to ensure the proper air content at
all times. Since the amount of air-entraining agent per batch is small [3 to 8 oz. (110 to
300 ml) per cubic yard (meter) of concrete], it is important to disperse the agent in the
plastic concrete to insure proper spacing and size of air voids, which are significant
factors contributing to the effectiveness of air-entrainment in concrete.

Retarding Admixtures
A retarding admixture is a material that is used for the purpose of delaying the setting
time of concrete. Retarders are used in concrete to:
1. Offset the accelerating affect of hot weather on the setting of concrete.
2. Provide time for difficult placing or finishing in such items as bridge decks or large
piers.
Most retarders also function as water reducers. They are frequently called water-
reducing retarders. Some retarders also entrain air in concrete. A retarded concrete
may lose slump faster than a non-retarded concrete. Because some retarders react with
certain air-entraining agents, they are introduced into the mixing water separately.
Acceptance tests of retarders with cements for each design mix and cement content are
necessary to determine whether the materials are compatible

Water Reducing Admixtures

A water-reducing admixture is a material used for the purpose of reducing the quantity
of mixing water required to produce concrete of a given consistency. These materials
increase the slump of concrete for a given water content. For a given slump, the water
reduction possibly amounts to about 5%.
Many water-reducing admixtures may also retard the setting time of concrete. Some
also entrain air in concrete. An increase in strength can generally be obtained with
water-reducing admixtures if the water content is reduced and if the cement content and
slump are kept the same. A rapid loss in slump and a significant increase in drying
shrinkage can result from the use of some of these admixtures. Therefore, trial batch
tests should be made with job materials.

Accelerating Admixtures
An accelerating admixture is used to accelerate the setting and the strength
development of concrete. The development of strength of concrete can also be
accelerated by:
1. Using Type III Cement (high-early-strength cement);
2. Lowering the water cement ratio, or increasing the cement content; and
3. Curing at higher temperatures.
Most of the commonly used accelerators cause an increase in the drying shrinkage of
concrete. Calcium chloride is the most commonly used accelerating admixture. Calcium
chloride and other materials used as accelerators are not antifreeze agents. When used
in normal amounts, they will not reduce the freezing point of concrete by more than a
few degrees.

QUALITY OF WATER FOR CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION AND ITS

SPECIFICATION
Quality of water for construction works are same as drinking water. This is to ensure
that the water is reasonably free from such impurities as suspended solids, organic
matter and dissolved salts, which may adversely affect the properties of the concrete,
especially the setting, hardening, strength, durability, pit value, etc.

The water shall be clean and shall not contain sugar, molasses or gur or their
derivatives, or sewage, oils, organic substances.
If the quality of water to be used for mixing is in doubt, cubes of 75 mm in cement
mortar 1:3 mix with distilled water and with the water in question shall be made
separately. The latter type of cubes should attain 90% of the 7 days’ strength obtained
in cubes with same quantity of distilled water.
Alternatively, the water shall be tested in an approved Laboratory for its use in preparing
concrete / mortar.

For plain and reinforced cement concrete permissible limits for solids shall be as
follows:

Type of Solid in Permissible Limits for Construction

water

Organic matter 200 mg/l

Inorganic matter 3000 mg/l

Sulphates (SO4) 500 mg/l

Chlorides (Cl) a) 1000 mg/l for RCC work and, b) 2000 mg/l for PCC work
 Suspended matter 2000 mg/l

Limits of Alkalinity:
To neutralize 200 ml of sample should not require more than 10 ml of 0.1 normal HCI
using methyl orange as an indicator.
Limits of Acidity:
To neutralize 200 ml sample of water should not require more than 2 m of 0.1 normal
NaOH (Caustic soda). The pH value of water shall generally be not less than 6.

PRE-CAST CONCRETE

PRECAST CONCRETE MANUFACTURING

Precast concrete is created off-site using a mold. That’s the main difference between
precast concrete and site cast concrete, which is poured into its final destination on site.
Here is a simplified overview of the precast concrete process:

1. Precast concrete is poured into a wooden or steel mold with wire mesh or rebar.
This mold may also have prestressed cable, if needed.
2. It is cured in a controlled environment — usually at a plant.
3. Once finished, the precast concrete is transported to a construction site and put
into place.
It’s important to note that not all precast concrete is prestressed with cable
reinforcement. The addition of this reinforcement is particularly useful in many
structures and buildings where maximizing the strength of the concrete is essential. The
addition of the wire or rebar provides tension within the concrete, which is released
once curing is complete. The release of the wire or rebar tension transfers strength to
the concrete, creating an even stronger material.
Regardless of whether or not prestressing is a part of the equation, this process is
faster, safer and more affordable than standard concrete. Precast concrete materials
help you maximize your project’s potential while making sure it is completed on time.
They are also among the most versatile products in construction, combining a strong
structure with the ability to:

 Choose any combination of color, form or texture

 Integrate facades
 Meet compatibility requirements for historic structures
 Create everything from small sections to long open spans
 Be recycled or reused upon removal or replacement

TYPES OF PROJECTS USE PRECAST CONCRETE

Perhaps the versatility is one of the reasons precast concrete structures are so diverse
— ranging from parking garages, bridges and office buildings to stadiums, retail shops
and housing. It’s clear any number of building types can benefit from the advantages of
precast concrete products. Some of the most common construction projects that use
precast concrete are listed below.

1. PRECAST CONCRETE STRUCTURES

Since durability is one of the key characteristics of concrete construction, it’s no surprise
that many precast concrete structures are used in applications that see a lot of wear
and tear from everything from traffic to weather elements. Going hand-in-hand with
durability is its strength — another reason it is especially popular for these applications.

 Parking Structures: In parking structure design, durability, economy and

installation are three key points of consideration, which is why precast concrete
is usually the building material of choice. You’ll find several different precast
concrete products in parking garages — columns, traffic barriers, stairs, paving
slabs, architectural veneer and more. Precast concrete is useful for single-level
parking structures as well as larger and more elaborate mid-rise structures.
 The Pier Village Parking Structure is an example of a precast concrete parking
structure.
 

 Foundations: Precast concrete is used to create entire buildings — more about

that below — but in cases where it isn’t utilized for the entire building, it may still
be used for the foundation. Many residential homes and other buildings have
precast concrete foundations, regardless of what is used for walls and floors in
the rest of the building. Its reputation for providing a moisture-free, and energy-
efficient basement is often what makes precast concrete the material of choice.
 

 Bridges: The Walnut Lane Memorial Bridge began the precast concrete industry
in the United States, and using precast concrete materials for bridges continues
today. You’ll find precast concrete materials are used for beams, arches, girders,
deck slabs, caps and more. Regardless of the size of the bridge, precast
concrete gives engineers the ability to create a structure that blends in with the
environment and is compatible with any historical surroundings.
 

 Culverts: When you remember the underground tunnels of ancient Rome are

suspected to be early signs of precast concrete, it’s easy to see how a section of
modern-day underground infrastructure is the perfect application for precast
concrete. Box and three-sided culverts are manufactured in all different shapes
and sizes to aid in stormwater and wastewater drainage, create short bridges,
retain rainwater and more. Many of them are built using precast concrete to
ensure a high-quality and durable product that can be installed efficiently.
 

 Curb Inlets and Catch Basins: Just like culverts are a part of the underground
infrastructure, so are curb inlets and catch basins for wastewater management.
Different states and local municipalities have different standards for these
pieces, but precast concrete manufacturing can take all of them into
consideration and create a product that helps stormwater runoff drain to the
underground infrastructure in place.
 

 Sound Walls: In urban areas, sound walls are erected as a noise barrier between
highways and communities. Using precast concrete for these structures can cut
noise pollution up to 50 percent. The versatility of design enables these sound
wall structures to blend into their surroundings with a specific color, texture or
design.
 

 Retaining Walls: Many precast concrete retaining systems include segmental

retaining wall (SRW) products, large precast modular blocks (PMB),
mechanically stabilized earth (MSE) face panels, crib walls, cantilever walls and
post-and-panel systems. Each of these elements specifications easily met in a
timely fashion by precast concrete.
 
2. PRECAST CONCRETE BUILDINGS
The fire-resistant and sound-attenuating characteristics of precast concrete products
make them ideal for a variety of building applications. Reducing moisture and creating
an energy efficient environment are two other convincing factors when considering a
precast concrete building. The diverse variety of buildings included below encompasses
the versatility of precast concrete, as these materials come together to create an
impressive result.

 Office Buildings: The unique characteristics of precast concrete products allow

for unique building designs that are attractive and functional. Take advantage
 of precast concrete columns paired with architectural panels to create large and
open spaces.
 

 Multi-Unit Housing: Precast concrete products have superior fire resistance —

known to reduce fire insurance rates — and also act as a sound barrier. These
characteristics make it a perfect choice for hotels, dormitories, apartment
buildings and complexes, senior living communities and similar
structures. Shannondell Senior Living is an example of a precast concrete senior
living community.
 

 Hospitals and Medical Centers: For many of the same reasons precast concrete
is preferred for multi-unit housing, it also provides a strong foundation for
hospitals and medical centers. Hershey Medical Center is an example of a
precast concrete hospital building.
 

 Schools: Precast concrete makes school construction a breeze. With faster

turnaround times from start to finish, precast concrete will keep your project on
target. Whether you’re adding on to a university campus or an elementary
school, you’ll get students moved in quicker without all the headaches of
traditional building. The Charter Arts School is an example of a precast concrete
school building.
 

 Retail Shopping Centers: Retail shopping centers vary — in rural areas, they

may be built on a large plot of land, while urban areas tend to have smaller
construction sites. They may or may not incorporate parking and can come in
single stories, or a few stories high. Regardless of the application, precast
concrete has the versatility to match, and its often used in constructing retail
shopping centers. The Target Retail Center is an example of a precast retail
shopping building.

REINFORCED CONCRETE

Steel Reinforced Concrete The steel bars are reinforced into the concrete. The bars
have a rough, corrugated surface thus allowing better bonding with steel rebars the
concrete gets extra tensile strength. The compression strength, bending also show
marked improvement thermal expansion characteristic of steel rebars and concrete
shall match. The rebar shall have cross sectional are equal to 1% for slabs and beams,
this can be 6% in case of columns

FIBER REINFORCED CONCRETE The construction material is continuously evolving.

The demand for high strength, crack, resistant and lighter concrete resulted in
development of fiber reinforced concrete (2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7). Fibers that are used are steel,
nylon, asbestos, glass, carbon, sisal, jute, coir, polypropylene, kenaf.

There are mainly 4 types of steel reinforcement used in concrete structures:

Rebar: Reinforcing Steel Bar Specifications

Reinforcing bars are hot-rolled using different steel materials. Most rebars are rolled
from new steel billets, but others are rolled from steel debris or railroad rails. Rebars are
required to contain some sort of identification that can be used to identify the mill that
produced the reinforcing steel bar.

The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) has created a standard
identification ruling that all rebars must comply with:

 The number must identify the bar size.

 The type of steel symbol must be noted. For example, "N" means the bar was
rolled from a new billet, "W" stands for weldable steel, and "A" designates rolled
axle steel. 
 The rebar grade identification must be cited: This is either 60 or 75, or metric 420
or 520. The grade indicates the rebar yield strength.
 A symbol identifying the manufacturer that rolled the bar must be included: This
is usually a single letter or a plain symbol.

Lower-strength reinforcing steel bars have only three marks that identify the mill that
produced the bar, the rebar size, and the type of steel used. High-strength reinforcing
steel uses a continuous line system to show steel grade. If the rebar contains two lines,
it indicates that the rebar was rolled into the 75,000-psi bars. When a single line is
present, it represents a 60,000-psi bar.

Types of Rebar 

 Carbon Steel Rebars: This is the most common type of rebar and is sometimes
referred to as a "black bar." It's extremely versatile but it corrodes more easily
than other types, making it inappropriate in areas that are subject to high
humidity or in structures that are frequently exposed to water. Many consider
carbon steel rebars to be the best option in all other types of construction,
however.
 Welded Wire Fabric: Welded wire fabric (WWF) is made from a series of steel
wires arranged at right angles and electrically welded at all steel wire crossings.
It can be used in slab-on-ground slabs where the ground has been well
compacted. A heavier fabrication of welded wire fabric can be used in walls
and structural floor slabs. This is commonly used in road pavement, box culverts,
drainage structures, and in small concrete canals.
 Sheet-Metal Reinforcing Bars: Sheet-metal reinforcement is commonly used
in floor slabs, stairs, and roof construction. Sheet-metal reinforcing is composed
of annealed sheet steel pieces bent into corrugations of about one-sixteenth of
an inch deep with holes punched at regular spacing.
 Epoxy-Coated Rebars: Epoxy-coated rebars are expensive and used in areas
that will be in contact with salt water or where a corrosion problem is imminent.
The only problem is that the coating can be very delicate, so bars should be
ordered from a reputable supplier.
 European Rebars: These rebars are typically made of manganese so they tend
to bend more easily. They're not suitable for use in areas that are prone to
extreme weather conditions or geological effects, such as earthquakes,
hurricanes, or tornadoes. They can be cost-effective, however. 
 Stainless Steel Rebars: Stainless steel can be used as an alternative
reinforcing steel bar with carbon steel reinforcement. Using stainless steel
reinforcing bars will not create galvanic corrosion, and it can be a cost-effective
solution in areas subject to corrosion problems or where repair is difficult and
expensive. These rebars will cost at least eight times more than epoxy-coated
rebars, however.
 Galvanized Rebars: Galvanized rebars are 40 times more resistant to corrosion
than carbon steer rebars, making them ideal for structures that will be heavily
exposed to wet and humid conditions. They're pricey, however. 
 Expanded Metal or Wire Mesh Rebars: Expanded metal or wire mesh
reinforcement is another good product for concrete. Expanded metal is made by
shearing a sheet of steel into parallel lines that are then expanded to form a
diamond shape or a square shape between each cut. Expanded metal is
 commonly used as reinforcement in areas where a considerable thickness of
plaster is required, or to reinforce light concrete construction. Wire mesh
reinforcement can be used on sidewalks, small concrete pads, or walkable
surfaces that don't receive high live or load charges.
 Glass-Fiber-Reinforced-Polymer (GFRP) Rebars: Similar to carbon fiber,
GFRP rebars will not corrode — ever, under any conditions. You'll pay dearly for
that, however. These rebars can run 10 times the cost of epoxy-coated rebars.

1st Floor
It is the floor that has 1 storey height above ground.

Basement Floor
The floor of the basement of the building. It is also called cellar. The basement floor is
either completely or partially below the ground floor. A basement can be used in almost
exactly the same manner as an additional above-ground floor of a house or other
building. However, the use of basements depends largely on factors specific to a
particular geographical area such as climate, soil, seismic activity, building technology,
and real estate economics.

The concrete floor in most basements is structurally not part of the foundation; only the
basement walls are. Since warm air rises, basements are typically cooler than the rest
of the house. In summer, this makes basements damp, due to the higher relative
humidity.

Basement Wall
The wall surrounding the basement floor is called the basement wall. The basement
walls can be regarded structurally as part of the foundation. The basement walls are
shear walls which can resist lateral laods as well. Moreover, these walls are meant to be
higly non-porous and water resistant.

Column Bracket
Column Bracket is protrusion from the column also used for hanging or attaching lamps,
bulbs or other accessories to it like road signs.

Column Capital
Column capital is an architectural element used for aesthetic purposes which forms the
topmost member of a column.
Drop Panels
Drop panels are used to thicken the slab around the column in flat slabs to avoid
punching shear. Since flat slabs have no stirrups shear is resisted by thickening the slab
around the column to increase the concrete in shear. Beams can also be used, but
generally drop panels are preferred to avoid conflicts with the electro-mechanical works
of the structure.

Exterior Columns
The columns supporting the main structure of the building. Usually in frame structures
the exterior columns are of extreme importance and bear the load of the building as well
as resist environmental factors like wind, rain, and other physical factors.

Flat Plate
Slabs connecting to columns directly. Flat plate system is widely adopted by engineers
as it provides many advantages . The system can reduce the height of the building,
provide more flexible spatial planning due to no beams present, and further reduce the
material cost. However, the main problem in practice is the brittle failure of flat plate
under punching shear. Due to the relatively small floor loading and the close column

spacing, flat plate construction is preferred. For heavier loading and larger column
spacing, column capitals are required, and for even larger spans to reduce the self-
weight, waffle slabs are used.

Flat Slab
The flat plate is a two-way reinforced concrete framing system utilizing a slab of uniform
thickness, the simplest of structural shapes. The flat slab is a two-way reinforced
structural system that includes either drop panels or column capitals at columns to resist
heavier loads and thus permit longer spans. Construction of flat slabs is one of the
quickest methods available. Lead times are very short as this is one of the most
common forms of construction.
Interior Columns
Interior columns in a frame structure support the slab and beams internally. They are
not as susceptible to buckling and environmental effects as the external ones but still
are extremely important considering the safety and stability of the building. Interior
columns can also serve aesthetic and architectural purposes.

Pedestal
An architectural support or base, as for a column or statue.

Roof
A roof is the covering on the uppermost part of a building. A roof protects the building
and its contents from the effects of weather and the invasion of animals. Structures that
require roofs range from a letter box to a cathedral or stadium, house buildings being
the most numerous.
The elements in the design of a roof are:
 the material
 the construction
 the durability &
 Serviceability
Spread Footing

To distribute the load of the foundation on the soil, spread footings are installed below

the building's foundation. This type of footing is continuous below the perimeter of the
house walls and may be thickened or widened at the points where concentrated loads
are applied e.g. columns. These components are constructed from concrete and are
often reinforced with rebar or steel to add additional support. Depending on the size and
configuration of the building, the footers can be buried just below ground level or several
feet below the surface. In cold climates, they are always placed below the frost line to
minimize problems with concrete heaving that occurs during freeze/thaw cycles. This
type of footer design is highly beneficial to builders and homeowners. Since they
transfer the weight of the building over a large area, they have little risk of failure

Upturned Beam

Through the use of upturned concrete T-beams, designers created a naturally ventilated
work space that employs the thermal mass of an exposed concrete ceiling. This
concrete absorbs heat during the day and is purged at night by cool breezes. The term
is usually used in concrete construction, in parking structures, but here is how it works:

The beam is above the floor it supports, or a combination. Take a parking structure,
there is the required barrier wall, so if you turn the beam up it acts as support and the
barrier. Think of your simple beam diagram with a uniform load on it. The beam
supports this load, so it doesn't matter if the load is applied at the bottom (simply, other
than there are the compression/tension face)

This also works well in buildings, rather than have a large beam under the floor, the
beam is cast above and below the floors, acts as bearing and shear tension and
compression face reinforcement will be some what different, but beam cross section
area will stay the same.
 PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE
URDANETA CAMPUS

AD 428

ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN 08
BUBBLE DIAGRAM
DATE DUE: FEB. 19, 2020

STUDENT

UMINGA, PRECIOUS R. AGNES M. BEGINIO

13-UR-0827 FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE