PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS AND POLAR

COORDINATES
ELECTRONIC VERSION OF LECTURE

Dr. Lê Xuân Đại

HoChiMinh City University of Technology
Faculty of Applied Science, Department of Applied Mathematics
Email: [email protected]

HCMC — 2017.
Dr. Lê Xuân Đại (HCMUT) PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS AND POLAR COORDINATES HCMC — 2017. 1 / 32
OUTLINE

1 CURVES DEFINED BY PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS

2 CALCULUS WITH PARAMETRIC CURVES

3 POLAR FORMS AND AREA

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 Curves defined by Parametric Equations Definition

DEFINITION 1.1
Suppose that x and y are both given as functions of a
third variable t (called a parameter) by the equations

x = f (t), y = g(t) (1)

(called parametric equations). Each value of t

determines a point (x, y) in a coordinate plane.

Dr. Lê Xuân Đại (HCMUT) PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS AND POLAR COORDINATES HCMC — 2017. 3 / 32
 Curves defined by Parametric Equations Graphing Devices

x = sin t + 21 cos 5t + 14 sin 13t

½

y = cos t + 21 sin 5t + 14 cos 13t

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 Curves defined by Parametric Equations Cycloid

DEFINITION 1.2
The curve traced out by a point P on the
circumference of a circle as the circle rolls along a
straight line is called a cycloid.

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 Curves defined by Parametric Equations Cycloid

_
OT = PT = rθ
x = OT − PQ = rθ − r sin θ = r(θ − sin θ)
½
⇒ ,θ ∈ R
y = TC − QC = r − r cos θ = r(1 − cos θ)
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 Calculus with Parametric Curves Tangents

THEOREM 2.1
Suppose that x and y are both given as functions of a
third variable t by the equations

x = f (t), y = g(t)

dy dy dx
Then the Chain Rule gives = · and therefore
dt dx dt
³ ´
dy d dy
dy g 0 (t) d2 y d dy
µ ¶
dt dt dx
= dx
= 0 ; 2= = dx
if f 0 (t) 6= 0
dx dt
f (t) dx dx dx dt

(2)
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 Calculus with Parametric Curves Tangents

EXAMPLE 2.1
A curve C is defined by the parametric equations
x = t 2 , y = t 3 − 3t.
1
Show that C has two tangents at the point (3, 0)
and find their equations.
2
Find the points on C where the tangent is
horizontal or vertical.
3
Determine where the curve is concave upward or
downward.
p
x = t2 = 3 dy dy/dt 3t 2 − 3
½ ·
t= 3
⇔ p , = =
y = t − t3 = 0 t =− 3 dx dx/dt 2t

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 Calculus with Parametric Curves Tangents

p
1
The slopepof the tangent when t = ± 3 is
dy/dx = ± 3, so the equations of the tangents at
p p
(3, 0) are y = 3(x − 3) and y = − 3(x − 3)
2
C has a horizontal tangent when dy/dx = 0 ⇒
dy/dt = 0, dx/dt 6= 0 ⇒ 3t 2 − 3 = 0 ⇒ t = ±1. The
corresponding points on C are (1, −2); (1, 2).
C has a vertical tangent when
dx/dt = 0, dy/dt 6= 0 ⇒ t = 0. The corresponding
point on³ C ´is (0, 0).
d dy 3
1 + t12
¡ ¢
d2 y dt dx 3(t 2 + 1)
2
3
= = = · Thus the curve
dx2 dx
dt
2t 4t 3

is concave upward when t > 0 and concave

downward when t < 0.
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 Calculus with Parametric Curves Tangents

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 Calculus with Parametric Curves Areas

THEOREM 2.2
If the curve C is traced out once by the parametric
equations x = f (t) and y = g(t), α É t É β, then the area
under the curve C is defined by the formula

¯Z b ¯ ¯Z β ¯
0
A = ¯ ydx¯ = ¯ g(t)f (t)dt ¯ (3)
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
a α

where f (α) = a and f (β) = b.

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 Calculus with Parametric Curves Areas

EXAMPLE 2.2
Find the area under one arch of the cycloid

x = r(θ − sin θ); y = r(1 − cos θ), r = const.

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 Calculus with Parametric Curves Areas

SOLUTION. One arch of the cycloid is given by

0 É θ É 2π. With y = r(1 − cos θ) and dx = r(1 − cos θ)dθ,
we have
¯Z 2π ¯
A=¯ r(1 − cos θ).r(1 − cos θ)dθ ¯ =
¯ ¯
0
¯Z 2π ¯ ¯Z 2π ¯
2 2 2 ¯ 2
= r .¯ (1 − cos θ) dθ ¯ = r .¯ (1 − 2 cos θ + cos θ)dθ ¯ =
¯ ¯ ¯
0 0
2π · ¸ ¯
¯Z
2 ¯ 1
= r .¯ 1 − 2 cos θ + (1 + cos 2θ) dθ ¯ =
¯
0 2
¯· ¸2π ¯
2¯ 3 1
= r ¯ θ − 2 sin θ + sin 2θ ¯¯ = 3πr 2 .
¯ ¯
2 4 0

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 Calculus with Parametric Curves Arc Length

THEOREM 2.3
Suppose that C is described by the parametric
equations x = f (t) and y = g(t), α É t É β, where
dx/dt = f 0 (t) > 0. This means that C is traversed once,
from left to right, as t increases from α to β and
f (α) = a, f (β) = b. Then the arc length of C is

s sµ
¶2 β ¶2
b
dy dx dy 2
Z µ Z µ ¶
L= 1+ dx = + dt (4)
a dx α dt dt

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 Calculus with Parametric Curves Arc Length

EXAMPLE 2.3
Find the length of one arch of the cycloid

x = r(θ − sin θ); y = r(1 − cos θ), r = const.

SOLUTION. One arch of the cycloid is described by

the parameter interval 0 É θ É 2π.

Since
dx dy
= r(1 − cos θ); = r sin θ.
dθ dθ
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 Calculus with Parametric Curves Arc Length

sµ ¶2
2π
dx dy 2
Z µ¶
L= + dθ =
0 dθ dθ
Z 2π q
= r 2 (1 − cos θ)2 + r 2 sin2 θdθ =
0
Z 2π p Z 2π q
=r 2(1 − cos θ)dθ = r 4 sin2 (θ/2)dθ =
0 0
Z 2π ¯ ¯ Z 2π
=r 2¯ sin(θ/2)¯dθ = 2r sin(θ/2)dθ =
¯ ¯
0 0
h i2π
= 2r − 2 cos(θ/2) = 8r.
0

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 Calculus with Parametric Curves Surface Area

THEOREM 2.4
If the curve given by the parametric equations x = f (t),
y = g(t), α É t É β, is rotated about the x−axis, where
f 0 , g 0 are continuous and g(t) Ê 0, then the area of the
resulting surface is given by
sµ
β ¶2
b
dx dy 2
Z Z µ ¶
S= 2πyds = 2πy + dt (5)
a α dt dt

Dr. Lê Xuân Đại (HCMUT) PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS AND POLAR COORDINATES HCMC — 2017. 17 / 32
 Calculus with Parametric Curves Surface Area

EXAMPLE 2.4
Find the surface area of a sphere of radius r .

SOLUTION. The sphere is obtained by rotating the

semicircle

x = r cos t; y = r sin t; 0 É t É π.

about the x−axis. Therefore, we have

Z π p
S= 2πr sin t (−r sin t)2 + (r cos t)2 dt =
0
Z π hiπ
2
= 2πr sin tdt = 2πr (− cos t) = 4πr 2 .
2
0 0

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 Polar Forms and Area The Polar Coordinate System

THE POLAR COORDINATE SYSTEM

The polar coordinates (r, θ) of a point are related to
the rectangular coordinates (x, y) by the equations:
y
r 2 = x2 + y 2 ; x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ; tan θ =
x

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 Polar Forms and Area Polar Curves

DEFINITION 3.1
The graph of a polar equation r = f (θ) consists of all
points P that have at least one polar representation
(r, θ) whose coordinates satisfy the equation.

EXAMPLE 3.1
Sketch the curve with polar equation r = 2 cos θ.

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 Polar Forms and Area Polar Curves

x 2x
From x = r cos θ we have cos θ = ⇒ r =
r r
⇒ 2x = r 2 = x2 + y 2 ⇒ x2 + y 2 − 2x = 0 ⇒ (x − 1)2 + y 2 = 1.

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 Polar Forms and Area Polar Area

THEOREM 3.1
The area of a circular sector of radius r is given by

1
A = r2θ (6)
2

where θ is the central angle of the sector measured in

radians.

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 Polar Forms and Area Polar Area

THEOREM 3.2
Let r = f (θ) define a polar curve, where f is continuous
and f (θ) Ê 0 on the closed interval a É θ É b, where
0 É b − a É 2π. Then the region bounded by the curve
r = f (θ) and the rays θ = a and θ = b has area

b Z bh
1 1
Z i2
2
A= r dθ = f (θ) dθ (7)
2 a 2 a

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 Polar Forms and Area Polar Area

n
1 h ∗ i2 1 h ∗ i2
∆Ai ≈ f (θi ) ∆θ ⇒ A ≈ f (θi ) ∆θ
X
2 i=1 2

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 Polar Forms and Area Polar Area

EXAMPLE 3.2
Find the area enclosed by one loop of the four-leaved
rose r = cos 2θ.
SOLUTION

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 Polar Forms and Area Polar Area

π/4
1 π/4
Z π/4
1
Z Z
2 2
A= r dθ = cos 2θdθ = cos2 2θdθ =
2 −π/4 2 −π/4 0
Z π/4 ¸π/4
π
·
1 + cos 4θ 1 1
= dθ = θ + sin 4θ = ·
0 2 2 4 0 8

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 Polar Forms and Area Polar Area

EXAMPLE 3.3
Find the area of the region that lies inside the circle
r = 3 sin θ and outside the cardioid r = 1 + sin θ.
SOLUTION

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 Polar Forms and Area Polar Area

Points of intersection of the two curves can be found

by solving equation
θ = π6
·
3 sin θ = 1 + sin θ ⇔
θ = 5π
6
The desired area is
5π/6 Z 5π/6
1 1
Z
A= (3 sin θ)2 dθ − (1 + sin θ)2 dθ =
2 π/6 2 π/6
Z 5π/6
1
= (8 sin2 θ − 2 sin θ − 1)dθ =
2 π/6
1 5π/6
Z
= (3 − 4 cos 2θ − 2 sin θ)dθ =
2 π/6
h i5π/6
= 3θ − 2 sin 2θ + 2 cos θ = π.
π/6
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 Polar Forms and Area Arc Length

THEOREM 3.3
Let r = f (θ) define a polar curve, where f is continuous
and f (θ) Ê 0 on the closed interval a É θ É b, where
0 É b − a É 2π. Then the length of a polar curve r = f (θ)
for a É θ É b is given by the integral
s ¶2
b
dr
Z µ
L= r2 + dθ (8)
a dθ

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 Polar Forms and Area Arc Length

EXAMPLE 3.4
Find the length of the cardioid r = 1 + sin θ for
0 É θ É 2π.
SOLUTION

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 Polar Forms and Area Arc Length

s ¶2
2π Z 2π p
dr
Z µ
L= r2 + dθ = (1 + sin θ)2 + cos2 θdθ =
0 dθ 0
Z 2π p
= 2 + 2 sin θdθ = 8.
0

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 Polar Forms and Area Arc Length

THANK YOU FOR YOUR ATTENTION

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