Quick summary…

• Combinational logic circuits

• Basic gates (OR, AND,….)

Logic Design • Combinational devices (Multiplexers, Decoders, Adders,…)

Design of Finite State •We now have storage devices

• D-Latch, RS Latch, D flip-flop

Machines • Implementation of registers and memory

• Using D-latches
(Chapter 3)
• ok…now back to sequential circuits and state machines
Based on slides © McGraw-Hill
Additional material © 2004/2005/2006 Lewis/Martin
• Recall examples of Vending Machine and Counter
Additional material © 2008 Roth
Additional material © 2010 Taylor •Refer to example circuits in fsm-examples.cdl
Additional material © 2013 Farmer
Additional material © 2019 Narahari • The link Examples of Finite State Machines

3 “Storage” Devices Clocked Flip-Flops/Circuits

•Subsystem in a computer consists of a large number of
combinational and sequential devices
RS Latch – Stores 1 Bit, Level-Triggered • Each sequential device is like latch which is in one of two states
R Q -1 “forbidden” input: S=0, R=0 • As machine executes its cycle, the states of all sequential devices
S RS Q’
-Holds Data when RS=11 change with time
•To control large collection of devices in an orderly
WE
(synchronized) fashion, machine maintains a clock
D-Latch – Stores 1 Bit, Level-Triggered • Requires all devices to change their states at the same time
-No “forbidden” inputs (fixes RS Latch) • Clock generates sequence of pulses
D D Q -D=Q when WE=1
-Holds Data when WE=0 • Much easier to design, debug, implement, and test

D-Flip-Flop – Stores 1 Bit, Edge-Triggered •How do we change latches so that they allow change in state
D DFF Q -No “forbidden” inputs synchronized with the clock ?
-D=Q when WE (CLK) transitions from 0 to 1 •Sequential logic circuits require a means by which events can
CLK be sequenced…..clock!
-Holds Data for WE=1 or WE=0
-Except when WE transitions from 0 to 1

1
 States in a FSM
Finite State Machine
• The concept of state • In general a Finite State Machine consists of
• the state of a system is a “snapshot” of all relevant elements at a An n-bit storage (register?) which stores the state of the machine
moment in time. A block of logic that computes the next state as a function of the
• a given system will often have only a finite number of possible states. current state and the inputs, if any
• For many systems, we can define the rule which determines under A block of logic which computes the output based on the current
what conditions a system can move from one state to another. state.
So when do they change states ?
– Random times ? Combinational
– Only at specific times ? Clock Logic Blocks

Inputs
Next State Output Outputs
State Register Function
Function (storage)

Latches and Flip-Flops D Flip-Flop

•Latch: basic circuit for storage • We can think of the D Flip-Flop as a 1 bit storage container with an
• Operate on changes in Level (i.e., 1 or 0) input, D, and an output, Q.
• The D flip-flop takes a clock input (often denoted with a triangle)
•Flip-flop:
• A set of D flip-flops can be grouped together with common Clock and
• Sequential circuits take input from output of storage WE inputs to form a register. A key component in our processor
• Latches that work on change of level can lead to unstable sequential
circuits
As level changes the outputs change --- inputs change!
• Flip-Flop circuits designed to operate properly when they are part of a
sequential circuit
Flip flop becomes basic circuit for storage in clocked Flip-Flop
(synchronous) sequential circuits !
D Q

Clock

2
One Last Thing…
D Flip-Flop with Additional Write Enable Examples
• From previous slides, we attached clock to WE of the D-flip-flop •Page 1 of fsm-examples.cdl
• Now, we add another WE line to the flip flop
Just holds onto data already stored in DFF
• Give it the ability to “ignore” the clock!

WE

WE

0
D 1 Q D DFF Q

Clock Clock
Flip-Flop w/WE

Next: Design methodology for sequential logic

State Machine
circuits
•type of sequential circuit
•We have storage devices and method for synchronization • Combines combinational logic with storage
• Flip flops and Clock • “Remembers” state, and changes output and state at each clock
cycle based on inputs and current state
• We can map from Finite state machine diagram (graph) to
truth table
• and we now have a storage device to store the state! State Machine

Inputs Combinational Outputs

Logic Circuit

Storage
Elements

3
 States in a FSM
Finite State Machine
• The counter we designed is an example of a finite state machine. • The concept of state
• In general a Finite State Machine consists of • the state of a system is a “snapshot” of all relevant elements at a
moment in time.
An n-bit register which stores the state of the machine
• a given system will often have only a finite number of possible states.
A block of logic that computes the next state as a function of the
current state and the inputs, if any • For many systems, we can define the rule which determines under
what conditions a system can move from one state to another.
A block of logic which computes the output based on the current
state. So when do they change states ?
Combinational – Clock !
Clock Logic Blocks • Encode each state with a binary label
Inputs
Next
State Output Outputs
State
Register Function
Function

Designing and implementing a FSM Counter from 0 to 3 (2-bit counter)

1. First draw the state diagram Reset Circuit has a “ON” switch (input)
• Encode each state in binary using N bits If ON=0 then machine goes to 00
• These N bits correspond to N “state variables” that need to be
ON=1
stored. Call them SN-1 SN-2 …S1S0
ON=1 00
• State diagram will show transitions from state to state based on
value of inputs
01
2. Next, derive the truth table (from state diagram)
• “inputs” in truth table are N current state variables and the inputs 11
• “outputs” are the values of the state variables in the next state and ON=1
the output at each state -- common notation is S’ but confusion ON=1
10
with complement operator, so let’s use S*
3. From truth table, derive combinational circuit (boolean
function) for each of the next state values
• State variables are stored in your N storage elements

4
FSM Representation of 3-bit Counter Storage
Reset •Each D flip flop stores one state bit.

Bubbles represent all •The number of storage elements (flip-flops) needed is

000 possible “states” for the determined by the number of states
machine (aka your flip-flop (and the representation of each state).
111 001 based circuit) • Each bit can be 0 or 1 = 2 states
• N bits can represent 2N states
Arrows show movement from
110 010 one state to the next
•Example: If a FSM has 12 states, then the circuit needs log2
Transitions occur at pulse of
12 = 4 storage elements.
• Fewer the states, less hardware needed
101 011 the clock
 Concept of Minimization of States for a given FSM

100

Designing and implementing a FSM Truth Table for a 2-bit Counter

1. First draw the state diagram • Derive Truth table
• Encode each state in binary using N bits • Using ON, A, B as inputs and A*, B* as outputs
• These N bits correspond to N “state variables” that need to be ON A B A* B*
stored. Call them SN-1 SN-2 …S1S0
1 0 0 0 1
• State diagram will show transitions from state to state based on
value of inputs 1 0 1 1 0
1 1 0 1 1
2. Next, derive the truth table (from state diagram)
1 1 1 0 0
• “inputs” in truth table are N current state variables and the inputs
0 X X 0 0
• “outputs” are the values of the state variables in the next state and
the output at each state -- common notation is S’ but confusion
with complement operator, so let’s use S*
3. From truth table, derive combinational circuit (boolean
function) for each of the next state values
• State variables are stored in your N storage elements

5
Truth Table Representation of 3-bit Counter Designing and implementing a FSM
1. First draw the state diagram
• Encode each state in binary using N bits
Present State Next State
• These N bits correspond to N “state variables” that need to be
D2 (t) D1 (t) D0 (t) D2 (t+1) D1 (t+1) D0 (t+1)
stored. Call them SN-1 SN-2 …S1S0
0 0 0 0 0 1 • State diagram will show transitions from state to state based on
0 0 1 0 1 0 value of inputs
0 1 0 0 1 1 2. Next, derive the truth table (from state diagram)
0 1 1 1 0 0 • “inputs” in truth table are N current state variables and the inputs
1 0 0 1 0 1 • “outputs” are the values of the state variables in the next state and
1 0 1 1 1 0 the output at each state -- common notation is S’ but confusion
with complement operator, so let’s use S*
1 1 0 1 1 1
1 1 1 0 0 0
3. From truth table, derive combinational circuit (boolean
function) for each of the next state values
• State variables are stored in your N storage elements

Functions and Circuit for a 2-bit Counter Example 2-bit Counter

•functions: • Page 9
• A,B current state •Output of the two flip flops are current state variables
• A is top flip flop, B is lower one
• A*, B* next state ON A B A* B* A B A* B*
• Input to Flip flop for A is function for A*
• A* = ON.( (A’B) + (A B’)) = ON.( A XOR B) 1 0 0 0 1 • i.e., output of circuit for A*
• B* = ON.( (A’B’) + (AB’)) = ON. B’ 0 0 0 1
1 0 1 1 0 •Input to flip flop for B is function for B*
1 1 0 1 1 • i.e., output of circuit for B*

1 1 1 0 0 •next state functions: 0 1 1 0

0 X X 0 0 • A,B current state
• A*, B* next state 1 0 1 1
• A* = (A’B) + (A B’) = A XOR B
• B* = (A’B’) + (AB’) = B’ 1 1 0 0

6
Example Circuit for 2-bit counter Truth Table Representation of 3-bit Counter
•Page 2 of fsm-examples.cdl
• Implements the circuits from the truth table:
Present State Next State
• A,B current state: stored in two D flip flops
D2 (t) D1 (t) D0 (t) D2 (t+1) D1 (t+1) D0 (t+1)
• Read current state from output of D flip flop
• A*, B* next state 0 0 0 0 0 1
• Write next state into input of Flip flop – will be written at end of clock cycle
0 0 1 0 1 0
• A* = (A’B) + (A B’) = A XOR B
0 1 0 0 1 1
• B* = (A’B’) + (AB’) = B’
0 1 1 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 1
1 0 1 1 1 0
1 1 0 1 1 1
1 1 1 0 0 0

3-bit counter: Boolean functions for values of

Example: Blinking Traffic Sign
next state
•(from textbook) Design control circuitry for a blinking traffic
•For each state variable Di , derive function that determines sign (to show “move right” message):
next state D*i for that variable: •Page 3 of fsm-examples.cdl shows implementation
•Note: D2 (t+1) also denoted as D2’ or D2*
•Current states: D2 D1 D0
•Complete the circuit on Page 4 of fsm-examples.cdl 1 3
5
•D2* = ? Simplify using K-maps

•D1* = ?
4
2
•D0* = ?

DANGER
MOVE RIGHT

7
1 3 1 3
5 5

4 4
2 2

DANGER DANGER
MOVE RIGHT MOVE RIGHT

1 3 1 3
5 5

4 4
2 2

DANGER DANGER
MOVE RIGHT MOVE RIGHT

8
1 3 1 3
5 5

4 4
2 2

DANGER DANGER
MOVE RIGHT MOVE RIGHT

1 3 1 3
5 5

4 4
2 2

DANGER DANGER
MOVE RIGHT MOVE RIGHT

9
Example: Traffic Sign Traffic Sign State Diagram
•A blinking traffic sign: How many lights = 5
•How many states ?
•4 states
• No lights on
• 1 & 2 on Switch on
• 1, 2, 3, & 4 on Switch off
• 1, 2, 3, 4, & 5 on
• (repeat as long as switch is turned on)
•How many bits to represent the 4 states
State bit S1
•S1S0 State bit S0
• With S1S0 values: 00, 01, 10, 11 Outputs
•How many ‘outputs’ (to control the 5 lights) = 5 ?
•If the sign is switched off then all lights turn off
Transition on each clock cycle.

Outputs
•Note we really have 3 groups of lights to be controlled = 3
control lines X,Y,Z
• Group 1: Lights 1 and 2; controlled by Z
0 1
If Z=1 then Group 1 lights (1 and 2) are switched on 01
• Group 2: lights 3 & 4; controlled by Y
• Group 3: Light 5; controlled by X all off grp 1 on

•In this example, we associate each state with an output 00 0

1
• Depending on the current state, we switch on specific groups of lights
0
10
0,1
all on grp 1,2 on
11 1

10
 Traffic Sign Truth Tables
• When is group 1 on?
• in states 01, 10 and 11 - but only when the switch IN is on!
Outputs Next State: S1’S0’
(depend only on state: S1S0) (depend on state and input)
• Logic expressions for X,Y,Z
Lights 1 and 2 Switch
• Depends on S0 and S1 and Input is on
 If Input is off then X,Y,Z are al 0
Lights 3 and 4 In S1 S 0 S 1’ S 0’
Light 5
• can you come up with a logic expression for next state values 0 X X 0 0
of S0 and S1? S1 S0 Z Y X 1 0 0 0 1
• Depends on current values of S0 and S1 and Input is on 1 0 1 1 0
 Input off then both bits are set to 0 since next state is 00
0 0 0 0 0
• Next state value of S0 denoted S’0 = 1 if current state is 00 or current 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1
state 10 and In=1 1 1 1 0 0
1 0 1 1 0
• When do we switch to the next state? 1 1 1 1 1
Whenever In=0, next state is 00.
• the two bits of S[1:0] are updated at every clock cycle
• we have to make sure that the new state does not propagate to the
combinational circuit input until the next clock cycle.

Boolean functions for light control bits Traffic Sign Logic

• from truth table, consider all rows where outputs =1

• Z = ((NOT S1)S0 + S1 (NOT S0 ) + S1S0 ).In

•Y = (S1S0 + S1 (NOT S0 ) ).In

•X = (S1S0 ).In

D
flipflop

11
Summary of Digital Logic The Agenda
•Combinational logic
• Basic gates •Take the elements that we have encountered so far
• Combinational devices • Combinational Elements
Gates, Adders, Muxes, decoders
•Sequential logic • Storage Elements
• Storage element…Flip flop Flip flops, registers, memories
• Theory behind design of finite state machines
They act like controllers of a circuit •And use them to build a circuit that can perform a sequence of
•Sequential logic devices arithmetic operations.
• Memory, ROM, RAM, Registers • In essence, we will build a very simple CPU

So, what is the purpose of all this ?.........

12