The Ins and Outs

Of Indirect orvinu
FIGURE 1. Key components of a
a vacuum tray dryers include a drying
chamber, heated shelves, a vapor nozzle,
been brought and provision for the heating medium

However, there is acommon set of principles devolatilization. The presence of the

sweep gas reduces the partial pres-
for their process design, and for specifying tnem sure of the vapor of the volatile sub-
stance, in the environment surround-
ing the processed material, below that
Georgios Raouzeos, List AG of the equilibrium pressure, enabling
drying to progress.
rying is the unit operation contact dryers, cites selection criteria Contact dryers offer several advan-

D whereby, through heating,

volatile substances are re-
moved from a single non-
volatile material or a mixture
of them, producing a final product rel-
atively or completely free of volatiles.
In most applications, the volatile sub-
for batch and continuous dryers, pre-
sents basic design procedures, high-
lights the necessity of pilot scale test-
ing as basis for the final selection and
design of a dryer, and closes with some
examples of industrial applications.
tages over direct dryers:
• Cross-contamination is avoided be-
cause the product does not contact
the heat transfer medium
• Solvent recovery is easy, due to the
very small amount of noncondens-
able gas present
stances are be organic solvents or CONTACT DRYERS: • Extensive dust formation is gener-
water or a mixture of both. The final SOME MAJOR VERSIONS ally avoided, because of the small
product may be of powdery, granular, Contact drying is highly versatile. On volume of vapors involved. Admit-
pasty, or viscous consistency. the one hand, it can handle material tedly, however, vapor volume can
Since heat is applied to effect the sep- that is very "thin," that is, of low vis- become considerably large and cre-
aration, drying is a thermal separation cosity, or dilute or both [1]. Similarly, ate dusting when operating under
unit operation. It finds use in virtually flat and strip materials, such as low vacuum and high temperature
all process industries. Different prod- paper, textile or cardboard, pasty or • Operation under vacuum is possi-
ucts are dried in a large variety of dry- creamy, granular and even highly vis- ble, preventing product degradation
ers. Even so, dryers can be classified ac- cous materials are dried in contact • These dryers can be of closed de-
cording to the manner the heat is dryers [3, 4]. sign, thus containing toxic vapors
transferred to the moist material in con- Contact or indirect dryers, also and/or providing better control of
vective contact, radiation or infrared, di- known as nonadiabatic dryers, are explosion hazards
electric, vacuum or freeze dryers. heated by saturated steam, hot water, • The thermal efficiency, defined as
The tremendous diversity of applica- glycol solutions and commercially heat required per unit mass of evap-
tions has made it somewhat difficult to available heat-transfer fluids. The orated liquid, is high
develop a general theoretical under- last-named can provide heating tem- • The final product, when granular or
standing of the drying behavior of in- peratures up to 360°C. Above that powdery, has a higher bulk density
dustrial equipment. For the same rea- limit indirect firing, electric heating than when the same product is
son, there is no universal computerized or salts could be considered. dried in a spray dryer
design procedure available. Drying has In most cases, indirect dryers do not • Contact dryers can be designed as
been and remains a kind of art. require the use of sweep gas to remove pressure- and shock-resistant vessels
This article focuses on contact or in- the vapors released during drying. An • They usually require less erection
direct drying, where the heat is trans- exception arises when a very low final space.
ferred to the processed material content of volatile material must be Dryers are often built to match the
through a heated surface. It gives gen- reached. This is often the case during specific drying characteristics of the
eral information about some industrial the drying of polymers, also known as material to be dried. Accordingly, the
 A heatexchangesurtace m2
Cp specific heat kJ/(kg)(K)
D diameter m
F force N
Ahv heat of vaporization kJ/kg
Md torque Nm
m mass rate
n speed of rotation
kg/h
min-1
p power kW
Q heat flow w
T temperature K
Greek letters Subscripts and superscripts
a heat transfer coeff. W/(m2)(K) bp boiling point
y shear rate s-1 cf conversion factor
0 thickness m f feed
11 viscosity Pa•s I liquid
11eff efficiency p product
A thermal conductivity W/(m)(K) s solid
p bulk density kg/m3 mean value FIGURE 2. Among the components of a
1: residence time h batch paddle dryer are its double jacket,
fill level shaft, nozzles for feed, discharge and
<p
vapor, and provision for heating

number of commercially available quantities of expensive products, or The agitator of the paddle dryer has
contact dryers is very large. A recent for dusty products, or for gentle drying seen considerable development. The
market survey performed in Europe under extremely high vacuum, and for earlie st version is the one shown in
registered 45 manufacturers, offering very long drying times. Figure 2. It carried radially mounted
at least as many types of contact dry- The tray dryer was later developed arms having rectangular paddles
ers. If one would perform a similar into the freeze dryer, and subse- welded on them. The orientations of
survey worldwide, the number would quently into the continuous plate the arms and of the paddles are de-
probably be near or even exceed one dryer. The freeze dryer is mainly ap- signed to improve mixing and circula-
hundred. With such a number of con- plied in the food and pharmaceutical tion of processed material in the dry-
tact dryers the selection of the opti- industries. Drying takes place under ing chamber. More-recent designs aim
mum one, judged on performance and high vacuum and the volatile sub- to enhance the heat transfer surface
economy, becomes challenging. stance is removed by sublimation. through heating of the arms.
Nevertheless, a number of engi- That continuous plate dryer cuts A further development of the paddle
neers have looked into algorithms the labor intensiveness, and can be dryer is the horizontal rotary vacuum
that lead to a preliminary selection of designed with several heating sec- dryer. This dryer can be designed for
the suitable dryer for a given task [6, tions. Its body is cylindrical, and is in- both batch and continuous operation.
7, 9, 10]. Even with use of algorithms, stalled vertically. Drying takes place The agitator can be ribbonlike, or
however, the final selection of the preferably under atmospheric pres- equipped with plows or scrapers. In
dryer type is usually based on pilot sure. The feed material is a filter cake continuous units, the agitator's design
scale drying tests performed with and flows from the top to the bottom of propels the product axially forward in
one's original product. We discuss the unit. A sweep gas, flowing coun- the drying chamber, from the feed
pilot testing in more detail below. tercurrently to the flow of the nozzle to the discharge section.
Within the scope of this article, it is processed material, removes the va- A major disadvantages of the pad-
hardly possible to cover all types of pors of the volatile substance. dle dryer is its tendency to form crust,
commercially known contact dryers. The batch paddle dryer was the first as well as product lumps. The crust
Instead, we focus on some representa- horizontally mounted, agitated dryer. reduces the rate of heat transfer,
tive examples of contact dryers that Its body is cylindrical with a length-to- while the lumps lead to an unevenly
have found extensive application in diameter (IJD) ratio that is close to 1. dried product. The prevention of crust
the process industries. Agitation by the paddles homogenizes formation is hardly possible, but the
the processed material to some extent formation of lumps can be lessened
Tray and paddle dryers (although the paddle dryer must not through the provision of breaker bars
Figures 1 and 2 show two well known be seen as a blender). The agitation or choppers.
and established types, the vacuum also enhances the heat transfer and The batch paddle dryer has found
tray dryer and the paddle dryer. Both the drying rate. The speed of agitation wide application throughout the
are nominally batch dryers, although is limited by the mechanical fluidiza- process industries. The feedstock to it
the paddle dryer has also been modi- tion of the processed material. Should can be a filter cake, a coarse granular
fied into a continuous dryer. Heating such fluidization arise, the effect of wet solid material or a slurry. If provi-
is effected with all industrially com- conductivity is considerably reduced, sion is made to forestall lumps, the
mon heating media. The feed material and consequently the heat transfer final dry product is a free-flowing solid
is usually a filter cake. The final dry rate falls. The paddle dryer is prefer- material. The final product discharges
product is coarse, and generally must ably operated under vacuum. Heating through a bottom nozzle equipped with
undergo at least a grinding step. Dry- is provided through the double jacket a valve. Particular consideration must
ing takes place under vacuum. of the cylindrical shell, the cover plates be given to the design and specification
The tray dryer is selected for small and the shaft of the agitator. of that valve. It must provide good seal-
 Cover Story

ing against vacuum, avoid dead zones, FIGURE3.

and prevent obstruction to the free dis- Spiral screw dryers
employ hollow screw
charge of the final product. In continu- conveyors through
ous units operated under vacuum, the which the heating
product discharge is effected by means medium flows
of a lock discharge unit.

Spiral screw dryers

Engineers realized that to improve
the drying performance of the contact
dryers, it was necessary to increase
the ratio of heat transfer surface to
dryer volume (SN). One of the first de-
velopments to achieve this goal was
the spiral screw dryer, also known as
hollow-flight dryer (Figure 3). The
vessel of the dryer has a trough de-
sign, providing a vaulted cover to FIGURE 4. In disc dryers, the agitator shaft usually constitutes virtually all of the heat
allow for the disengagement of the va- transfer surface; the housing is ordinarily not heated
pors driven off the solid particles. This
dryer is installed horizontally, and in-
Condenser Fan
corporates at least two screws. On the Recycle screw
screw shafts are welded hollow flights. C.M.
The heating medium flows through Vent
the double jacket of the vessel, the
shafts and the flights of the agitators.
The screws rotate with identical
speed, in either the same or the oppo-
site direction. Condensate
The flights of the screws overlap
partially and provide some self-clean-
ing action. This self-cleaning is partic- Dry sludge
ularly desirable when one is drying
materials that tend to foul the heat FIGURE 5. The drying of sewage sludge is a well-known application for disc dryers
transfer surface through the build-up
of crust. It should be noted, however, Disc dryers continuous operation. The unit is usu-
that the self-cleaning effect on the The disc dryer (Figure 4) maximizes ally operated under atmospheric pres-
heat transfer surface of the vessel is the SN ratio in a single unit. It is hor- sure, although vacuum operation is
less effective. izontally mounted. Its shell is of also feasible. As with the spiral screw
The spiral screw dryer is designed trough design, although a cylindrical dryer, the feedstock can be a filter
only for continuous operation. Drying form is also feasible. The top cover of cake, a coarse granular wet solid or a
takes place preferably under atmos- the trough is vaulted, allowing the slurry, and the final dry product is
pheric pressure, although vacuum op- disengagement of the vapors. On the free-flowing.
eration is also feasible. The feedstock agitator shaft are mounted hollow full The conveyance rate of the product
to this drier can be a filter cake, a discs that, like the shaft itself, can be through the drying chamber is inde-
coarse granular wet solid or even a heated by saturated steam or any pendent to the speed of rotation. The
slurry. The final dry product is a free- thermal fluid. At the periphery of each large volume of this dryer allows dry-
flowing solid. disc is provided some sort of paddle ing of materials requiring long resi-
The axial conveyance of the product that enhances the axial conveyance of dence time, as well as large processing
through the drying chamber depends the product along the chamber of the capacities.
on the speed of rotation, as well as on dryer. In some designs, the disc dryer A common disadvantage of the spi-
the pitch of the screws. As the con- provides breaker bars and scrapers to ral screw dryer and the disc dryer is
veyance rate goes up, the residence improve the mixing of the solids and their poor performance when drying
time goes down. Therefore, when long to provide some cleaning effect on the pastes or slurries that exhibit an inter-
residence time is necessary, the re- discs. The agitator shaft accounts for mediate viscous or sticky phase. That
quired size of the unit becomes quite almost 100% of installed heat transfer issue arises in a well-known applica-
large. Two units can be operated in se- surface. For this reason the housing of tion of the disc dryer, the drying of
ries, although with an obvious rise in a disc dryer is usually not heated. sewage sludge (Figure 5). To suppress
the capital cost. The disc dryer is designed only for the development of an intermediate
FIGURE 6. The AP kneader-dryer employs a main agitator as FIGURE 7. This single-shaft kneader-dryer is available in
well as a cleaning shaft, as well as discs plus kneading bars and either continuous or batch versions. Stationary, hook-shaped
kneading frames bars help to clean the rotating elements

viscous phase, the wet feed stream is ing velocity of the product in the dry- form product distribution in the dryer
thoroughly mixed with either an inert ing chamber. and the product homogeneity. For
dry particulate material or with recy- A specific design characteristic of such difficult drying processes, spe-
cled dry sludge. The mixing takes this dryer is its mechanism for distrib- cialized contact kneader-dryers have
place in a continuous mixer upstream uting the feed stream on the heated been designed.
of the feed nozzle of the dryer. walls of the shell. The feed stream is
Two proprietary further develop- evenly distributed and, under the ef- Contact kneader-dryers
ments of the disc-dryer concept are fect of the high rotation speed of the Among the first contact kneader-dry-
the twin-screw paddle dryer and the shaft, the product forms a thin layer ers was the all-phases (AP) continu-
horizontal thin-film dryer. all along the heated walls of the shell. ous twin-shaft model (Figure 6). Next
As with the screw and disc dryers, Because the product is held in the came continuous or batch single-shaft
the housing of the twin-screw paddle dryer in as a thin layer, the holdup types (Figure 7). Eight years ago were
dryer is of trough design, providing a and the residence time are both brief. developed the twin-shaft, contact, op-
vaulted cover for vapor disengage- Nevertheless, the drying efficiency of posite-rotating processor (ORP, Fig-
ment. The shafts rotate in the same the thin film dryer is high, due to the ure 8), only for continuous operation,
direction, with identical speeds of ro- high overall heat transfer rate that re- and the continuous or batch co-rotat-
tation. On both agitators shafts are sults from the turbulent conditions ing processor (CRP, Figure 9).
positioned hollow paddles, which are prevailing in the thin product layer. Single- or twin-shaft contact
oriented to ensure axial conveyance of The turbulent conditions are ensured kneader-dryers are positioned be-
the product in the drying chamber. from the high speed of rotation. tween straightforward screw type
The agitator shafts and the hollow The thin-film dryer is also used equipment and conventional paddle or
paddles are heated. If the trough is with filter cakes, granular wet materi- disc dryers. They combine the effec-
built with a double jacket, it can also als or slurries. As with all other pad- tive mixing action of ribbon or plows
be heated. On the leading edges of the dle dryers, the thin film dryer is not type units with capacities and heat
paddles are positioned bars that en- effective with materials that go transfer areas comparable to those of
hance the local mixing of the material through a viscous phase during pro- the paddle or disc dryers.
and the overall heat transfer rate. The cessing. For instance, the single-shaft dryer
dryer is preferably used for drying fil- In fact, virtually without exception, shown in Figure 7 comprises a hori-
ter cakes and wet granular materials. all the types of paddle dryers described zontal cylindrical shell and a concen-
The thin film dryer differs from all above are not effective in drying mate- tric agitator shaft with disc elements
other paddle, screw or disc dryers in rials that undergo multiple phase perpendicular to the axis carrying pe-
that the shaft rotates in high speed: changes from liquid to highly viscous, ripheral mixing/kneading bars. Sta-
three to ten times the velocity at paste en route to the final (usually) tionary hook-shaped bars interact
which the gravity force on the parti- free-flowing solid. Such behavior in with and clean the shaft and disc ele-
cles is in balance with the centrifugal many cases leads to further complica- ments as they rotate.
force. This dryer employs a horizontal, tions with side effects, such as foam- AP, ORP and CRP machines have
jacketed, cylindrical shell containing ing, stickiness or crust formation, diffi- two parallel, intermeshing agitator
the agitator. The agitator carries a cult product flow in the drying shafts rotating in a horizontal housing
large number of narrow, flat, pitched chamber, and fluctuation of product of a roughly figure-eight cross-section
blades. The configuration of the temperature and power uptake. When (Figures 6, 8 and 9). The main agitator
blades is usually adjusted to the char- phase changes arise, they can impact employs radially arranged discs that
acteristics of the drying process. Thus, the overall heat transfer rate, and carry U-shaped kneading bars. The
it is possible to choose a pitch that ei- therefore the specific drying capacity second shaft is fitted with kneading
ther accelerates or retards the convey- and the drying time, as well as the uni- disc elements that mesh with, and
FIGURES 8 (left) AND 9 (right). Both the opposite-rotating (left) and co-rotating processors have two parallel, intermeshing
shafts rotating in a housing whose cross-section resembles the numeral, eight
clean, the main agitator's discs and
TABLE 1. SELECTION CRITERIA FOR
bars. Intermeshing of the elements
generates an intensive mixing/knead- BATCH OR CONTINUOUS CONTACT DRYERS
ing action and effective self-cleaning. Parameter I criterion Batch operation Continuous operation
The spiral arrangement of the inter- 1. Nature of
nals imparts regular axial conveying upstream/downstream
operations
coupled with intensive lateral mixing. (a) Batch (a) Recommended (a) Not recommended
The shell, agitator shafts, and disc (b) Continuous (b) Not recommended (b) Recommended
elements of all contact kneader-dryers 2. Final product is:
can be heated or cooled, giving a large (a) Viscous or pasty (a) Not recommended; (a) Recommended
SN ratio. The intensive mixing and difficult to discharge
kneading action, coupled with self- (b) Free flowing (b) Recommended (b) Recommended
cleaning of the heating surfaces, com- 3. Operating pressure Suitable for either; For either, specialized
bines to break up baked-on crusts, ag- (a) Under pressure simple feed and feed and discharge
(b) Under vacuum discharge systems, systems are needed;
glomerates and lumps, ensuring a high low investment high costs
rate of product surface renewal for both 4. Multistage processes, Recommended Not possible in one unit
heat and vapor transfer. The kneading with varying pressures
and agitation forces are high. 5. Required residence time
All contact kneader-dryers are eas- (a)< 3 hours (a) Recommended (a) Recommended
ily adapted to changing feed rates or (b) >3 -5 hours (b) Recommended (b) Not recommended
composition. Other common charac- 6. Highly viscous phase Not recommended, Recommended;
teristics are these: because heavy duty light duty drives
• The large working volume, ensuring drives are necessary with are acceptable, with low
high energy consumption energy consumption
long residence time for slow, diffu-
7. Processing capacity For low to medium For medium to high
sion controlled drying capacities capacities
• Large cross-sectional area, permit-
8. Shift operation (l-2 Feasible, flexible, Not recommended
ting flash evaporation of super- per day) recommended
heated feed stocks, ensuring low 9. Multiproduct Recommended; can Not recommended, be-
vapor velocities and preventing operation handle various products cause not easily adjust-
solid disengagement able to various products
• Closed, contained construction, al-
lowing vacuum or pressure opera-
tion, handling of toxic, flammable, manufacturers possess pilot facilities, tests are quick, and require relatively
or hazardous materials. and occasionally make them available small amounts of raw material. Fur-
to customers on a rental basis. thermore, if the full-scale drying unit
DRYER DESIGN Pilot tests allow a systematic inves- is also to be batch, then the results of
The importance of pilot tests tigation of the parameters (such as the pilot test also constitute the basis
The actual design procedure for either temperature) of the drying process for needed for the actual design.
a batch or continuous contact dryer is a particular feed. These tests aim to If the full-scale dryer is instead to be
part of the proprietary know-how of locate the optimal operating condi- continuous, then continuous pilot test-
the manufacturer. Nevertheless, the tions and dryer design characteristics ing is recommended. In order to per-
manufacturer needs to establish a reli- for achieving the targeted final-prod- form continuous tests realistically, one
able basis for both the process and me- uct quality in the shortest possible must provide the peripheral equip-
chanical design of a given dryer. Such drying time. ment for feed and discharge. If the
a design basis can only be provided A detailed parametric investigation dryer manufacturer offers continuous
from pilot tests on samples of the is best served running a series of pilot pilot units for rental, it is a good idea
product to be dried. Accordingly, dryer tests in the batch mode. Batch pilot to test the performance of the pilot
 TABLE 2. KEY DATA FOR DRYER CALCULATIONS
Data Feed Wetting Product -
component component
1. Stream composition Required Required
2. Amount of wetting component Required Required
3. Free, bound, and crystalline Required Required
unit at the customer's site, operating water content; sorption isotherm
on a slipstream from the production 4. Specific gravity, bulk density Desirable Desirable Desirable
line for the product that is to be dried. 5. Specific heat Required Required Required
A difference between batch and con- 6. Melting and softening points, Required Required
tinuous pilot tests is that parameters sensitivity to heat
measured during the batch tests are 7. Explosive limits Required Required Required
time dependent, whereas those mea- 8. Boiling point Required
sured during continuous tests depend 9. Heat of vaporization Required
on the distance downstream the feed 10. Consistency, flow properties,
point. What's more, continuous pilot tendency to adhere Required Required
tests are not only time and product 11. Plasticization by shearing effects If applicable If applicable
consuming, but also more expensive
than batch pilot tests. In relatively TABLE 3. OPERATING CONDITIONS NEEDED FOR DRYER DESIGN
straightforward situations, it may be
Parameter Comment
possible to make the design calcula-
1. Mode of operation; number 1. Continuous or batch
tions for continuous full-scale drying of shifts per day
units based on measurements and
2. Hourly or daily capacity 2. Feedrate (continuous) or batch size (batch)
other results of batch pilot tests, pro-
3. Operating pressure 3. Positive pressure, ambient, or vacuum
vided that the dryer manufacturer is
experienced and employs reliable de- 4. Protection against explosive 4. Relevant for electrical connections
hazards
sign procedures.
5. Multiproduct operation; 5. Relevant for batch dryers
Whether the pilot tests are batch or product changes
continuous, a key object of carrying
them out is to come up with character- drying rate curve. The heat flows for
istic drying curves for the product, each section are calculated applying M f(holdup,17,y,n, ) (5)
doc geometry, type of dryer
under a variety of operating condi- Equations (1) to (3).
tions and dryer geometries. If possi- <'heat-up (ms x cps +mix cpl] x l1T1; If free flowing particulate products
ble, it is also helpful to have drying (1) are dried, the torque can be calculated
l1T1 = Tbpl -Tr
data from existing, full-scale operat- according to the following formula:
ing dryers.
(2) Md = Ffrictions X D
A reasonable design calculation re- 2 (6)
quires the provision of key data con- Qacc =[ms X Cps+ (1-y)x m1 X cp 1] x
cerning the product to be dried (Table l1T2; l1T2 = TP -Tbpl (3) The total heat exchange surface re-
2), the operating conditions (Table 3), quired is calculated from Equation (7):
the available energy source onsite, the In addition, however, special atten-
corrosion and abrasion properties of tion must be given to the mechanical
the material, and, last but not least, dissipation energy. It can become sig-
safety and environmental data (in- nificant, especially when drying mate-
cluding any relevant regulations) on rials that pass through a highly vis-
the product. cous phase (for instance, when drying
polymers). In some case, the dissipa- For the batch mode of operation, the
Guidelines for dryer design tion energy can even contribute a sig- limiting parameter is the net batch
When all data are in hand, the design nificant portion of the energy required time, namely, the time required for
basis is fully defined and the scaleup for drying. If the dissipation energy is the drying operation (excluding the
design calculations can be made. Fol- ignored, there may be an unforeseen time for feeding and discharging the
lowing are some guiding principles rise in the product temperature, and dryer). Therefore, the heat exchange
leading to the design calculation of the even a degradation in the product surface of the batch dryer has to be ac-
heat exchange surface, the volume of quality. The dissipation energy can cordingly selected in order to match
the dryer, and the installed power of only be determined from pilot tests, the net batch cycle.
his drive unit. For simplicity, it is as- where the torque applied on the agita-
sumed that the material to be dried tor shaft is monitored (Equation 4).
consists of a single solid and a single . 1
Qmech = x Md x n ; cf = conversion factor
volatile wetting liquid. cf ( 4) (8)
For the continuous mode of opera-
tion, the dryer can be regarded as con- In Equation (4), the torque, Md, de-
sisting of three consecutive sections, pends on the specific type of dryer, the
for the heating-up, the main evapora- viscosity of the dried product, its hold- The mean U and JiT values are
tion, and the final evaporation. These up, the speed of rotation, and the measured experimentally. Neverthe-
sections are distinctively seen on the shear rate: less, correction factors must also be
 Vapor dome
Cover Story
---Condenser

Rubber solution
15-20% solids - - -Vacuum pump

Vacuum

Solid residue

Rubber< 0.1% solvent

FIGURE 1 O. The focal point in this flow diagram is the FIGURE 11. This batch system evaporates and
continuous crystallizer-dryer, with overhead solvent removal dries residues from the processing of rubber. It
and recovery of the product elastomer crystals can handle 750 kg of feed at a time

considered to account for fouling as moderate temperature. The feed

p = Jid x '! ; cf= conversion factor and
well as for fluctuations in the product cf X 11eff stream contains 80 to 85% by weigh sol-
properties and composition and in the 1Jeff motor efficiency (11) vent and 15 to 20% by weight elas-
operating conditions. tomer. The final solvent content must
The mean overall heat transfer coeffi- TYPICAL APPLICATIONS IN be less than 0.1 % by weight.
cient, as defined by Equation (9), is par- THE PROCESS INDUSTRIES The process is carried out in a single-
ticularly sensitive to the thickness of Drying of a crystalline mass shaft kneader-dryer of the type shown
the crust (ocrust) formed on the heat ex- Continuous crystallization by flash in Figure 7, in one-through single stage
change surfaces. It is on the one hand evaporation, followed by drying (de- operation without solids recycling. The
the self cleaning effect of the internals, volatilization) is a processing se- feed system consists of the feed pump
and on the other hand the provision of quence that can widely arise. Two di- followed by the flash valve. As the feed
small clearances between rotating and verse examples are the production of stream enters the process chamber, it
stationary parts, that limit the negative sugar substitutes (sugar alcohols) in flashes immediately. The solvent va-
effect of the crust formation. the food industry, and the crystalliza- pors flow through a vapor dome before
Also, the speed ofrotation has a pos- tion of polymers in the plastics or rub- reaching the condenser and the vac-
itive effect on the mean overall heat ber industries. uum pump. The final crystalline elas-
transfer coefficient. Investigations In this process the feed stream is a tomer product is discharged through
with wet particulate materials have low-viscosity, pumpable solution. It the lateral discharge head of the
showed a linear relationship between consists of at least two components, processor. The design of the processor
the two. The positive effect of the one of which is volatile. At the operat- allows the control of the product fill
speed of rotation becomes important ing pressure, flash evaporation occurs level in the process chamber. The prod-
at low moisture contents. when the feed temperature is higher uct is discharged to the product silo by
than the boiling temperature of the means of a lock discharge vessel.
(9) volatile component. Following the Flash evaporation generates a large
flash evaporation, crystallization be- volume of vapors. Such volumes could
The volume of the dryer is directly gins after the solution becomes super- ordinarily lead to high vapor velocity,
correlated with the heat exchange sur- saturated. The process stream accord- which in turn could result in entrain-
face. The volume, significant for both ingly becomes a wet mass of crystals. ment of liquid droplets and fine crys-
continuous and batch drying The further separation of the talline particles. Entrainment is pre-
processes, defines the residence time volatile component from the solid is vented by having a large
of the process product, which can be a achieved by means of drying (de- cross-sectional area available for the
limiting parameter for either tempera- volatilization). This can be a time con- disengagement of the vapors.
ture sensitive materials, or diffusion suming operation, whose duration is Crystallization by flash evaporation
controlled drying processes, and often mainly set by the time needed for dif- forms deposits, and excessive fouling
for both. The residence time is defined fusion of the volatile component from on the heat exchange surface is in-
by Equation (10). the solid matrix to its surface. evitable. Conventional processing
Figure 10 shows a representative equipment would recycle solid mater-
Vxcpx(pr+Pp) process flow diagram for the continuous ial (as in Figure 5) in order to induce
r = (mr +mp) .... ; 0.4 :-:; <p :-:;; o.s (10) crystallization by flash evaporation, fol- supersaturation, thus preventing
lowed by drying and devolatilization, of crust formation, fouling and the risk
Finally, the installed drive power is a specialty grade of elastomer. The of blocking the dryer. By contrast, spe-
calculated as follows: process takes place under vacuum at cialized kneader-dryers feature a self-
 Cover Story

can be operated for one shift (8 h) through a filter before being condensed.
per day, at various heating tem- The quality of the product is judged
peratures and vacuum levels that by its taste and by the crystallinity
depend on the composition and (texture) of contained sugar. The so-
the boiling temperatures of the called Maillard reaction, which takes
volatile components. If desired, place simultaneously with the drying,
the unit can be of modular and is responsible for the quality of the
mobile design, thus allowing its taste. The crystallinity of the sugar is
application at the point of origin of ensured from the controlled drying
the residues. conditions. •
Dry, free flowing powder
Figure 11 shows a layout of a Edited by Nicholas P. Chopey
single-shaft, batch kneader-dryer
for this service. The unit can han- References
1. Keey, R. B., "Introduction to Industrial Dry-
FIGURE 12. Continuous evaporation and dle 750 kg of residues per batch, ing Operations," Oxford, Pergamon Press,
drying of block milk, with an intermediate phase for feeds with initial solids con- 1978.
change, takes place in this single-shaft unit tents of 30% by weight. Volatiles 2. Kroll, K., "Trockner und Trocknungsver-
fahren," Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1978.
recovery per batch is 515 kg. The 3. Root, W. L., Indirect drying of solids, Chem.
cleaning capability as well as inten- final dry residue has a free flowing Eng., May 2, pp. 52-64, May 2, 1983.
sive mixing, thus allowing the unin- consistency and a residual volatiles 4. Tsotsas, E., others, Drying of Solid Materi-
als, in "Ullmann's Encyclopedia oflndustrial
terrupted efficient processing of all content of slightly under 5% by Chemistry," 5th revision, Vol. B 2, Unit Op-
product phases. weight. The unit can be operated in erations I, Chapter 4, VCH Verlagsge-
sellschaft, Weinheim, Germany, 1988.
the absolute-pressure range of 100 5. Tsotsas, E., and Schhinder, E.U., Die Kon-
Batch-drying rubber residues millibar to 1 atm., and at a heating takttrocknung rieselfahigen, polydispersen
Granulats im Vakuum, Chem.-Ing.-Tech. 56,
Among the byproducts of rubber pro- temperature of 180°C. No. 11, pp. 844-846, 1984.
cessing operations is a mixture of elas- 6. Schulz, P., and Hilligardt, K., Vorgehen bei
tomeric components in water and Drying of block milk der Trocknerauswahl, Chem.-Ing.-Tech., 65,
No. 3, pp. 271-277, 1993.
toluene. The water/toluene content of Block milk, also known as milk crumb, 7. Kemp, I. C., Bahu, R. E., A new algorithm for
these mixtures can be as high as 70% is a raw material used in chocolate dryer selection, Proceedings of the 9th Interna-
tional Drying Symposium IDS 94, Vol. A, pp.
by weight. Depending on the production, pastry cooking and the 439-446, Gold Coast, Brisbane, Australia, 1994.
water/toluene content, the flow proper- dairy industries. It is a mixture of con- 8. Dittler, A., others, Measurement and simu-
ties vary from low-viscosity pumpable centrated milk, sugar, and cocoa paste. lation of the vacuum contact drying of pastes
in a LIST-type paddle dryer, Chem. En{{.
solutions to highly viscous pastes. The It can be considered a seasonal prod- Proc., 36, pp 301-308, 1997.
process material, regardless of its ini- uct, because milk production peaks be- 9. Kemp, I. C., others, An algorithm and expert
system for dryer selection, Proceedings of the
tial rheological status, exhibits a tween spring and autumn. To facili- 1st European Congress of Chemical Engi-
lengthy, highly viscous, rubbery inter- tate its storage, block milk is dried. neering, Vol. 2, pp. 1067-1070, Florence,
Italy, 1997.
mediate phase during evaporation. Block milk forms when the feed
10. Kemp, I. C., Progress in dryer selection tech-
When the evaporation step is nearly mixture is dried under vacuum and niques, Drying '98, Proceedings of the 11th
completed, that intermediate phase moderate temperatures, from an ini- International Drying Symposium, Vol. A,
pp. 668-675, Halkidiki, Greece, 1998.
changes into a crumbly rubbery con- tial moisture content of about 30% by
sistency, which is then further dried to weight down to the final moisture con- Author
a maximum residual water and tent around 1.5%. Moderate tempera- Georgios Raouzeos is man-
toluene content of 5% by weight. ture is applied, to prevent degradation ager of process engineering
and sales for Asia at List AG
Though the initially low viscosity of of the milk. (24 Berstel Str., CH-4422
Arisdorf, Switzerland: Phone:
some production residues could allow Figure 12 shows the flow diagram +41 61 815 30 00; Fax: +41 61
the use of a simple evaporators, the for this continuous-drying applica- 815 30 01; email: georgios.
[email protected]). He has
formation of the intermediate, highly tion. The feed stream is a slightly vis- been with that firm since
viscous rubbery phase does not permit cous and sticky but pumpable fluid. It 1993. Previously, he was a
process design and develop-
their use. Furthermore, the presence is fed into a single-shaft kneader- ment engineer for Ciba-Geigy
of toluene demands that the process dryer of the same type as those in the AG, and technology manager for thin-film evapo-
ration and extraction technology with Buss AG.
takes place under vacuum and nitro- two previous examples. As drying Raouzeos has designed, installed and operated a
large number of industrial drying units; his expe-
gen blanketing. progresses, the stream enters into a rience covers the contact drying of dyestuffs, pig-
The evaporation and drying steps rather pasty phase before becoming a ments, specialty chemicals, pharmaceuticals and
polymers. He has published several articles on
take place in a versatile, single-shaft free flowing, crumbly material. The drying in refereed as well as trade journals and
kneader-dryer. Like that for the previ- final product is discharged by means in conference proceedings, and is a Swiss repre-
sentative member of the International Drying
ous example, the version shown in Fig- of a specially designed piston lock Symposia Advisory Committee. He holds a B.Sc.
ure 7 is employed; but in this case, the that ensures virtually perfect sealing in chemical engineering from the U.K.'s Univer-
sity College London, and a Ph.D. in chemical en-
equipment is batch rather than contin- between drying chamber and dis- gineering from the National Technical Univer-
sity of Athens. During his postgraduate studies,
uous. The operating unit is skid charge to an atmospheric product silo. his research interested focused o the drying of
mounted. The unit is sized so that it Meanwhile, the water vapors pass foodstuffs, and on solar drying.

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