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Code Switching and Code Mixing: A Sociolinguistic Study of Senegalese

International Students in Iraqi Colleges

Research · January 2019

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Code Switching and Code Mixing: A Sociolinguistic Study
of Senegalese International Students in Iraqi Colleges

Lect. Dr. Hasan H. Abu-Krooz /Asst. Prof. Dr. Qasim Obayes Al-Azzawi
/Majid Mohammed Saadoon

The term 'code-switching' refers to the juxtaposition of elements from

two (or more) languages or dialects. There is, however, little agreement
among scholars on either the semantic scope of the term as they use it, or
the nature of distinctions to be drawn between it and other, related terms
such as code mixing. The term 'code-mixing' is a fluid one that overlaps
with 'code-switching'. Switching and mixing may happen to a certain
extent in speech of all two languages in a way that results in real
confusion in relation to the two sociolinguistic terms. Thus, this work
attempts to produce a rather comprehensive socio-linguistic approach to
investigate these two distinct but interrelated sociolinguistic phenomena.
This includes investigating the most observable operational definitions,
distinguishing linguistic features and most influencing sociolinguistic
factors on the use of the two terms. In light these aims the study
hypothesizes that code- switching and code- mixing can be inspected
from various viewpoints. Moreover, the processes of the code- switching
and code- mixing and their linguistic aspects and performances are
connected. To achieve the aims of this work and test its hypotheses, the
most relevant definitions, distinctions and sociolinguistic issues are
considered. Based on the findings of the analysis, the study concludes
that: Both code switching and codes mixing are used by Senegalese
students who are studying Arabic in Iraq – Najaf due to the fact of
multilingual students were exposed to four languages at a very early age
in Senegal, particularly in school interactional settings. Employing certain
language(s) in communicating with each other reflects several important
vital factors that control their choice of language at any given situation.
Switching to Wolof is always the case if one is talking to a fellow citizen.
It is easier, clearer and reflects more seriousness too. Moreover, Wolof is
used by them in order to show solidarity and intimacy as well as their
group identity. In scientifically oriented discussions and exchanges
French takes precedence. It’s the language at school, so it is the language
of all scientific idioms and expressions.
Key words: Code- Switching, Code- Mixing, Senegalese International Students,
Mechanical Switching, Code Changing, English, French, Wolof.

1. Introduction
Code-Switching & Code-Mixing Hasan Hadi

In the course of research of code change it has become clear that

code-switching and code-mixing can be investigated from different
perspectives. Researchers focused on code change after they had
realized that linguistic forms and practices are interrelated. And code-
switching/-mixing, in their turn, embodies not only variation, but the link
between linguistic form and language use as social practice. Research
from a linguistic and psycholinguistic perspective has focused on
understanding the nature of the systematic of code change, as a way of
revealing linguistic and potentially cognitive processes. Research on the
psychological and social dimensions of code-switching/-mixing has
largely been devoted to answering the questions of why speakers code
change and what the social meaning of code change is for them. The
sociological perspective later goes on to attempt to use the answer to
those questions to illuminate how language operates as a social process.

Throughout the history of research on code-switching/-mixing it has

been proposed that it is necessary to link all these forms of analysis and
that, indeed, it is that possibility that is one of the most compelling
reasons for studying code-switching/-mixing, since such a link would
permit the development and verification of hypotheses regarding the
relationship among linguistic, cognitive and social processes in a more
general way (Heller and Pfaff 1996:100).

1.2 Code-Mixing and Code-Switching Terms in Sociolinguistics

According to Meyerhoff (2006:115-116) people who speak more

than one language, or who have command over more than one variety
of any language, are generally very sensitive to the differences in the
vitality of the languages they use and they are equally aware that in
some contexts one variety will serve their needs better than another.
Thus, for language and especially speech that draws to differing extents
on at least two languages combined in different ways, as when a
Malay/English bilingual says: This morning I hantar my baby tu dekat
babysitter tu lah (hantar took, tu dekat to the, lah a particle marking

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Code-Switching & Code-Mixing Hasan Hadi

solidarity). A code may be a language or a variety or style of a language;

the term code-mixing emphasizes hybridization, and the term code-
switching emphasizes movement from one language to another. Mixing
and switching probably occur to some extent in the speech of all
bilinguals, so that there is a sense in which a person capable of using two
languages.

2. Definitional Issues

As with any aspect of language contact phenomena, research on

code- switching and code- mixing are firstly plagued by the issue of
terminological confusion.

2.1 Definition of Code

In communications, a code is a rule for converting a piece of

information (for example, a letter, word, or phrase) into another form or
representation, not necessarily of the same sort. In communications and
information processing, encoding is the process by which a source
(object) performs this conversion of information into data, which is then
sent to a receiver (observer), such as a data processing system (Mesthrie
, 2001: 55).

In semiotics, the concept of a code is of fundamental importance.

Saussure emphasized that signs only acquire meaning and value when
they are interpreted in relation to each other. He believed that the
relationship between the signifier and the signified was arbitrary. Hence,
interpreting signs requires familiarity with the sets of conventions or
codes currently in use to communicate meaning (Trask and Stockwell,
2005:40).

In computer programming, the word code refers to instructions to a

computer in a programming language. In this usage, the noun "code"
typically stands for source code, and the verb "to code" means to write
source code, to program. This usage may have originated when the first

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Code-Switching & Code-Mixing Hasan Hadi

symbolic languages were developed and were punched onto cards as

"codes”.

The term code is a relatively neutral conceptualization of a

linguistic variety—be it a language or a dialect. Romaine (1995: 33)
mentions that: “I will use the term ‘code’ here in a general sense to refer
not only to different language, but also to varieties of the same language
as well as styles within a language.” However, not many researchers
really explicate the term in their definition. In this study, code will be
taking as a verbal component that can be as small as a morpheme or as
comprehensive and complex as the entire system of language.

Crystal (2008: 83) asserts that the general sense of this term – a set
of conventions for converting one signaling system into another – enters
into the subject-matter of semiotics and communication theory rather
than linguistics. Such notions as ‘encoding’ and ‘decoding’ are
sometimes encountered in phonetics and linguistics, but the view of
language as a ‘code’ is not one which figures greatly in these subjects.
The term has come to the fore in sociolinguistics, where it is mainly used
as a neutral label for any system of communication involving language –
and which avoids sociolinguists having to commit themselves to such
terms as dialect, language or variety, which have a special status in their
theories.
Nevertheless, several sociologists and sociolinguists have given ‘code’ a
more restricted definition. For example, codes are sometimes defined in
terms of mutual intelligibility (e.g. the language of a private or
professional group). But the most widespread special use of the term
was in the theory of communication codes propounded by the British
sociologist Basil Bernstein (1924–2000). His distinction between
elaborated and restricted codes was part of a theory of the nature of
social systems, concerned in particular with the kinds of meanings
people communicate, and how explicitly they do this, using the range of
resources provided by the language.

2.2 Difference between Code-switching and Code-mixing

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Code-Switching & Code-Mixing Hasan Hadi

Several scholars have attempted to define code-switching and code-

mixing. Among them are Halliday (1978), Atoye (1994) and Muysken
(2000). For instance, Hymes (1978: ) defines only code-switching as “a
common term for alternative use of two or more language, varieties of a
language or even speech styles. “while Bokamba (1989: 281) defines
both concepts thus: “Code-switching is the mixing of words, phrases and
sentences from two distinct grammatical (sub)systems across sentence
boundaries within the same speech event… code-mixing is the
embedding of various linguistic units such as affixes (bound
morphemes), words (unbound morphemes), phrases and clauses from a
cooperative activity where the participants, in order to in infer what is
intended, must reconcile what they hear with what they understand. “

Code switching is not a display of deficient language knowledge: a

grammarless mixing of two languages. Instead it is a phenomenon
through which its users express a range of meanings. By code switching,
which occurs mostly in conversation, the choice of speech alerts the
participants to the interaction of the context and social dimension within
which the conversation is taking place. The phenomenon of code
switching is examined from a conversational analysis perspective, and as
such is viewed as interactive exchanges between members of a bilingual
speech community.

Very often the expression code mixing is used synonymously with

code switching and means basically intra-sentential code switching.
However, recent research has given new meaning to this term. Maschler
(1998: 125) defines code mixing or a mixed code as “using two languages
such that a third, new code emerges, in which elements from the two
languages are incorporated into a structurally definable pattern”. In
other words, the code mixing hypothesis states that when two code
switched languages constitute the appearance of a third code it has
structural characteristics special to that new code.

Furthermore, Meyerhoff (2006:115-116) argues that code mixing

" Generally refers to alternations between varieties, or codes, within a

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Code-Switching & Code-Mixing Hasan Hadi

clause or phrase. Often elicits more strongly negative evaluations than

alternations or code switching across clauses.

2.3 Types of Code- switching and Code- mixing

There are many kinds of code-switching. Code-switching can be

either inter-sentential, intra-sentential or Tag- switching.

In inter-sentential code-switching, the language switch is done at

sentence boundaries. This is seen most often between fluent bilingual
speakers. Sometimes I will start a sentence in English y terminό in
español. (Poplack, 1980: 58)

In intra-sentential code-switching, the shift is done in the middle of a

sentence, with no interruptions, hesitations, or pauses indicating a shift.
It often happens within one sentence or even a one phrase. The speaker
is usually unaware of the switch, until after the fact, and for example,
you have to find a kalo pedi (good guy) and marry him. (English-Greek)

The first type of language switching is known as mechanical switching. It

occurs unconsciously, and fills in unknown or unavailable terms in one
language. This type of code-switching is also known as code-mixing.
Code-mixing occurs when a speaker is momentarily unable to remember
a term, but is able to recall it in a different language.

Another type of code switching, known as code-changing, is

characterized by fluent intra-sentential shifts, transferring focus from
one language to another. It is motivated by situational and stylistic
factors, and the conscious nature of the switch between two languages
is emphasized (Lipski, 1985: 12).

The third type of code- switching is Tag- switching. This involves the
insertion of a tag in one language into an utterance that is otherwise
entirely in the other language. We can see example, so he asked me for
money, znas #, I had to say no, znas #. The tag here is Serbian for ‘you
know’.

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Code-Switching & Code-Mixing Hasan Hadi

Code-mixing is one of the major kinds of language choice which is

subtler than ‘code- switching’, as stated by Fasold (1984: 66). In code-
mixed sentences, pieces of the one language are used while a speaker is
basically using another language.

The kinds of code switching we have looked at up to this point

present the choice between languages or varieties as being something
like an ‘either–or’ question. Either the interaction takes place in Rangi,
or it takes place in Swahili. Either it is in Pidgin or it is in English. In
practice, there can be a lot of mixing of codes during a single exchange
or even within a single speaker’s turn. If we want to, we can talk about
switches within turns as code mixing, but not all researchers think the
processes underlying switches within turns and between different
conversational episodes are sufficiently different to warrant completely
separate terminology.
It seems that the kinds of interpersonal or affective functions
associated with use of Pidgin in Hawai’i or use of Rangi in Kondoa also
play a role in switching within turns. So there are mixed codes which
signal ingroup humour and affection. Conversely, they can show hostility
to outsiders who may not understand all the mixed constituents or may
not understand the conventions governing how the codes are mixed.
Miki Makihara’s work on Rapa Nui (Easter Island) discusses the way in
which a mixed code has been emerging there since the 1970s or 1980s.
This indigenous interactional code is now used by children and adults
alike. It involves extensive mixing of Rapa Nui (a Polynesian language)
and Spanish (Rapa Nui is administered as part of Chile, so both Chilean
Spanish and a Rapa Nui variety of Spanish are spoken in Rapa Nui).
Makihara believes that this mixed variety functions as an important
marker of an emerging sense of Rapa Nui solidarity and identity, and
probably first emerged in informal conversations; Makihara also
discusses the social functions it seems to index within informal
conversations.

3. Overall Analysis and Results

7
Code-Switching & Code-Mixing Hasan Hadi

This paper in intended to study the code switching case used by a

group of students from Senegal who are studying Arabic in Iraq - Najaf.
The reason why they were chosen is thefact that these students were
exposed to four languages at a very early age in Senegal. This paper aims
to reveal the reasons controlling their language of choice at any given
situation through asking them a number of questions about their
linguistic behavior there and here.

3.1 Discussion and Results

The first question was about the language Senegalese international

students used to study with in their country? Their answers ( as
illustrated in Figure (1) ) showed that almost 90% of them studied in
French and Arabic while the rest 10% Studied in English. That shows
French and Arabic as formal languages since they are almost always
related to school settings.

language used at school

French
Arabic
Wolof
English

Figure (1) Formal Languages Used at School

8
Code-Switching & Code-Mixing Hasan Hadi

The second question was about the language they use when they talk to
their teachers in Senegal (See Figure (2). French came first with about
48% of them using it to communicate with the teachers while45% of
them use Arabic and only 7% use their mother language (Wolof). Their
choices showed that French is seen as a little more formal than Arabic as
it was used more frequently to interact with the teachers.

The language used to talk to teachers

French
Arabic
Wolof
English

Figure (2) Languages Used at School in Interaction

The third question was about the language they prefer to use as they
talk to each other inside school. 45% of them said they use French while
40% used their mother tongue and only 15% used Arabic. These results (
displayed in Figure (3))showed that Arabic is not much of an intimacy
language for them. It is formal and used in formal settings most of the
time.

9
Code-Switching & Code-Mixing Hasan Hadi

Language used to talk to students

French
Arabic
Wolof
English

Figure (3) Languages Used at School in Interacting with other

Students

The fourth question was about the language they use at home and in
family settings. As expected, Wolof came first with about 90% users
while 10% said that they might use French too. This shows that even
though these students were exposed to more than one language at an
early age, the mother tongue stays the most dominant one in all home
and family settings. Figure (4) below illustrates this very significant
result.

11
Code-Switching & Code-Mixing Hasan Hadi

The language used at home

French
Arabic
Wolof
English

Figure (4) Languages Used in Family Interaction

The fifth question was asked about the language they use in the streets
and on the market. Most of them still prefer their mother language
(about 70%). The rest were switching between Wolof and French. Arabic
and English are not likely to be used in these places.

Language in the streets and on the market

French
Arabic
Wolof
English

Figure (5) Languages Used in Daily Face-to-Face Interactions

11
Code-Switching & Code-Mixing Hasan Hadi

3.2 Discussion and Results of Iraqi Setting of Interactions

With this background knowledge we got about the linguistic

behavior of these students back home, a new set of questions was
dedicated to study the effects of that behavior on them now as they
study Arabic Language in the University of Kufa – College of Arts in Iraq.

The first question was about the Language they use when they speak
with each other here in Iraq. Their language choices varied along with
their reasons to use them.

Wolof and French : About 65% of them said they use Wolof language
because it's their mother language and they are quite used to it. Another
reason to use it is that they feel like they are going to forget it if they
don’t run their conversations with it. Some of them added that the way
they feel when they speak Wolof is unmatchable and their words can't
feel as catchy or affective in any other language as they do in Wolof. As
for French, 25% of them use it for the same first two reasons mentioned
above.

Arabic and English: the case with Arabic is different. 7% of these

students tend to use it not only with Arabs but also with each other
because they feel like using it due to social interactions. Moreover,
practicing Arabic is a part of their study ant it helps them improving their
communicative skills. For 3% students, English is used for the same
improving purposes.

12
Code-Switching & Code-Mixing Hasan Hadi

The language they use to talk to each other

in Iraq

French
Arabic
Wolof
English

Figure (6) Languages Used in Daily Face-to-Face Interactions in Iraq

Question two was about their language of choice as they do the code
mixing: what makes them choose one language rather than another at
specific situations? Their answers showed that the reason why they pick
a language to switch to depends on the language itself.

According to them, switching to:

1- Wolof: switching to Wolof is always the case if one is talking to a

fellow citizen. It is easier, clearer and reflects more seriousness
too.
2- French:
 switching to French comes generally with academic or
scientific conversations. It’s the language at school, so it is
the language of all scientific idioms and expressions.
 Conversations that include people from different social
ranks bring about code switching too because French in
Senegal is the language of the educated elite. That means it
will be a good idea to switch to French in such situations.

13
Code-Switching & Code-Mixing Hasan Hadi

3- Arabic:
 all the students said that choosing Arabic comes when they talk
to Arab students.
 They also use Arabic to practice it because they are studying
Arabic language these days.
4- English: only the students who studied English in Senegal like to
use it here:
 when they talk to Arab students because English is a part of
school curriculum in Iraq.
 To help themselves not to forget it.

4. Conclusions
On the basis OF the procedures followed by this paper and in
compliance with the results and findings arrived at, the following
conclusions can be introduced:

1. Both code switching and code mixing are used by a group of

students from Senegal who are studying Arabic in Iraq – Najaf.
However, this kind of multilingualism employed here is due to the
fact that these students were exposed to four languages at a very
early age in Senegal, particularly in school interactional settings.
2. Employing certain language(s) in communicating with each other
reflects several important vital factors that control their choice of
language at any given situation.
3. Switching to Wolof is always the case if one is talking to a fellow
citizen. It is easier, clearer and reflects more seriousness too.
Moreover, Wolof is used by them in order to show solidarity and
intimacy as well as their group identity.
4. In scientifically oriented discussions and exchanges French takes
precedence. It’s the language at school, so it is the language of all
14
Code-Switching & Code-Mixing Hasan Hadi

scientific idioms and expressions. That is why French is exploited

in their academic collegiate stetting whether back home in
Senegal or within the IRAQI educational environment in which
these international student are present.
5. Conversations that include people from different social ranks
bring about code switching too because French in Senegal is the
language of the educated elite. That means it will be a good idea
to switch to French in such situations.
6. Switching into Arabic is the result of their need to talk to Arab
students. They also use Arabic to practice it because they are
studying Arabic language these days. Thus, exploiting Arabic is
part of their indulgence within their foreign setting of study. It is a
kind of accommodation strategy employed by the students.
7. English also comes under the adaptation strategic uses especially
within the Iraqi situation. Therefore, only the students who
studied English in Senegal like to use it here: when they talk to
Arab students because English is a part of school curriculum in
Iraq. To help themselves not to forget it and to communicate in a
rather friendly tone with their fellow Iraqi colleagues who are
more familiar with English language.

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 Code-Switching & Code-Mixing Hasan Hadi

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