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Sampling data and data collection in qualitative research

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 Chapter
7
Sampling data and data collection
in qualitative research
Violeta Lopez and Dean Whitehead

KEY TERMS LEARNING OUTCOMES

focus groups After reading this chapter, you should be
interviews able to:
observation • describe the rationale and processes
for conducting qualitative sampling
qualitative data collection
techniques
qualitative sampling • describe the main types of sampling in
questionnaires qualitative research and give examples
sampling criteria of research for each type
• explain the selection criteria in
qualitative sampling
• describe the different qualitative data
collection approaches and note
examples of research for each
approach
• discuss the benefits and limitations of
each of the qualitative data collection
approaches.

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 NURSING AND MIDWIFERY RESEARCH 4E

INTRODUCTION
A major part of the qualitative research process lies in determining and choosing an appropriate
population (sample) for the study so that data can then be collected from that population. With
qualitative research the population being studied is nearly always human, although there are
some exceptions that will be discussed in this chapter. A human individual is most commonly
referred to as a participant (sometimes ‘subject’) in qualitative research. A population sample is a
chosen subset usually representative of a wider population. In this chapter, both sampling and
data collection techniques used in qualitative research are the focus.

SAMPLING TECHNIQUES 1) convenience sampling

AND PROCEDURES IN 2) purposive sampling
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH 3) snowball sampling
The primary purpose of sampling is the selection 4) theoretical sampling.
of suitable populations (or ‘elements’) so that Convenience sampling
the focus of the study can be appropriately
researched. In qualitative research, effective This is the most common form of qualitative
sample selection process is very important sampling and occurs when people are invited
because inappropriate procedures may seriously to participate in the study because they are
affect the findings and outcomes of a study. conveniently (opportunistically) available with
There are a number of types of sampling regard to access, location, time and willingness.
procedures that can be adopted and the choice Convenience sampling is a relatively fast and
of qualitative research design will often guide easy way to achieve the sample size needed for
that process. the study. For example, Cubit and Lopez (2011)
used a convenience sample of 44 newly
graduated nurses who had previously practised

1
as enrolled nurses to explore their transition
Tutorial Trigger experiences. These nurses were invited to
You want to explore the experiences participate as the researchers were able to
of carers who care for relatives with produce a list of all newly graduated nurses from
cancer. What initial considerations the hospital where they had to complete their
might you need to identify for choosing an
one-year clinical rotation. However, the main
appropriate participant sample?
limitation of using convenience sampling is that
it could suffer from either under-representation
or over-representation of particular groups within
Types of sampling the population. It could also potentially be that
Sampling in qualitative research is non-probability the sample is unlikely to be representative of the
sampling. It is unlike probability sampling used population being studied and, therefore, limiting
in quantitative research where researchers recruit researchers’ ability to make generalisations of the
the population with characteristics that represent findings to a wider population (Creswell 2007).
a wider community. With non-probability Some would argue, however, that this is not
sampling in qualitative research the researchers always important in qualitative studies.
recruit only specific populations to investigate a
specific topic or when the total population is Purposive (purposeful) sampling
unknown or unavailable. There are four main This is also a commonly used sampling strategy,
types of non-probability sampling: in that participants are recruited according to

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 7 • Sampling data and data collection in qualitative research

pre-selected criteria relevant to a particular generation migrants), time periods (e.g. 3, 6,

research question. Sometimes referred to as 12 months) or context (e.g. hospital and/or
‘judgment sampling’, purposive sampling is community settings). For example, Holroyd
designed to provide information-rich cases for et al. (2011) conducted audio-taped interviews
in-depth study. This is because participants are (see later) to examine the postnatal practices of
those who have the required status or experience, two generations of Chinese women in Australia.
or are known to possess special knowledge to This provided different data related to the fact
provide the information researchers seek. For that the participants were first-time mothers
example, Elmir et al. (2010) used a purposive and their mothers. The study aimed to uncover
sample of four Australian women to investigate whether the Chinese cultural practice of ‘doing
their lived experience of recovering from breast the month’ was influenced by or had changed
cancer. The pre-selection criteria included those from one generation to the next.
diagnosed with breast cancer that resulted in
breast surgery, under 50 years of age and able to Snowball sampling
converse in English. Although the sample size Also known as ‘chain referral’ or ‘networking’
of four participants might be regarded as small, sampling, snowball sampling occurs when the
in keeping with the aim of encouraging the researcher starts gathering information from one
detailed richness of women’s emotional or a few people and then relies on these people to
experience, the sample size was deliberately put the researcher in touch with others who may
kept small. be friends, relatives, colleagues or other significant
There are two other types of sampling that contacts. This type of sampling is especially useful
come under the umbrella of purposive sampling. where the sample is representative of marginalised
These are quota sampling and maximum variation or stigmatised individuals and to find and recruit
sampling. In quota sampling, the researcher ‘hidden populations’, where individuals are not
decides the number of participants and which easily accessible to researchers through other
characteristics they need to possess. The sampling strategies (Green & Thorogood 2009),
characteristics may be according to age, gender, such as drug-users, prostitutes, AIDS/HIV
profession, diagnosis, ethnicity and so forth. The sufferers, etc. As such, the potential participants
inclusion criteria (see later) allow the recruitment may normally be reluctant to come forward
of participants who would most likely experience without the reassurance of knowing someone
or have experience related to the research topic. who has already participated in the study.
It is different from purposive sampling because Sometimes though, research ethics committees
quota sampling is more specific with respect to may not grant permission for snowball sampling
sizes and proportions of the sub-samples for because of either privacy concerns, issues of
each prescribed quota. For example, Chan et al. consent or the potential for coercion. This is not
(2010) conducted a study to explore the always the case though, as with Hood et al.’s
perceptions of coronary heart disease (CHD) (2010) descriptive exploratory study of Western
among Hong Kong Chinese people. The study Australian midwives’ experiences of an external
targeted three sample groups according to their review (Douglas Inquiry) of obstetric services.
level of CHD risk factors: ‘low-risk public’, Snowball sampling was used to invite 16
‘multiple risk public’ and those with ‘confirmed Australian midwives to participate in tape-
diagnosis of myocardial infarction’ (MI). In this recorded interviews. Some limitations of snowball
study, the CHD risk factor is the focus of sampling are that the researcher needs to rely
interest in determining how people understand on referrals from initial contacts to generate
CHD, which is why a quota sample was used to additional participants. The participants,
seek an equal balance of people with low risk, therefore, are often not considered to be
multiple risk and those who had an MI. representative of the overall population being
Maximum phenomena variation sampling is studied.
sometimes used to ensure that the full range and
extent of the phenomena are represented. When Theoretical sampling
choosing this type of sampling, the focus could This form of sampling is mostly used in
be either on people (e.g. first, second and third grounded theory studies (see Chapter 6) but is

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 NURSING AND MIDWIFERY RESEARCH 4E

increasingly being used to gather data from sampling criteria. Sampling criteria identify the
participants for theory generation (see Chapter characteristics of the sample population and
2). In order to identify the similarities and their eligibility to be part of the study based on
differences amongst the selected cases, the pre-selected inclusion and exclusion
research starts from a homogeneous (small) requirements.
sample and moves to a heterogeneous (larger)
sample (Creswell 2007). It is sampling that Inclusion criteria
occurs sequentially and alongside data analysis. Inclusion criteria are specific characteristics that
This is when previously analysed data guides the person or population or elements must
what data needs to be collected next (see possess, such as a certain age range or gender.
Chapter 8). The first selected participants, For example, Jones et al. (2007) explored the
from whom initial data are collected, are usually training requirements of residential aged-care
purposively chosen or conveniently available. For personal carers needed in order to understand
example, Utriainen et al. (2009) used theoretical and respond to residents with dementia and
sampling in their grounded theory approach to mental illness. In the study, personal carers were
create a substantive theory of wellbeing at work those who carry out all front-line nursing care
among ageing hospital nurses in Northern tasks such as bathing, feeding, dressing, simple
Finland. The aim was to discover core processes wound management and organising residential
of the phenomenon based on nurses’ authentic aged-care plans. The inclusion criteria included
experiences. The 21 subjects of this study were all personal carers enrolled in Certificate III and
nurses working at a university hospital, aged Certificate IV in Aged-Care and all those who
45–55 years with at least 10 years of hospital worked primarily in aged-care facilities in
work experience and performing three shifts per Canberra, Australia.
week. The material consisted of first-phase open The chosen qualitative methodology will
interviews and diary entries and of second-phase ‘automatically’ determine inclusion criteria. For
interviews and open-data collection forms (see instance, participants in phenomenological
later). studies are mostly chosen because of their
experience of the phenomenon being studied
and because of their ability to express that
experience. In grounded theory, because samples
Point to ponder of events and incidents involving action or
The type of sampling chosen often depends interaction relevant to the research focus are
on its ability to maximise the opportunity for sought, participants must have been or are
producing enough ‘rich’ data to answer the currently involved in those events. With
chosen research question. ethnographic research, the researcher is in the
‘field’, observing and recording the events and
behaviours of participants, so the participants

2
have to already be in the observable location.
Tutorial Trigger
If you wanted to explore the Exclusion criteria
phenomenon of client-centred care,
which sampling technique would/
Exclusion criteria identify characteristics that
could you choose? deem a participant inappropriate for inclusion in
a study, such as any person who is cognitively-
impaired or where the conducted language of
the study is the participant’s second-language.
Sampling criteria These criteria may be stated in a study or they
In qualitative research, participants are viewed are implied as a ‘given’. For instance, studies
as capable individuals able to reflect upon and related to maternal care would not normally
clearly express their experiences, values, beliefs include males, unless the studies wanted to
and opinions. Different qualitative approaches explore expectant fathers’ roles or roles of
have varying sampling intentions regarding male health professionals involved in maternal
participants. The selection depends on the services.

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 7 • Sampling data and data collection in qualitative research

range from as few as 4 to as many as 12. The

overall number could be higher, especially where
Point to ponder more than one group is needed for comparison
Whatever inclusion and exclusion criteria you between groups or in the case of program
use, you must always provide a rationale for evaluation research. Cheek et al.’s (2005) South
both the sample and the inclusion/exclusion Australian study, for instance, used 14 different
criteria.
stakeholder focus groups to investigate factors
that influenced the decisions of older people

3
living in independent units. Within the literature,
Tutorial Trigger
You intend to research the
decision on the number of focus groups is often
perceptions of patients in a compared to the method of analysis to be used. As
residential aged-care facility with such, sample size should refer to the number of
in-dwelling urinary catheters. What might you groups and not to the total of participants in the
decide in terms of inclusion/exclusion criteria? study (Carlsen & Glenton 2011). Small samples,
however, are far more manageable because of the
amount of potentially rich and detailed data that
Sample size in qualitative research can be generated from each single participant.
Unlike quantitative approaches which aim to
establish statistical significance by sampling a
predetermined number of subjects or elements, Point to ponder
qualitative researchers do not usually begin a Sample size in qualitative research should be
project with a predetermined sample size. In adequate to achieve data saturation, richness
qualitative research, there are no overall formal of data and not too large that it is difficult to
criteria for determining sample size and, undertake in-depth, meaningful analysis.
therefore, no rules to suggest when a sample size
is small or large enough for the study. Essentially, DATA COLLECTION IN
the ‘richness’ of data collected is far more
important than the number of participants QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
(Tuckett 2004). This said, the researcher still The process of data collection is directly related
requires insight to the size most likely to achieve to sampling and is best viewed as complementary
the purpose, context and the richness of the data to it. Data, therefore, are collected directly from
collected (Patton 2002). the identified and selected sample population.
Regarding the number of participants in Data collected from the sample can be either
qualitative studies, a common range is usually ‘direct data’ or ‘indirect data’. Direct data include
somewhere from 8 to 15 participants, but will recordable spoken or written words and also
vary widely both inside and outside this range. A observable body-language, actions and
number of qualitative methodologists, however, interactions. Here, the interactions may be
provide sample size guidelines for qualitative human-to-human or human responses to
research designs. Creswell (2007) recommends inanimate objects, such as a haemodialysis
3–5 participants for a case study, 10 for a machine. Whatever can be observed or
phenomenological study and 15–20 for grounded communicated are considered to be potential
theory study, whereas Morse (1995) suggests a or actual data. This will occur when considering
sample size ranging from six participants for a the thoughts, feelings, experiences, meaning of
phenomenological study and 30–50 for an experience, responses, actions, interactions,
ethnographic study. Rarely, quite a large number language and processes of individuals and groups
of participants may be involved. For example, within their social and/or cultural setting. It
Crowe et al.’s (2001) New Zealand-based is this type of data that sets the ‘context’ of
qualitative study accessed 131 community-based qualitative studies. Indirect data are generated,
client participants in order to evaluate consumer in the first instance, by someone or something
mental health service provision. With focus groups else, such as with documents or photographs
(group interviews — see later), Krueger and Casey reporting an event or an artistic rendition of an
(2009) suggest 5–10 participants but this can also event or experience (e.g. novels, songs, paintings,

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 NURSING AND MIDWIFERY RESEARCH 4E

poems, photographs). Turner (2005) used structured. With unstructured interviews, neither
photographs taken by Australian youth study the specific questions to be asked nor the range
participants to depict their interpretations and or type of possible answers are pre-determined.
experiences of hope. Direct data, though, are the The interviews are designed to be informal and
most common form in qualitative research. conversational with the aim of encouraging
Depending on the types of data required for a participants to express themselves in a naturally
qualitative study, various methods of collecting unfolding manner. Unstructured interviews tend
data can be used singularly or in combination to to start with single broad questions, such as
obtain direct data. For direct data, these methods ‘what is your experience of …’. The researcher,
may include interview, observation, open-ended however, has an idea in mind of the general
questionnaire, journalling (diary accounts) issues to be covered and may use a topic list as
or ‘think aloud’ sessions. Direct data can be a reminder. Turner (2005 p 510) described his
collected by the participant involved in a study unstructured interviews with Australian youths as
at the request of the researcher (e.g. through ‘a free-flowing conversation with a definite focal
writing a personal journal or diary) and then point’.
provided to the researcher. Most commonly, Semi-structured interviews have an interview
however, qualitative approaches acquire data guide providing a set of questions for discussion.
primarily through interpersonal contact with The questions are set to ensure the research
participants (usually an interview) or, secondly, questions or objectives are covered. However,
through the presence of the researcher in there is freedom to ask any questions in any
proximity to pertinent events (usually order, following tangents or seeking clarification
observation). This is unlike quantitative research of previous answers or elaboration of responses.
where, frequently, there is no interpersonal In other words, semi-structured interviews steer
contact with participants or events. Manias et al. the interview yet allow for flexibility. For
(2005) used both interview and observational example, Gagnon (2011) used semi-structured
techniques to gather qualitative data concerning interviews with 11 immigrant midwives in their
Australian nurses’ communication with health ethnographic study to learn the adaptations and
professionals when managing patients’ transformations that midwives, coming from
medications. Where indirect data need to be abroad into the Quebec healthcare system,
collected these are sought through a variety of needed to go through in order to integrate into
methods. These may include systematically practice. Using both unstructured and semi-
searching archives or browsing through the structured interviews, questions were non-
internet — with data collected being either in directed and mainly open-ended and were
hard copy or electronic form (see Chapter 3). designed to trigger and stimulate the participant
to talk about their adaptations.
Structured interviews in qualitative research
Interviews are not very common and follow a list of set
Interviews are regarded as the prime method for questions usually asked in a certain order, but
qualitative data collection; also representing the these questions are still open-ended; that is,
most common method for gathering qualitative usually commencing with words like ‘how’,
data in nursing-related research (Borbasi et al. ‘why’, ‘where’, ‘when’ etc. This distinguishes
2005). Spoken ‘narrative’ is the basis of most them from structured quantitative interviews
qualitative data, where that narrative is most which usually only ask closed-ended questions.
often gained through a direct encounter between
the researcher and participant (or several

4
participants) using in-depth interviews or focus
group interviews. Interviews can be conducted Tutorial Trigger
Prepare an interview schedule for
by telephone, email and, more recently, through investigating the experiences of
social media conversations (e.g. Twitter, clients who have an in-dwelling
Facebook). urinary catheter. What sort of questions might
Interviews in qualitative research may be you want to ask of your participants?
unstructured, semi-structured or occasionally

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 7 • Sampling data and data collection in qualitative research
Conducting interviews however, the participant wishes to stop the
The structure and conduct of interviews are interview or the researcher senses that the
very important. A poor interview will produce participant is becoming too tired or distressed,
poor quality narrative data and poor outcomes then the interview can be stopped or paused
overall. Conducting interviews can be a at any time. This may mean setting up a new
complex and demanding skill that requires appointment for another occasion. It is, however,
attention to process. It is unwise to conduct preferable to resume as soon as possible so that
qualitative research interviews in terms of flow and recall of previous discussion is not lost.
‘learn as you go’. If unsure, many researchers It is recommended that no single interview last
perform ‘dry or dummy runs’ with peers and/or more than 1–2 hours as ‘interview fatigue’ is
colleagues as a form of piloting the interview likely to occur.
schedule.
Where novice or experienced researchers are

5
appropriately equipped to conduct interviews in
the clinical setting, certain prerequisites need to Tutorial Trigger
be in place. The ‘rules of engagement’ need to What might be the features of a
‘desirable’ environment for the
be established early on, such as establishing and
conduct of qualitative interviews?
maintaining a warm and non-judgmental
manner towards the participant/s, asking
questions in a balanced, unbiased, non-
threatening, sensitive and clear way, and During an interview, the interviewer’s presence
choosing a setting for the interview where it is and engagement (including how they listen and
most appropriate to ask personal questions. The attend to and end responses) is vital to the
majority of interviews conducted in qualitative process. It should be remembered that the
research are audio-recorded or, less commonly, purpose is to gain information from the
video-recorded. In Fenwick et al.’s (2005) study, participant — and not an opportunity for the
they completely tape-recorded telephone researcher to express their own thoughts and
interviews of a self-selected cohort of Western feelings. In a structured or semi-structured
Australian women who had experienced interview, an appropriate range of questions
childbirth. Annells (2006), however, chose are asked as listed on interview schedules. The
to video-record interviews for her Australian purpose of these question lists is to provide
hermeneutic phenomenology study on the clarity and assist the participant if hesitant or
experience of flatus incontinence by people with confused. Questions may also be used to prompt
bowel ostomies. Both of these formats have an expansion and elaboration if further detail is
advantage over handwritten notes because it required. An active listening position is adopted
is often impossible to record everything the by the researcher, concentrating on what is
interviewer hears or to observe everything that being said as well as being alert to other cues,
occurs in an interview situation. particularly non-verbal cues. During the
In the interview process, the participant needs interview, some researchers find it useful to
to be made to feel as comfortable as possible. It record (memoing) non-verbal aspects of the
is necessary to ensure privacy and comfort and interview. Another researcher may be invited to
ensure that all items required for the encounter take detailed notes (memos) during the course of
are available. This will likely include recording the interview. The notes are later used to guide
equipment, tapes, consent forms, participant the data collected from the audio/video-taped
information sheets, drinks and tissues. interviews. Alongside this, the interviewer may
Researchers should take active steps, such as well note and review their own thoughts and
posting ‘do not disturb’ signs and disabling feelings about the interview and any
telephone or pager devices. This will help to ‘extraordinary’ situations or events that arise. The
ensure that interruptions are avoided. memos may then assist later data analysis (see
Appropriate time should be allowed for each Chapter 8).
interview. Interviews should not be hurried or Qualitative interviews should allow the
stopped before they have naturally completed. If, interviewee to speak freely and offer in-depth

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 NURSING AND MIDWIFERY RESEARCH 4E

and lengthy responses through techniques used When conducting interviews it is also
singularly or in combination. Possible techniques important to consider the use of language,
include those in the following list. especially in cross-cultural settings. In qualitative
• Funnelling — beginning the interview with research where participants are not fluent in oral
general and broad (non-threatening) opening or written English language, it is important that
questions and then narrowing down to topic the interviewer is fluent not only in the language
specifics as the interview progresses. but is culturally understanding or representative
• Probing — eliciting further details or seeking of the participants and their environment. In
clarification. Price (2002) details an innovative multicultural societies, such as New Zealand and
probing technique called ‘laddered questions’. Australia, research is often conducted involving
This is where appropriate questions are asked participants from culturally and linguistically
in a series leading from the least intrusive diverse (CALD) backgrounds for the purpose of
questions to the most intrusive. This technique describing, understanding and clarifying their
identifies classifications of questions; questions cultural ‘worldview’. As such, research in a
about ‘actions’ are deemed to be the least multilingual environment poses methodological
invasive, through to questions about challenges (Liamputtong 2008). Appropriate
‘philosophy’ (feelings/values/beliefs) as the strategy for data collection, when another
most invasive. Story-telling, as another language is used during interviews, is to include
technique, involves asking questions in a language assistants (such as bilingual researchers
manner which encourages story-telling and or professional interpreters). In the Fernandez
more elaborate answers; for example, ‘Tell me and Wilson (2008) ‘research in brief ’ (see
about when you last experienced …’ earlier), one of the researchers is of Ngati Tahinga
• Paraphrasing — repeating what the participant descent and is also a Fellow of ‘Te Mata o te Tau’
has said, without changing the meaning of (Academy of Māori Research & Scholarship).
what has been said, assists understanding and Benefits of interviews
clarity and acts as a further prompt.
Interviews provide the researcher with a valuable
opportunity to enter the world of the participant
and reflect on a particular event. Rapport and
trust can be developed and are desirable to collect
RESEARCH IN BRIEF the extensive and detailed data that are needed.
Fernandez and Wilson (2008) examined the Interviews should develop as conversational
effectiveness of smoking cessation initiatives encounters that offer opportunities to clarify
for Māori in New Zealand. They conducted a issues, as well as probe for ever-deeper insight.
focus group interview, consisting of five Māori Interviews also offer unique data, where interview
women who had stopped smoking, to ask outcomes will never be the same between
what was more likely to influence Māori participants. When emotional and emotive issues
women to quit and the data were thematically
arise during the course of the interview session,
analysed (see Chapter 8). Two themes were
identified: (1) ‘transmission of Whanau’
the interviewer is able to offer appropriate
(immediate and extended family) with values support and referral to counselling if the need
that included the sub-categories ‘Whanau exists or arises. Overall, qualitative interviews
experiences’, ‘being mothers’ and ‘role potentially offer a productive, meaningful and
models’; and (2) ‘factors crucial in influencing supportive engagement that benefits both
change’ that included the sub-categories of researchers and participants.
‘choices and exercising own will’, ‘a positive
perception of self’ and ‘a Māori approach’. Limitations of interviews
The findings provide insight for nurses into Price (2002) identifies a range of challenges
Māori women’s insights that highlight the when it comes to interviewing, such as securing
importance of ‘Whanau’ and supportive
access, making sensitive records, managing power
relationships, and can be used to inform
strategies to assist Māori women in smoking
relationships, managing ‘space’, managing
cessation. communication and managing the sequence of
interviews. Interviews are not so much limited

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 7 • Sampling data and data collection in qualitative research

by the techniques and methods used, but mostly interpreted in context. Sometimes group
by how these are applied by the researcher. ‘synergy’ or consensus (agreement) on issues
Ethically, interview schedules should be occurs, but this is not always the case.
challenged if there are questions which are If a series of focus groups are scheduled, initial
seemingly biased, leading, unbalanced, emotive, interviews usually identify broad issues and
imposing, coercive, manipulative or threatening. perspectives related to the focus of the study,
Therefore, the potential for an increased while subsequent interviews seek to prioritise
imbalance in the power relationship between and narrow down generated issues. In Fragar and
interviewer and interviewee should be avoided. Depczynski’s (2011) study of the challenges at
Even in research designs that are well executed, work for older nurses and allied health workers
some degree of power differential will always beyond 50 years of age in rural Australia,
exist in an interview situation. In order to communities were selected for focus group
minimise the imbalance in the power discussions based on size and geographical spread
relationship, it is important for the interviewer across the region of rural New South Wales. A
to explain why it is in the interest of the convenience sample of 80 older health workers
participants to answer the questions and remain attended six focus groups. One or two items
in control of the interview. A good interview is from each group were selected for further
a discussion rather than a question and answer discussion by the larger group to assist other
session. It is important to always treat the group members to contribute and/or debate on
participants with respect and politeness. the ideas that arose from each small focus group.
Interviews can be time-consuming and Such focus groups work because they include
resource-intensive to establish. Although in participants who are similar to each other.
qualitative research, estimation can be made Homogeny (consistency) was determined by
about how many interviews may be necessary to the purpose of the study and by the general
gather a complete set of data, this is not always inclusion criteria; that all were beyond 50 years
an exact science. Also, limiting data collection to of age, all were rurally located and all were
‘one-off ’ interviews with participants may lead health workers. From the methodological
to insufficient in-depth information. Another approach used, the results of this study provided
consideration is the interviewer, despite any ways to address concerns and avoid demands
effort to ‘bracket’ out their own experiences, being placed on older healthcare workers across
ideas, prejudices and opinions prior to the the rural health service.
interview, is always partly generating their
own internalised data. The resulting data will Benefits of focus group interviews
inevitably be partly influenced by the interviewer One of the main benefits of this method of data
whether this is through subtle body language or collection is that they are often less intimidating
the nature of questions asked. than individual interviews. The focus group
method allows access to participants who may
find individual interviews intimidating or
Focus group interviews inappropriate (Krueger & Casey 2009;
Focus groups are useful as they help to explore, Liamputtong 2010). They potentially offer
develop and refine initial research questions and supportive group interactions as each member
interview schedules. They can also be useful as is encouraged to identify, describe, analyse and
part of a developing evaluative framework to resolve issues (Morgan 1997; Krueger & Casey
assess client needs and the outcomes of such 2009). They are particularly useful in discovering
investigation (Banning 2005). Focus groups use new information or obtaining different
interview schedules but these differ in scope, perspectives on the same topic. Focus group
nature and intention from other research interviews are also useful in gaining participants’
interviews. This is because of the unique nature views, beliefs, values and perceptions on why
of group dynamics and insights gained from they think and feel the way they do (Litosseliti
interaction between participants. Focus groups 2007). Focus group interviews are usually more
offer a collective set of values, experiences and economical to conduct than individual
observations of participants that are later interviews.

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Limitations of focus group interviews the daily life and behaviours of participants in
Focus groups may not explore issues as deeply as their natural setting to record aspects such as
one-on-one interviews. At the same time, as they social position and function, or actions and
are not as intimate and private as individual interactions. Qualitative observation is
interviews, they tend not to uncover sensitive or traditionally adopted by ethnographers (Borbasi
potentially embarrassing information. et al. 2005), but can be used in other qualitative
Researchers generally need quite high levels of approaches. This is especially so with studies
interviewing expertise to conduct focus group using an interpretive/constructivist approach (see
interviews. For instance, they require ‘gate- Chapter 2) where exploring observed events are
keeping’ skills to help avoid ‘group think’ often used to interpret and understand behaviour
outcomes, prevent any individuals from (Mulhall 2003).
dominating conversations as well as teasing In qualitative research, observation methods
contributions from quieter members. That said, are mostly unstructured. Sometimes, however,
where the focus group does not present any of qualitative observation may have some structure.
these dilemmas the researchers should be mostly With unstructured observation, the researcher
anonymous, often only needing to contribute to enters the ‘field’ with no predetermined schedule
commence, prompt occasionally and finalise the as to what they may or may not see or hear.
session. Using this approach requires an ‘observation
protocol’ to record the same information
collected during observations by the data
collectors. For instance, observers in a ward
Point to ponder or clinic may focus observation on a certain
phenomenon of interest. Munyisia et al. (2011)
Focus groups are small, structured groups with
selected participants led by a moderator. undertook an observational study to see how
Focus groups are specialised groups in terms nursing staff spent their time performing clinical
of purpose, size, composition and procedures. activities in a 110-bed nursing home in
Interaction in focus groups is important with Australia. Their study required a team of trained
an element of flexibility and adaptability observers to use a predetermined classification of
designed to obtain the best results (Litosseliti activities in recording the specific activity being
2007).
undertaken at a particular time by nurses.
Some examples of the predetermined nursing
activities observed included ‘time spent in
RESEARCH IN BRIEF communication’, ‘medication management’,
‘direct care’, ‘indirect care’ and ‘documentation’.
Paulin (2010) investigated the understanding
A total of 6538 observations were recorded over
and experience of supervision by dietitians
in New Zealand. Twenty senior dietitians
5 days among 74 nursing staff.
participated in the study. Focus group
Process of observation
audio-taped interviews (four in each group)
were conducted in a conversational style using Methods of observation range across a
an interview guide to ensure all topics were continuum from participation to observation
covered. A research assistant was also present where four distinct roles of participation and
during the interview to take notes. The study observation can be identified. These being:
provided in-depth insight into the professional complete participant; participant-as-observer;
supervision practice of New Zealand dietitians observer-as-participant; and complete observer.
which was regarded as important to ensure These roles can also be adopted in quantitative
safe practice.
research and are further discussed in Chapter 11.
Differences in observer roles depend on the
degree of researcher involvement (intervention)
Observation or detachment (concealment) with participants
Observational methods are commonly used in (see Figure 7.1).
qualitative research designs and vary between With complete participation, the researcher
methods. Observation is the process of watching is an accepted and established member of the

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 7 • Sampling data and data collection in qualitative research

Complete Participant Participant as Observer

• Researcher is immersed in group/community • Researcher steps into and out of groups/
(complete intervention) community (intervention)
• Research is usually concealed (covert) • Research is known (open)

Observer as Participant Complete Observer

• Researcher mainly observes but occasionally • Researcher does not participate
enters field (brief intervention) • Research is either known (open) or
• Research is known (open) concealed (covert)

Figure 7.1 Different roles of the observer in observational research

community (or group or sub-group) under These are classified as single, multiple and mobile.
observation. Complete participation gives the In single positioning the observer occupies one
researcher the best opportunity to observe location only. They are less likely to distract
behaviours as the researcher is part of the participants or be distracted. Multiple positioning
community. Most anthropological studies use allows the observer to move to different locations
this technique as the researcher is already a and view events from different angles/
member of the community or attempts to be perspectives. Mobile positioning is needed in
invited into and ultimately be accepted by the situations where the observer must follow
community. Often it is not known by the participants as they go about daily activities.
community that the participant observer is a Another method of conducting observational
researcher (a form of concealment) to avoid study is by the use of video-recording. Decisions
disruption of normal activity. In a participant- on how to record observational data depends on
as-observer role, the researcher is acting as both the focus of the research question and the
participant and observer with this openness analytical approached proposed. A main
allowing productive relationships to develop with advantage of this approach is that the researcher
other participants, and allows the researcher to has the ability to play the video over and over,
step in and out of the research environment aiding the data analysis process and reducing
when they think it is best. With observer-as- personal observational bias. This method can also
participant, the researcher’s role is made public be effectively used for intervention studies to
and the researcher is first an observer, with compare pre- and post-change in practice. For
participation a secondary role. The close relations example, Mjaaland et al. (2011) video-taped
of a complete participation role, however, are (using a still camera and extended microphones)
more difficult to establish in this role. As a 72 doctors’ encounters with their patients before
complete observer, a researcher is confined to and after a communication-skills training
observations only and offers no interaction with intervention. The focus of the study was to
participants. The research study itself may or observe if doctors responded to patients’ cues
may not be revealed. There are major ethical and concerns when they expressed negative
implications for not revealing to people that they emotions. The results showed that doctors
are being observed for research purposes and so tended to avoid supporting or exploring patients’
examples, not just in nursing and midwifery, are emotions. A further related method is the use
rare. Sometimes, it may be planned that of photographic observation which serves to
participants are informed instead after the illustrate aspects of activities that are not easily
research has finished. However, this is still described. Researchers could, for example, take a
usually not a compelling case for ethical approval series of 10 to 15 photographs of an activity and
to be given. then describe what they see so that an account
A further aspect of observation is in the of what is happening in the activity unfolds
‘positioning approach’ that the observer adopts. (Kawulich 2005).

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 NURSING AND MIDWIFERY RESEARCH 4E

Benefits of observation deceived (Kawulich 2005). Table 7.1 highlights

Mulhall (2003) suggests that observation has some of the overall benefits and limitations of
several advantages for qualitative research. the main qualitative data collection methods.
These being: ‘capturing data in more natural
circumstances’, ‘capturing the whole social
setting’ and ‘context of the environment in
which people function’, and ‘informing about RESEARCH IN BRIEF
influences of the immediate physical Walsh (2006) used a mixture of both observer-
environment’. Depending on the observation as-participant and complete observer
method used, there is opportunity to interact (depending on whether he was dealing with
with participants while gaining rich data and colleagues or clients), in his ethnographic
perspectives related to participants’ values and study of a free-standing birth centre. In the
experiences. Where the researcher is also a first instance, he would find himself informally
chatting to the women and families and
participant, observation allows them to reflect
making field tape-recordings. In the other
on and evaluate their own feelings about their instance (complete observer), as he was not
experiences in the field. In this case, researchers employed by the birth centre, he simply ‘hung
can choose to either ‘step back from’ or ‘be out there, shadowing the staff as they went
immersed in’ situations. about their daily work’ (pp 229–30).
Limitations of observation
If researching from an ‘objective’ stance, it is

6
necessary to be aware of Mulhall’s (2003) caution
that observation is more prone to ‘subjective’ Tutorial Trigger
Devise an observation schedule for
interpretation by the researcher than is usually
observing chronically ill children on a
the case with interview data. Field notes are paediatric ward. What type of
likely often written up following the observation observer/participant role/s would you employ?
event potentially adding to the subjectivity of What might you expect to observe?
data. However, neither of these issues would
be a primary concern if working within a
constructivist paradigm of research (see Chapter
2). For example, Manias and Street (2001) state Other types of data collection
in their study that researcher/participant Although most qualitative studies use interviews
subjectivity was an important and positive aspect or observations for the collection of data, other
of observation. Mulhall (2003) also points to the data collection methods are also applied —
incidence of the Hawthorne effect (reactivity) in either singularly or in relation to each other. For
observational research methods. This effect is a instance, qualitative research questionnaires can
well-known phenomenon whereby people who be used where a list of open-ended questions
know that they are being researched (particularly capture qualitative data. Journals can be written
when observed) tend to behave in different ways by participants about their experiences, decision-
than they would normally — either to please the making or whatever is the focus of the study,
researcher or to present themselves in a different with the journalling usually occurring soon after
and possibly more positive way (see Chapters 5 the event or the experience. A novel form of data
and 10 for a more detailed account of this collection is the ‘think-aloud’ technique. This is
phenomenon). To avoid participant ‘reactivity’ where participants record reflective thoughts,
altogether, a practical solution is concealment decision-making processes or impressions about
of the researcher’s role from start to finish (Li events and incidents into, for example, a hand-
2008). The disadvantages of this approach, held audio-recorder. This occurs in a study of
however, are that the researcher may lack patients where they are making self-management
objectivity, the group members may feel distrust decisions about their diabetes (Thorne &
when the identity of the researcher is revealed Paterson 2001).
and the ethics of the situation are questionable A long-established method of data collection
since the group members are essentially being is using a form of ‘systematic searching’ for

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 7 • Sampling data and data collection in qualitative research

TABLE 7.1
Summary of benefits and limitations of main qualitative data collection methods
DATA COLLECTION
METHODS BENEFITS LIMITATIONS
Individual interview • Allows participants to express their own • Minimal control over the order
ideas in which the topics are covered
• Allows interviewer to be responsive to • Usually small sample size
individual differences and situational limited due to cost and time
circumstances
Focus group • Allows organised discussion structured in a • Researcher has less control
interview flexible way over the flow of discussion
• Provides opportunity for all to participate • Facilitating focus group
and give their opinions interviews requires
• Dominant and submissive participants can considerable skill
be directed and controlled • Difficult to distinguish between
• Discussion generated between participants individual view and group view
• Large quantity of information collected in • More difficult to organise and
a short amount of time order data for analysis
Involved observation • Allows researcher immersion and • Altered behaviours of
prolonged involvement with participants observed groups by the
• Encourages free and open conversation presence of the researcher
with the participants • Takes time to build trust with
participants
Detached • Reveals descriptions of behaviours by • Potential researcher bias in the
observation stepping outside the group design of a study
• Allows identification of recurring patterns • Sources or participants may
of behaviours that participants may be not be equally credible
unable to recognise or reveal themselves • Analysis of observation can be
biased

stored or displayed items of relevance (indirect of a national curriculum evaluation

data) that can later be analysed. The search may framework.
be for items of historical information (e.g. The systematic search process may also be
archival material, minutes of meetings, used for indirect data that present as a range of
biographies, personal and organisational diaries, literary and artistic media, including paintings,
letters and personal documents). For instance, literature and photography. In this case, some
Kirby (2004) used government reports and qualitative researchers also ask participants to
professional journals to investigate nursing create collages, take photographs or perform
recruitment crises in the 1930s and 1940s — to other artistic processes related to the research
compare how this impacted on the foundations focus of a study. For example, Turner (2005)
of nursing research from 1950 to the 1970s. investigated hope, from the perspective of 10
Such sources provide historical and contextual young Australian people, asking them to take
accounts either to back up observations and photographs that reflected their experiences and
interviews, or to provide data in its own right. interpretations of hope. Ureda et al. (2011) used
In the Chaboyer et al. (2004) benchmarking ‘story-mapping’ with their focus group
project, for embedding evidence-based practice participants to illustrate their decision-making
into a nursing curriculum, data were drawn processes for dealing with prostate cancer. The
directly from official university documents. story maps were illustrated visually by a local
Similarly, Leibbrandt et al. (2005) examined artist in colour and were found to increase
the curriculum documents of 26 Australian participants’ identification of the issues
universities to produce data for the formation surrounding prostate cancer. In addition,

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 NURSING AND MIDWIFERY RESEARCH 4E

a discussion guide was used to assist the focus used (Marshall 1996). However, this can be
group process of how and where, in their overcome when researchers ‘feel’ that they have
community, participants might learn about enough information at hand or, alternatively, the
screening for prostate cancer. emerging data becomes repetitive or uncovers
nothing new. If this is the case, then researchers
Using multiple data continue collecting data until data saturation,
redundancy of data or ‘theoretical saturation’ is
collection methods achieved (see Chapter 8). Saturation, therefore, is
More and more nurse and midwifery researchers not dependent on the amount of data collected
are conducting research using mixed-method/ but based on the richness of the emerging data
triangulation research (see Chapter 14). One set (Tuckett 2004; Guest et al. 2006). There is
form of methodological triangulation is where some controversy, though, as to whether it is
the researcher uses different methods for really possible to achieve true data ‘redundancy’
collecting data in the same study. For instance, or saturation, because further interviews always
Henderson (2003) details a grounded theory have the potential to uncover something new or
study where she uses interviews and participant unexpected (Wray et al. 2007). Therefore, the
observation to investigate power imbalances point at which this situation seems to occur will
between nurses and patients in Western vary with each study and cannot be predicted.
Australia. Ray and Street (2005) use interviews However, once the researcher is reasonably
and an original technique, called ‘ecomapping’, satisfied that this point has potentially been
to explore the dynamic nature of social networks achieved, data collection can then cease and the
of Australian motor-neurone disease sufferers. researcher can move on to the next stage in the
Ecomapping is a form of observational technique research process — data analysis.
that maps and tracks relationships, social
networks and support over time and offers a
visual schematic of identified connections.
Point to ponder
Close attention is needed when selecting data
RESEARCH IN BRIEF collection methods for a research study.
Williams and Irurita (2004) report their Without effective data collection strategies,
grounded theory study to investigate Western the collected data will be flawed — as will the
Australian patients’ perspectives of therapeutic findings and conclusions of the whole study.
and non-therapeutic interpersonal interactions.
Three types of data collection methods were
used. Forty patients were interviewed
individually; 78 hours of participant SUMMARY
observation field notes accompanied this and With qualitative research, sampling methods and
patient-related documentation was also methods of collecting data are a vital and closely
reviewed for data retrieval. ‘Emotional comfort’
related part of the study design (see Chapter 2).
and ‘emotional control’ emerged in the
findings as the main factors that either
A number of different options are available
prevented or promoted therapeutic which, in turn, will determine the nature and
relationships. Emotional comfort was found to approach of the research to be conducted. So, for
be related to ‘level of security’, ‘level of instance, different types of fields of observation
knowing’ and ‘level of personal value’. are linked with different types of ethnographical
studies. Careful attention to detail is required
with both sampling and data collection
WHEN HAVE ENOUGH DATA processes. Errors in either are likely to severely
affect overall study outcomes. The effectiveness
BEEN COLLECTED? of these processes greatly impacts on the next
Qualitative researchers often experience stage of qualitative design process, that of data
uncertainty when not being able to generalise analysis. Qualitative data analysis is the focus of
their findings due to the small sample sizes often the following chapter.

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 7 • Sampling data and data collection in qualitative research

KEY POINTS
• Qualitative research uses a wide range of methods and techniques for both sampling from
the appropriate population and for collecting required data from the sample.
• The four main types of sampling used in qualitative research are convenience sampling,
purposive sampling, snowball sampling and theoretical sampling.
• Choosing a sample size and sampling scheme and collecting data from the chosen sample
should be an active process of reflection which is central to qualitative research.
• Qualitative research usually employs either/both interviews or observation to collect data
from sample populations. Each has both its strengths and limitations.

Learning activities
1. In sampling, the inclusion criteria indicate: 4. What is the most common method used
a) characteristics or properties of the chosen for collecting qualitative data:
sample that the researcher would not a) questionnaire
want them to possess b) interview
b) characteristics or properties of the chosen c) observation
sample that the researcher would most
d) survey.
want them to possess
5. When interviewing, starting off with simple
c) characteristics or properties of the sample
and broad questions to help ease the
that the researcher would find most
participant into the process is referred to as:
attractive
a) nurturing
d) characteristics or properties of the chosen
sample that the researcher would find b) channelling
least attractive. c) funnelling
2. Which group of participants below would d) easing.
represent a judgment sample: 6. Observational methods can employ which
a) all the people working in a hospital of the following approaches:
b) specialist nurses recommending other a) in-place participant; participant-as-
specialist nurses observer; observer-as-participant; and
c) specialist nurses working in intensive absolute observer
care b) complete participant; participant-as-
d) all inpatients in a hospital. observer; observer-as-participant; and
complete observer
3. When sampling methods are applied to
data already collected, this is called: c) absolute participant; participant-as-
observer; observer-as-participant; and
a) data sampling
in-place observer
b) information sampling
d) complete participant; in-place observer;
c) theoretical sampling in-place participant; and complete
d) non-theoretical sampling. observer.

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 NURSING AND MIDWIFERY RESEARCH 4E

7. Observation techniques are most commonly 9. A form of methodological triangulation

used in: applies when:
a) phenomenology a) participants are mixed up
b) grounded theory b) different methods for collecting data are
c) historical research employed in the same study
d) ethnography. c) different methods for collecting data are
employed in different studies
8. A qualitative researcher knows that it is not
useful to collect any further data: d) the data collection methods are mixed up.
a) when they sense that this is the case 10. The Hawthorne effect, in observational
research, is when:
b) when the participants say that they have
nothing more to say a) participants behave in different ways
than they would normally
c) when data saturation/redundancy of data
is reached b) participants are observed when the
research is concealed from them
d) when data overload is reached.
c) the researcher becomes totally integrated
into the community being researched
d) there is more than one observer and
observations are integrated for objectivity.

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Higginbottom G M A 2004 Sampling issues in focus group studies. BMC Medical Research
qualitative research. Nurse Researcher 12:7–12 Methodology 11(26):1–10
Krueger R A, Casey M A 2009 Focus Groups: A Chaboyer W, Willman A, Johnson P et al. 2004
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Publications, London, UK curriculum: a benchmarking project. Nurse
McLafferty I 2004 Focus group interviews as a data Education in Practice 4:216–23
collecting strategy. Journal of Advanced Nursing Chan C W, Lopez V, Chung J W Y 2010 A qualitative
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Wimpenny P, Gass J 2000 Interviewing in among Hong Kong Chinese people. Journal of
phenomenology and grounded theory: is there Clinical Nursing 20:1151–9
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