RELATIONS

A relation associates an element of one set with one or more elements of

another set.

If ''a'' is an element from set A which associates another element ''b'' from
set B, then the elements can be written in an ordered pairs as (a,b)
Thus we can define a relation as a set of ordered pairs.

Some relations are denoted by letter R; in set notation a relation can be

written as
R = {(a, b): a is an element of the first set, b is an element of the second set}

Example of a relation

1. 1. Mwajuma is a wife of Juma.

2. 2. Amina is a sister of Joyce.

3. 3. y = 2x + 3
4. Juma is tall, Anna is short. (Not a relation)

NOTE If the relation R defines the set of all ordered pairs (x,y) such that .

y = 2x + 3 this can be written symbolically as

R = {(x, y): y=2x +3}

PICTORIAL REPRESENTATION OF RELATIONS

Relation can be represented pictorially;

i) Arrow diagram.
ii) Cartesian graph.

Arrow diagram

An arrow diagram (arrow gram or arrow graph) is a representation of a

relation between sets by using the arrows.

Example:

1. Show the relation “is less than or equal to”between the members of the
set {1, 2, 3, 4}, by using arrow diagram.

Solution:

R = is less than or equal to

Note: The arrow indicates that one element of one set relates to one or
more elements off the other set.

The element of a set which mapped onto another set is called the Domain
of a relation. The onto set is called the Range of a relation.

The elements of set A above are called the domains and those of set B
are called the range.

Also we use to mean “set A is mapped onto B”

Example 1

If x 2x, We mean''x is mapped onto 2 times x''.

When x is known we can select values of x as

x = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 so the relation can be written as:-

Example 2

Given that where A = {-1, 0, 2, 3, 4}. Draw a pictorial representation

of the relation.

Solutions
(a) R: x → 3x
Table of values
Pictorial representation

Pictorial representation is

Domain and Range of a relation

Consider a relation R which is a set of all ordered pairs (x, y). The Domain
and the range of R can be defined as follows.

Domain of R = {x: (x, y) belongs to R for some y}

 Range of R = {y: (x, y) belongs to R for some x}

Note: x is called the independent variable.

y is the dependent variable.

Examples

1. 1. Given that the relation R ={(x, y): y is a husband of x},find the domain
and range of R

Solution

Domain of R = {all wives}

Range of R = {all husbands}

2. 2. Find domain and range of the relation

R = {(0, 2), (0, 4), (1, 2), (3, 5)}

Solution:

Domain of R = {0, 1, 3}

Range of R = {2, 4, 5}

3. 3. Find the range and domain of relation of

y = 3x2 + 2

Solution:

Domain = {all real numbers x}

To find the range, make x the subject.

 Graphs of a relation

Graph of a relation is another way of representing a relation. T he graph is

drawn in the Cartesian plane and can also be called Cartesian graph.

Examples:

1. 1. Draw the sketch of the relation:-

R = {(x, y): y = 2x}, state domain and range

Solutions:-

Table of values

The graph can be obtained by plotting the ordered pairs in the x-y plane.

Domain of R={ all real numbers}

Range of R= {all real numbers}

2. Draw the graphs of the relations

Table of values for x = y

Table of values x+y=0

y = -x

x 0 1 2 3 -1 - -
2 3

y 0 - - - 1 2 3
1 2 3
 Note

In sketching the graph of a relation of inequalities we use

1. Dotted line (------) for < and >

Solid line ( _____ ) for =, ≤ and ≥

We always shade the required region for the inequalities graph

Example

Draw the graph for the relation

Solution

The graph can be sketched as a graph of y=x

Some points belong to the relation R = {(x , y): y < x} are {(2,1), (4,3), (-2,-
3), (-1,-4)}
The graph is

THE INVERSE OF THE RELATION

The inverse of the relation as R-1 can be obtained by reversing the order in all
of the ordered pairs belonging to R.
i.e If
The pictorial representation for can be obtained from the picture of R by
reversing the direction of all the arrows
Pictorial representation of R

Pictorial representation of R-1

The domain in R becomes the Ranges of

 Range of

The inverse of the above relation can also be found by first writing x in terms
of y and then interchanging the variables. Therefore (x, y) becomes (y,x) in
the inverse relation.

Example

1. 1. Given the relation

(a) Find the inverse of R

(b) Find the domain and range of

Solution

Interchange the variables and make y the subject

 (b).

2.2. Given the relation

Solution

The inverse of

Write x in terms of y
GRAPHS OF THE INVERSE OF THE RELATION

Consider the relation

Its inverse is

In this case R is the relation less than for all real numbers,

The graph of R and

Are shown as shaded region below

Note: The graph of for any relation can be obtained by reflecting the
graph of R about the line y=x

Thus we can draw the graph of when R is given by first drawing R and
then flecting it about the line y = x

Examples
1. Draw the graph of the inverse of
Find its Domain and range
2. Draw the graph of the inverse of the relation shown in the figure
below. Find its domain and range

Solutions for question 1

The domain and range of is the intersection of the domain of the two given
relations
Solution for question 2

By using the coordinate on the boundary of R we have

Use the ordered pair to plot the graph of

Domain of

Range of
 FUNCTION
A function is a set of ordered pairs which relates two sets such that to each element of one set there is only one
element of the second set

Example

Represent the following set of ordered pairs in a pictorial diagram.

(1,4), (2,3), (-1,2), (-2,-3).
 Solution

A function whose graph is such that any line drawn parallel to the x – axis at any point cuts it at only one point is
one-to-one function.

Examples.

1. Write the expression of a function ‘ double plus one’

Solution

f:x 2x +1

b)
2.Given the function G(x) = 4x-1. Find the value of G(-2).

Solution

G(x) = 4x -1

G(-2) = 4(-2) -1

G(-2) = -8 -1

G (-2) = -9

Exercise 2.1

1. Write each of the following function in the form f: x f(x) use any functions symbol to represent the
functions
(a)Divide by 5 and add 2.
(b)Subtract 7 and square
(b)Cube and then double

Solution

(a) F:x f(x)

F:x + 2

(b) F: x (x-7)2

(c) F:x x3+2x

2. Find the value of the function for each given value of x.

(a) f(x)= 2x+3; when

(i) x=1
(ii) x= -2
(iii) x =a

Solution
(a) (i) when x=1

f(x)= 2x+3

f(1)= 2(1)+3

f(1)= 2+3

∴ f(1)= 5.

(ii)when x= -2.

f(x) = 2(-2) +3

f(-2) = -4+3
 ∴f(-2) = -1

(iii) when x=a

f(x) = 2(a) +3

f(a) =2a+3

∴f(a) = 2a+3

(b) C(x) = x3; when

(i) x=1
(ii) x = -1
(iii)x= 0
(iv)x=b

Solution

(i) C(x) =x3

C (1) =13

C (1) =1

C (1) =1

(ii)C(x) =x3

C (-1) = (-1)3

C (-1) = -1

(iii)C(x) =x3

C (0) =03

C (0) =0

(iv)C(x) =x3

C(b) = b3
 (c) K(x) = 3-x; when
(i) x= -1
(ii)x=7

Solution

(i) K(x) = 3-x

K (-1) = 3- (-1)

K (-1) = 4

(ii) k(x)=3 - x
k(7) = 3-7
k(7) = -4

DOMAIN AND RANGE OF FUNCTIONS

Example 1.

1. Find the domain and range of f(x) =2x+1

let f(x) = y
y=2x+1

Solution

Domain = {x: x R}

Range - make x the subject

y=2x+1
y-1=2x
(y-1)/2 =x
∴x=(y-1)/2

Range={y: y R}

b Example 2
If y =4x+7 and its domain ={x : -10 < x< 10} find the range.

Solution

Domain = {x: -10 < x< 10}

Range ={y : -33 < y < 47}

 y = 4x + 7
Table of values

c Example 3.
Y= √x and domain is -5 < x < 5, Find its range.

Solution

Domain = {x: -5 < x < 5}

Range =y

Table of value of x = √(y)

(y)2= (√x)2

y2= x

x= y2

√5= √y2

y = √5

Range = {y: o < y < √5}

d Example 4.

Given F(x) = find the domain and range.

Solution

Let f(x)=y

Domain of y=
For real values of y: 1-x2 > 0

-x2 > 0-1

 -x2 > -1

x2 < 1

√x2< √1

X <√1

X <1

∴Domain {x : X <1 }

let F(x) = y

y=

To get the range, make x the subject

y2 = ( )2

y2= 1-x2

X2=1-y2

Therefore =

X=

For real value of x:

1- y2 > 0

y2 < 1

y < √1

y<1

...Range ={y : y <1}

LINEAR FUNCTIONS

Is the function with form f(x) = mx + c.

Where:
 f(x)= y

m and c are real numbers

m is called gradient[ slope].

c is called y – intercept.

Example

1. Find the linear function f(x) given the slope of -2 and f( -1)=3

Solution

Given:
m(slope)=-2
x=-1
f(-1)=3

from;
f(x) =mx +c

f(-1) =( -2x-1)+c

3 =2+c

3-2 =c

c=1

∴f(x) = -2x+1

Example 2.
Find the linear function f(x) when m=3 and it passes through the points (2, 1)

Solution

f(x) =mx +c

f(2) = 3(2)+ c

1= 6+c

1-6 =c
 -5 = c

c= -5

f(x) = 3x + -5

∴ f(x) =3x-5

Example 3
Find the linear function f (x) which passes through the points (-1, 1) and (0, 2 )

Solution

Slope =

=1

m=1

f(x) = mx +c

f(-1) = 1x(-1) +c

1 =-1+c
c=2

f(x) = 1x +2

∴f(x) = x +2.

4.Draw the graph of h(x) = 3x-4

Table of values of function

X -1 0 1

h(x) -7 -4 -1
Exercise

In problems 1 to 3 find the equation of a linear function f(x) which satisfies the given properties. In each case, m
dissolves the gradient.

1). m =-3, f(1) = 3

2). m=2, f(0) =5
3). f(1) =2, f(-1) =3

4. Givenm= -4 , f(3) = -4 Find f(x)

In the problem 5 to 9 draw the graphs of each of the given functions without using the table of values

5) f(x)= +

6) f(x) =4

Solution

1. f(x) = mx + c

f(x) = -3(1)+c
 f(x) =-3 +c

3= -3 +c

3+3 =c

6=c

C=6

f(x) = -3x +6

2. f(x) =mx +c

f(0) = (2 x 0)+c

5= 0+c

c=5

f(x) =2x+5

3)
3.f(1) =2, f(-1) =3 Alternatively

m = f(-1) = m(-1) + c

M= 3= -m + c.......................(i)

f(1)=2 f(1) = m(1) + c

f(x)= mx +c 2= m + c(ii)

f(1)= - x 1+c Solve (i) and (ii) Simultaneously

f(1) = - +c -m + c = 3

2= +c +m+c=2

2+ =c C=5/2
 C=2 put c in (i)

f(x) = +2 3 = -m + 5/2

m = 5/2 - 3
m= -1/2

...f(x) = +2

4.

f(x)= mx + c

f(x) = -4(3)+c

-4 =-12+c

-4+12= c

8=c

C=8

f(x) = -4x+8

5. f(x)= +

y- intercept, x=0

f(0)= 2/5[0] +1/5

f(0)= 0+1/5

y=1/5

{0,0.2}

x- intercept, y=0

0=2/5[x] +1/5

x intercept = - ½ ( -1/2, 0)
 y intercept = 1/5 ( 0,0.2)

6. f(x) =4

From f(x) = y

y=4
QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS

A quadratic function is any function of the form;

f(x)=ax2+bx+c

Where a ≠ 0

a ,b and c are real numbers.

When a = 1, b=0, and c= 0

X -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

f(x) 9 4 1 0 1 4 9
The shape of the graph of f(x)=ax2+bx+c is a parabola

•The line that divides the curve into two equal parts is called a line of symmetry [axis of symmetry]

•Point (0,0) in f(x)=x2 called the turning point (vertex).

If “a” is positive the turning point is called minimum point (least value).

If "a" is negative the turning point is called maximum point.

PROPERTIES OF QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS

Think of f(x)= ax2+bx+c

y=a(x2+bx/a)+c

y= a( x2+bx/a+b2/4a2)+ c-b2/4a2

=a(x + )2+
 x> 0 then

a(x+ )2 > 0

y=

This is when x = -

The turning point of the quadratic function is )

Example

Find the minimum or maximum point and line of symmetry f(x) = x 2 – 2x-3. Draw the graph of f(x)

Solution:

Turning point = )

= (- )

Maximum point = (1, -4)

Line of symmetry is x=1

x -5 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

f(x) 15 5 0 -3 -4 -3 0 5
Exercise

1. Draw the graph of the function y=x2-6x+5 find the least value of this function and the corresponding value of x

Solution

x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

y 32 21 12 5 0 -3 -4 -3 0
 Least value.

y= - 4 where x=3

2. Draw the graph of the function y =x2-4x+2 find the maximum function and the corresponding value of x use the
curve to solve the following equations

a) X2-4x-2 = 0

b) X2-4x-2 = 3

b)

Solution

Table of values of y= x2-4x+2

x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

y 23 14 7 2 -1 2 -1 2 7 14
Find the maximum value of the function.;

Maximum value

Y= ( )=-2

Find the maximum value of the function;

Maximum value= )
Maximum value= )

Maximum value

[2, -2]

The maximum value is = (-2,-2)

a) x2-4x-2 = 0
add 4 both sides

x2-4x + 2 = 4
but x2-4x+2 = y
.. . y = 4
Draw a line y = 4 to the graph above. The solution from the graph is

x1 = -1/2 , x2 = 9/2
(x1,x2) = (-1/2,9/2 )

(b) x2-4x - 2 = 3

add 4 both sides

x2-4x - 2 +4 = 3+ 4
x2-4x + 2 = 7

but x2-4x+2 = y
.
.. y = 7
Draw a line y = 7 to the graph above. The solution from the graph is

x1 = -1 , x2 = 5
(x1,x2) = (-1,5 )
3. In the problem 3 to 5 write the function in the form f(x)= a( x + b)2 +c where a, b, c are constants

f(x) =5-x-9x2

Solution

f(x) = -9x2 – x + 5

= -9( x2 - ) + 5
 = -9( x2 - + ) + 5+

= -9(x - )2 +

4. In the following functions find:

a) The maximum value

b) The axis of the symmetry

f(x)= x2- 8x+18

Solution

) = )

( 4, 2)

Maximum value =2 where the axis of symmetry x=4.

5. f(x) = 2x2+3x+1

Solution

Maximum value )

The turning point of the graph is )

The minimum value of the graph is y = -

axis of symmetry
 =

POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS

The polynomial functions are the functions of the form, " P(x) =an xn + a n-1 xn-1 + an-2 xn-2 + . . . + a1 x1+a0 x0 ". Where
n is non negative integer and an, an-1, an-2 . . . a0 are real numbers. The degree of a polynomial function is the highest
power of that polynomial function.

Example

a) f(x) =5x4 -7x3 +8x2- 2x+3 is a degree of 4

b) H(x)=6x-8x2+9x9-6 is a degree of 9

c) G(x) =16x-7 is a degree of 1

d) M(x) =6 degree is 0 =6x0

GRAPHS OF POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS

EXAMPLE

Draw the graph of f(x) = x3-2x2-5x+6

Solution

Table of values

x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

F[x] -24 0 8 6 0 -4 0 18
STEP FUNCTIONS

EXAMPLE

1. If f is a function such that;

 Draw the graph and find its domain and range.

Domain = {x: x R, except -3< x < -2}

Range = {1,4, -2}

 2. The function is defined by

a)
Sketch the graph of f(x) use the graph to determine the range and the domain. Find the value of f(-6) , f(0). State if
it is a one to one function

Domain

= {x : X R}
 Range

{ y:y >1}

f(-6) = -2

f(0)= 2

It is not a one to one function.

EXERCISE

1. Draw the graph of the following defined as indicated

Solution:

Solution
 2. Given that f(x) =

a) On the same set of axes sketch the graphs of f(x )and the inverse of f(x), From your graphs in [a] above determine;

 (a)The domain and range of f(x)

(b)The domain and range if the inverse of f(x)
(c)Find f(- 5)and f(5)
(d)Is f (x)a one to one?
(e)Is the inverse of f(x) a function?
(a) Domain of f(x ) = { x: x }

(b) •Range of f(x) = { y : y }

•Domain of f-1(x ) = { x : x }

(c) Range of f-1(x ) = { y: x }

(d) f(-5) = 1 and f(5) = 6

(e)Yes the inverse of f(x) is a function and f(x) is one-to-one function

 ABSOLUTE VALUE FUNCTIONS

The absolute value function is defined by f(x)

Example

1. Draw the graph of f(x) = | x |

Solution

Table of values f(x) = | x |

X -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

f(x) 3 2 1 0 1 2 3
THE INVERSE OF A FUNCTION

Given a functon y= f(x), the inverse of f(x) is denoted as f-1(x). The inverse of a function can be obtained by
interchanging y with x (interchanging variables) and then make y the subject of the formula.

Example

1. Find the inverse of f(x) = 2x+3

Solution

Y= 2x+3

X=2y+3
 2y=x-3

Y=

∴ f-1(x

EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

An exponential function is the function of the form f(x) = nx where n is called base and x is called exponent.

Example
1. Draw the graph of f(x)=2x

Solution :

Table of values

X -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

f(x) 1/8 1/4 ½ 1 2 4 8

2. Draw the graph of f (x)=2-x

Solution:

Table of values

X -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

f(X) 8 4 2 1 1/2 ¼ 1/8

Properties of exponential function

o When x increases without bound, the function values increase without bound
o When x decreases, the function values decreases toward zero
o The graph of any exponential function passes through the point (0,1).
o The domain of the exponential function consists of all real numbers whereas the range consist of all
positive values.

LOGARITHMIC FUNCTION

Logarithmic function is any function of the form f(x)= read as function of logarithm x under base a or f(x)
is the logarithm x base a

Example
Draw the graph of f(x)=

Solution

Table of values

x 1/8 ¼ 1/2 1 2 4 8

f(x) -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
THE INVERSE OF EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTION

The inverse of the exponential function is the relation of logarithmic in the line y=x

EXAMPLE

1. Draw the graph of the inverse of f(x) = 2x and f(x)= under the same graph.

Solution

(i) y= 2x

Apply log on both sides

log x=log 2y
log x =y log 2

y = log (x- 2)

f-1(x) = log (x- 2)

(ii) f(x)=

y=

x=

y= 2x

Table of values

X 1/8 1/4 1/2 1 2 4 8

f(x) -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
2. Draw the graph of the function f(x)=3x

Table of values

x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

f(X) 1/27 1/9 1/3 1 3 9 27

3. Draw the graph of the function f(X)=8x

Solution

Table of values

X -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

f(X) 1/512 1/64 1/8 1 8 64 512

Exercise

1. Find the graph of y =2x and given that ¾ =2-0.42 draw the graph of f(x)= (3/4)x

Table of values if f(x) =(3/4)x

X -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

2x 1/8 1/4 ½ 1 2 4 8

-0.42x 1.26 0.84 0.42 0 -0.42 -0.84 1.26

2-0.42x 64/27 16/9 4/3 1 3/4 9/16 27/64

Copy and complete the following table and hence draw the graph of f(x)=(1/4) x

X -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

2x -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6

-2x 6 4 2 0 -2 -4 -6

2-2x 64 16 4 0 1/4 1/16 1/64

[1/4]x 64 16 4 0 1/4 2/4 ¾

OPERATION OF POLYNOMIAL FUNCTION

ADDITIONAL AND SUBTRACTION

The sum of two polynomials is found by adding the coefficients of terms of the same degree or like terms, and
subtraction can be found by subtracting the coefficient of like terms.

EXAMPLE

If p(x) = 4x2- 3x+7, Q(x) =3x+2 and r(x)= 5x3-7x2+9

Solution

Sum =p(x)+q(x)+r(x)

(4x2-3x+7)+(3x+2)+(5x3-7x2+9)
4x2-3x+7+3x+2+5x3-7+9

4x2+5x2+7x3+3x+7+2+9

5x3-3x2+18

Alternatively the sum can be obtained by arranging them vertically

4x2-3x+7

0x2+3x+2

5x3-7x2+0+9

5x3-3x2+0+18

P(x)+q(x)+r(x)=5x3-3x2+18

Subtract -5x2+9+5 from 3x2+7x-2

Solution

(3x2+7x-2)-(-5x2+9x+5)

3x2+7x-2+5x2-9x-5
3x2+5x2+7x-9x-2-5

8x2-2x-7 answer

MULTIPLICATION
The polynomial R(x) and S(x) can be multiplied by forming all the product of terms from R(x) and terms from S(x)
and then summing all the products by collecting the like terms.
The product can be denoted by RS(X)

example

If p(x)=2x2-x+3 and q(x)=3x3-x find the product p(x)q(x)

Solution

P(x) q(x)= (2x2-x+3) (3x3-x)

6x5-2x3-3x4+x2+9x3-3x

6x5-3x4+7x3+x2-3x

DIVISION
The method used in dividing one polynomial by another polynomial of equal or lower degree is the same to the
one used for the long division of number

Example:

1. Given p[x] =x3-3x2+4x+2 and q[x]=x-1 find

Solution

x3-x2

0-2x2+4x

-2x2+2x
 0+2x+2

2x-2

0+4

Therefore

= x2 - 2x + 2 +

This means

X3- 3x2+4x+2 is dividend x-1 is divisor

X2-2x+2 is the quotient and 4 is the remainder

Then

X3-3x2+4x+2 = (x2-2x+2) (x-1) + 4

Divided quotient x divisor + remainder

2. Divide p(x) = x3-8 by q(x) = x-2

Solution:

-x3 -2x2

2x2-8

-2x2-4x

4x-8

4x-8
– –
In the example [2] above there is a remainder i.e. the remainder is zero so dividing one function by another
function is one of the way of finding the factors of the polynomial thus if we divide p(x) by q(x) is one of the factors
of p(x) other factors can be obtained by fractionazing the quotient q(x).

3. Given p(x) = x3-7x+6 and q(x) = x+3 determine whether or not d(x) is one of the factors of p(x) and hence find
the factors if p(x)

Solution

X3+3x2

-3x2-7x

-3x2-9x

2x+6

-2x+6

– –

Since the remainder is zero d(x) =x+3 is one of the factors of p(x)

To factorize

X2-3x+2

(x2-x) – (2x+2)

x(x-1)-2(x-1)

(x-2) (x-1)

Therefore other factors are (x-2) and (x-1)

 THE REMAINDER THEOREM

The remainder theorem is the method of finding the remainder without using long division

Example

1. If p(x) = (x-2) and q(x)+8. Dividend divisor quotient remainder, Then by taking x-2=0 we find

x-2= 0
x=2

subtracting x=2 in p(x)

p(2) =2-2 q(x) +r

p(2)= 0 x q(x)+r

p(2)= 0+r

p(2) =r

So the remainder r is the value of the polynomial p(x) when x=2

2. Give p(x) = x3-3x2+6x+5 is divided by d(x) = x-2 find the remainder using the remainder theorem

Solution

Let d(x)=0

x-2=0

X-2+2 =0+2

X=2

Subtracting x=2 in p(x)

P(2)= 23-3[2]2+6[2]+5

P(2)=8-12+12+5

P(2)=8+5

P(2)=13
The remainder is 13

3. The remainder theorem states that if the polynomial p[x] is divided by [x-a] then the remainder ‘r’ is given by
p[a]

P(x) =(x-a) q(x)+r hence

P(a) =(a-a) q(x)+r

P(a)=o(q(x))+r

P(a)=0+r

P(a)=r

More Examples

1. By using the remainder theorem, Find the remainder when p[x] =4x 2-6x+5 is divided by d[x] =2x-1

Solution

d (x)=0

2x-1=0

2x-1+1=0+1

X=

Substituting

X= in p(x)

P( ) =4 x -6( )+5

P( )=1 - 6 x +5

P( )=1 -3+5
P( )= 3

The remainder is 3

2. P(x)= 3x2-5x+5 is divided by d(x) =x+4

Solution

Let d(x)=0

X+4=0

X+4=0-4

X=-4

Subtracting x=-4 in p(x)

P(-4)=3(-4)2-=5(-4)+5

P(-4)=48+20+5

P(-4)=68+5

P(-4)= 73

The remainder is 73

3. P(x)= x3+2x2-x+4 is divided by d(x) = x+3

Solution

Let d(x)=0

X+3=0-3

X=-3

Substituting x=-3 in p(x)

P(-3)= -33+2(-3)2-(-3)+4

P(-3)=-27+18+3+4
P(-3)=-27+21+4

P(-3)=-27+25

P(-3)=-2

The remainder is -2

4. Find the value of ‘a’ if x3-3x2+ax+5 has the remainder of 17 when divided by x-3

Solution

By using remainder theorem

Let x-3 =0

x-3=0+3

x=3

Substituting x=3 we have

x3-3x2+ax+5=17

(3)3-3(3)2+a(3)+5=17

27-27+3a+5=17

3a+5=17-5

3a=12

a=4

5. If ax2+3x-5 has a remainder -3 when divided by x-2. Find the value of a.

Solution

By using the remainder theorem

Let x-2=0

x-2=0+2

x=2

subtracting x=2 we have

a(2)2+3(2)-5 =-3

4a+6-5= -3

4a+1= -3

4a= -4

a = -1

Exercise

1. Divide p(x) by d(x) in the following

P(x)=2x2+3x+7 d(x)=x2+4

Solution
Use remainder theorem to find the remainder when;

1. P(x)=x3-2x2+5x-4 is divide by d(x)=x-2

Solution

Let d[x]=0

x-2 + 2=0+2

x=2

substituting x=2 in p(x)

p(2)=23-2[2]2+5[2]-4

p(2)=8-8+10-4

p(2)=10-4

p(2)=10-4

p(2)=10-4

Therefore the remainder is 6

2. p(x)= 2x4+ x3+x- is divided by d(x)=x+2

solution

let d(x)=0

x+2 – 2 = 0-2

x = -2

Substituting x = - 2 in p(x)

p(-2)=2(-2)4+(-2)3+(-2)( - )

p(-2)= 2(16)+(-8)-2( - )

p(-2)=32-8-2 ( - )

p(-2)=24-2( - )

p(-2)=21

Therefore the remainder is 21

 STATISTICS
Is the study or the methods of collecting, summarizing and presenting data and interpreting the
information.

MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

1. Mean

2. Median

3. Mode

MEAN "X"

Is obtained by adding up all the data values then divide by the number of characters.

I.e.

i.e. =mean

x1+x2+x3………. Sum of observations

N =number of observation

Example

1. Find mean score from the following scores of biology test 10, 25, 45, 15,63 42,7
 =

= 29.57

When the data is given with frequency or in grouped data;

= or

f= frequency

∑= summation

2. Find the mean number of children per family from the following table

No. of
children
[x] 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

No. of
families
[f] 3 6 7 8 10 12 8 4 2

Solution

Finding the mean of the numbers in the table below;

No. of families
No. of children [x] [f] fx

0 3 0

1 6 6

2 7 14

3 8 24

4 10 40

5 12 60
 6 8 48

7 4 28

8 2 16

Total 60 236

= =

= 3.93

Exercise

1. Football club has the following number of goals scored against them 0,1,0, 2, 9,0 , 1, 2,1. What is the
mean number of goals scored against them?

Solution

=
 = 1.77

2. In a class of 30 girls the mean mass was 50kg calculate the total mass of the class.

Solution

=50

N =30

30 x 50 = x 30

∑fx = 1500kg

MEAN OF THE GROUPED DATA

1. The table below shows a distribution of 100 students find the mean mark.

Class
Class mark Frequency
interval [x] [f] fx

91-95 93 0 0

86-90 88 1 88

81-85 83 6 498

76-80 78 10 780

71-75 73 15 1095

66-70 68 34 2312

61-65 63 22 1386
 56-60 58 10 580

51-55 53 2 106

N=100 ∑fx=6845

Mean =

The mean is 68.45

MEAN BY ASSUMED MEAN METHOD

=A +

Where,

A = assumed mean

D = difference between the class marks and the assumed mean d= x-A

F= frequency

N= total frequency

From the above example use the data to find the mean by assumed mean method.Take the assumed
mean as 58.

Class Class
interval mark[x] F D=x-A fd

91-95 93 0 35 0

86-90 88 1 30 30

81-85 83 6 25 150
 76-80 78 10 20 200

71-75 73 15 15 225

66-70 68 34 10 340

61-65 63 22 5 110

56-60 58 10 0 0

51-55 53 2 -5 -10

Total 100 1045

Total

A=58

=A +

= 58 +

= 68.45

The mass of students were recorded as shown below in the following figure.
Class
mark[x] f fx

61 10 610

64 20 1280

67 30 2010

70 15 1050

73 5 365

Total 80 5315

= 66.4365

= 66.44
 Exercise

a)1. Show the distribution of the children’s age in a month. Calculate the mean age in months using
assumed mean that is the formula;

=A +

Calculate the mean age in months using the formula;

=A +

Class
mark frequency

41-46 3

35-40 4

29-34 9

23-28 12

17-22 18

11-16 28

5-10 26

Solution:

To calculate the mean age in months using an assumed mean that is the formula

=A+

Class
mark[x] Frequency [f] D= x-A fd
 41-46 3 30 90

35-40 4 24 96

29-34 9 18 162

23-28 12 12 144

17-22 18 6 108

11-16 28 0 0

5-10 26 -6 -156

Total 100 444

Total

Let A= 11-16

Let A = 13.5

=A +

= 13.5 +

=13.5+4.44

=17.94

2. Calculate the mean age in months using the formula for mean calculation.

Solution
 =

=17.94

3. A survey was of 200 children under 10 years to see how many visits they made to the clinic during the
courses of the year. The results were recorded as shown in the table below.

Number of visits frequency

5 16

6 33

1 47

8 54

9 31

10 10

11 4
 12 2

13 0

14 2

15 1

Solution

Number of visits[x] Frequency [f] Fx

5 16 80

6 33 198

7 47 329

8 54 432

9 31 279

10 10 100

11 4 44

12 2 24

13 0 0

14 2 28

15 1 15

Total 200 1529

=
 =

=7.645

Mean number of visits per child = 7.645

4. A histogram for 100 mathematics scores use the histogram to find the mean score

Solution

from
 =A+

Let A = 37

=37+375/100

= 40.75

MEDIAN

Median is a point that divides the data into two parts such that equal numbers of the data fall above
and below that point.

Computation of the median depends on whether the data is ODD or EVEN or there is duplication of data
[i.e. data with frequency]

MEDIAN OF ODD NUMBERS OF DATA

STEP 1

Arrange the numbers in ascending/descending order

1,1, 2,2,5, 5

STEP 2

Pick the number which is between those numbers. If it is even find the average of the two middle
numbers
e.g:-
2+2= 4/2=2

Median of numbers 2,3,9,11, 2, 2,2, 2, 3, 9, 11

STEP 1

Arrange the numbers in ascending order

2,2,2,2,2,3,3,9,9,11,11
 STEP
Pick the number which is between those numbers

Median =3

Example1.

1.Find the median of the following observations

1, 7, 4, 3, 8

Solution

1, 3, 4, 7, 8

Median =4

Exercise

1) 1, 2, 5, 3. Find the median of the given data

solution
Step 1

Arrange the data in ascending order

1, 2, 3, 5

Step 2

1, 2, 3, 5

Median is 2.5

2) 1, 1, 3, 2, find the median given even numbers of data

Step1
 Arrange the data in ascending order

1, 1, 2, 3

Step 2

1, 1, 2, 3

=1.5

Median is 1.5

3) 5, 3, 1, 6, 8 find the median given odd number of data

Step 1

Arrange the data in ascending order

1, 3, 5, 6, 8,

Step 2

1, 3, 5, 6, 8

Median is 5

4) Obtain the media of the following

1, 1, 6, 9, 8, 5

Step 1

Arrange the data in ascending order

1, 1, 5, 6, 8, 9

Step 2

1, 1, 5, 6, 8, 9

5+6
 Median is 5.5

5) Obtain the media of the following 2, 3, 9, 7, 1.

Step 1

Arrange the data in ascending order

1, 2, 3, 7, 9

Step 2

1, 2, 3, 7, 9

Median is 3

MEDIAN FOR GROUPED DATA

Example

1. The following table shows the distribution of nails in [mm]. Calculate the median length.

Length [mm] f Cumulative frequency

88-96 3 3
 97-105 5 8

106-114 9 17

115-123 12 29

124-132 5 34

133-141 4 38

142-150 2 40

Total 40 169

L=?

Median class=115-123

Median position= = = =20.5

L= lower limit - 0.5

From 115-123

L=114.5

N = 40

nb=17

nw =12

i= 9
Exercise

1. The following is the distribution of marks obtained in a test given to 50 candidates

Marks frequency Cumulative frequency

11-20 1 1

21-30 3 4

31-40 10 14

41-50 21 35

51-60 6 41

61-70 5 46

71-80 4 50

50

Find the median mark?

Solution

L=?

Median class= ?
Median position=

Median position = = = 25.5

Median position =25.5

Median class= 41-50

L = lower limit- 0.5

From 41-50

L= 41-0.5

L= 40.5

N=50

nb=14

nw=21

i = 10

From the formula:

The following figure represents the graph of frequency polygon of a certain data . To find the median
distribution

Solution

a)

Class
mark frequency Cumulative frequency

92 3 3

101 5 18

119 10 33

128 13 46

137 7 53

Total 53

L =?
M.p = = =27

L =114.5

N= 53

nb=18

nw=15

i= 9

=114.5+ ( )x 9

=114.5+[8.5/15]9

= 114.5+5.1

= 119.6

b)

Solution
 Class Cumulative
mark frequency frequency

15 0 0

20 5 5

25 15 20

30 12 32

35 10 42

40 0 42

L =?

M.P =N+1 = 42+1= 21.5

2 2

L = 25+30 = 55/2= 27.5

L =27.5

N=42

nb= 20

nw=12

i =5

Exercise
1. The height in centimeters of 100 people was recorded as shown below.

Height [cm] 160 165 170 175 180 185

frequency 2 12 32 24 21 8

Find the median height?

Solution

Height in [cm] frequency Cumulative frequency

160 3 3

165 12 15

170 32 47

175 24 71

180 21 92

185 8 100

total 100

L =?

Median position = =

= 50.5
L= ?
L= 170 + 175 = 345/2= 172.5

L= 172.5

N =100

nb=47

nw=24

i= 5
Figure 5.13 is a histogram representing test marks of 50 candidates find the median mark.

Solution

L =?

Median Point = =

= = 25.5

Class
mark frequency Cumulative frequency

15.5 1 1

25.5 3 4

35.5 10 14

45.5 21 35

55.5 6 41

65.5 5 46
 75.5 4 50

Total 50

L=?

L = 40.5

N =50

nb =14

nw=21

i=10

Figure 5.14 shows the frequency histogram for daily wages in TSHS of 70 people find the wages

Solution
 Wages
in Cumulative
[TSHS} frequency frequency

55 8 8

65 10 18

75 16 34

85 15 49

95 10 59

105 5 64

Total 64

Median position

= =
 = 32.5
L= 75+85 = 160/2
L= 80

N= 64

nb = 34

nw= 15

i=10

Figure 5.15 is a frequency Polygon for masses in kilogram’s of 80 students find the median mass.
Solution

Mass Cumulative
in kg frequency frequency

47 0

47 0 0

52 16 16

51 20 36

62 14 50

61 12 62

72 8 70

77 6 76

82 4 80

87 0 80

Total 80

L =?

Median position = =

= = 40.5
L = 62+ 61 =123/2
L = 61.5
N =80

nb=36

nw=14

i=5

Median = 61.5 + ( )x5 \

Median = 62.93.

MODE

Mode is the value of data which occurs most frequently [data with the highest frequency].

Data may have only one mode, more than one mode or no mode at all.

Example

Find the mode from the following data

i) 3, 5, 7, 3, 2, 10, 8, 2, 7, 2

Mode is =2

ii) 2, 1, 2, 5, 3, 1, 1, 4, 2, 7.

Mode is=1 and 2

MODE FOR GROUPED DATA

Figure 5.19 shows a histogram for heights of little children in centimeters calculate the mode of these
heights

Solution

Height
in cm frequency

82 10

85 11

88 14
 91 10

94 9

97 6

Total 60

Modal class =88

L= = 86.5
L= 86.5

t1= 14-11 = 3

t2= 14-10 = 4

i= 3

M=L+

M = 86.5 +

M = 87.79

The mode is 87.79

RATES AND VARIATIONS

RATES:-

When sets or quantities of different kinds are related, we use the word rate.

i.e 1. A rate of pay of 10,000/= Tsh per hour (money- time)

2. The price of juice is 700/= Tsh per litre (money -weight of juice)

3. The average speed of 80 kilometres per hour (distance- time)

Therefore the rate is the constant relation between two sizes of two
quantities concerned.

NOTE:

Rates deals with the comparison of two quantities of different kinds.

Example

1. Hiring a car at a charged rate of Tsh 2,000/= per kilometer.

(a) A journey of 40 kilometers will cost 40 x Tsh 2,000= Tsh 80,000/=

(b) A journey of 100 kilometres, costs 100 x Tsh. 2,000= Tsh.200,000/=

If we state the rate we always give two quantities concerned and the unit
measurement.

E.g: Average speed is written as 100 kilometres per 2 hours or 50

kilometres per one hour.

Rates can also written in a ratios form.

Rate of Exchange

People in any country expect to pay and be paid in currency of their own
country. It is necessary to exchange the currency of the first country for that
of the second, when money is moved from one country to another.

i.e: The rate of exchange linked together various currencies of the world,
which enable transfer of money and payment for goods to take place
between countries.

Consider table below shows the exchange rates as supplied by the CRDB
bank effective on May 17, 2007.

COUNTRY CURRENCY EQUIVALENT

SHILLINGS
United states 1 Dollar 1272.50

Europe 1 Euro 1720.33

Japan 1 Yen 10.02

Britain 1 Pound stg 2513.68

Switzerland 1 Franc 1038.76

Canada 1 Dollar 1152.48

Australia 1 Dollar 1049.54

Kenya 1 Shilling 18.525

Uganda 1 Shilling 0.745

South Africa 1 Rand 181.60

Soud Arabia 1 Rial 338.695

 India 1 Rupee 31.105
Sweden 1 Kronor 186.42
Zambia 1 Kwacha 0.317
Mozambique 1 Meticais 0.0535
Botswana 1 Pula 209.85

Examples

1. 1. A tourist from Sweden wishes to exchange 1,000 Kronors into

Tanzanian shillings. How much does she receive?

Soln.

From the table above

1kron =Tsh. 186.42

1,000Kronor= ?

=T shs. 186420

The tourist will receive Tsh. 186420

2. 2. How much 20,600 Tanzania shillings worth in Indian Rupees?

Soln.

1 Rupee = Tsh. 31.105

? = Tsh. 20,600
= 662.273 Rupees

Variations

Direct Variation

The two variables x and y are said to vary directly of the ratio is constant.

The real number K is called the constant of variation.

And relationship may be written as which reads as “y is proportional

to x”

If y varies directly as the square of x, then =Constant.

And can be written as and the algebraic relation is y=kx2

When having pairs of different corresponding values of x and y, this

equation hold true.

Therefore, we say that x and y vary directly if the ratios of the values of y to
the values of x are proportional.

NOTE:

If x and y represent variables such that , then y=kx,

The form of this equation y=kx is similar to y=mx. The graph of y=mx is a
straight line passing through the origin, M being the gradient same to the
equation y=kx,

The graph is a straight line passing through the origin and gradient is k.

A sketch is like

Examples

If x varies directly as the square of y, and x=4 where y=2, find the value of x
when y=8.

Solution

Let x1= 4 , y1 = 2, y2 = 8, x2 is required

But
Inverse variation
NOTE: The graph does not touch the axis because division by 0 (zero) is
impossible.
Example 1

If x varies inversely as y, and x=2, when y=3

Find the value of y when x=18.

Solution.

Example 2

3 tailors are sewing 15 clothes in 5 days. How long would it take for 5
tailors to sew 20 clothes?

Solution

- Let t = tailors, d = days c= clothes.

A number of tailors is inversely proportional to the number of days.

- The number of tailors in directly proportional to the number of clothes.

When t = 5, c= 20, d can be found as

It takes 4days for to tailors to sew 20 clothes

JOINT VARIATION
If a quantity is equal to a constant times the product of the two other
quantities, then we say that the first quantify varies jointly as the other two
quantities.
If x = k y z where k is a fixed real number then x varies jointly as y and z.
Similarly if x1 y1 z1 and x2 y2 z2 are corresponding values of the variables
x, y and z, then x1 = k × (y1 z1) and x2 = k × (y2 × z2)

From these we get

 Examples 1

1. If x varies directly as y and inversely proportional as z and x = 8, when y=

12 and z = 6. Find the value of x when y = 16 and z =4

Solution

Example 2
9 workers working 8 hours a day to complete a piece of work in 52 days.
How long will it takes 13 workers to complete the same job by working 6
hours a day.

Solution

Let w= workers

h=hours

d=days

It is a joint variation problem and can be written as

SEQUENCE AND SERIES

SEQUENCE

Is a set of numbers written in a definite order such that there is a rule by which the terms are obtained.

Or
Is a set of number with a simple pattern.

Example

1. A set of even numbers

• 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 ……

2. A set of odd numbers

• 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11….

Knowing the pattern the next number from the previous can be obtained.

Example

1. Find the next term from the sequence

• 2, 7, 12, 17, 22, 27, 32

The next term is 37.

2. Given the sequence

• 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12………

What is

i)The first term =2

ii) The 3rd term =6

iii)The 5th term =10

iv)The nth term [ the general formula]

2=2x1

4=2x2

6=2x3

8=2x4

10=2x5
12=2x6

Nth =2xn

Therefore nth term =2n

Find the 100th term, general formula =2n

100th term means n=100

100th term =2x100

100th term =200

3. Find the nth term

Solution

4. Given the general term 3[2n]

a) Find the first 5terms

b) Find the sum of the first 3 terms

Solution

3[2n] when;

n=1, 3 [21] =6

n=2, 3 [22] =12

n=3, 3 [23] =24

n=4, 3 [24] =48

n=5, 3 [25] =96

First 5 terms = 6, 12, 24, 45, 96

Sum of the three terms

Sum of the first three = 6+12+24

Sum of the first three = 42

Exercise 1.

1. Find the nth term of the sequence 1, 3, 5, 7…..

2. Find the nth term of the sequence 3, 6, 9, 12……
3. The nth term of a sequence is given by 2n+1 write down the 10th term.
4. The nth term of a certain sequence is 2n-1 find the sum of the first three terms.

5. If the general term of a certain sequence is

Find the first four terms increasing or
decreasing in magnitudes

Solution

1. 1, 3, 5, 7…nth

From the sequence the difference between the consecutive terms is 2 thus

nth =2+n

2. 3, 6, 9, 12……..nth

The difference between the consecutive terms is 3 thus

nth =3n

3. 10th = 2[10+1]

10th =20+1

10th =21
4. When

n=1, 21-1

n=2, 22-1

n=3, 23-1

Sum of the first three terms =1, 2, 4

Sum = 1+2+4

Sum = 7

5. When;

n = 1, =1

n = 2, =

n = 3, =1

n = 4, =

The first four terms are

SERIES

Defination: When the terms of a sequence are considered as the sum, the expression obtained is called
a serier or a propagation
Example
(a). 1+2+3+4+5+..........
(b). 2+4+6+8+10+.........+100.
(c). -3-6-9-.......

The above expression represent a series. There are two types of series

1.Finite series
Finite series is the series which ends after a finite number of terms
e.g. 2+4+6+8+.............+100.
-3-6-9-12-.............-27.
2. infinite Series
Is a series which does not have an end.
e.g. 1+2+3+4+5+6+7+8..............
1-1+1-1+1-1+1-1+1..............

Exercise 5.2.1
1. Find the series of a certain sequence having 2(-1)n as the general term
2. Find the sum of the first ten terms of the series -4-1+2+.......
3. The first term of a certain series is k. The second term is 2k and the third is 3k. Find
(a). The nth term
(b). The sum of the first five terms

Exercise 5.2.1 Solution

1. n=1, 2(-1)1 = -2
n=2, 2(-1)2 = 2
n=3, 2(-1)3 = -2
n=4, 2(-1)4 = 2
n=5, 2(-1)5 = -2
The series is -2+2-2+2-2+2-2+2-2+2+....................+2(-1)n

2. The sum of the first n terms of the series -4-1+2+5+8+11+14+17+20+23

= 95
3. (a) k + 2k + 3k + 4k +.......... + nk
The nth term of the series is nk
(b) k + 2k + 3k + 4k + 5k = 15k
... The sum of the first 5 terms = 15k

ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION [A.P]

An arithmetic progression is a series in which each term differ from the preceding by a constant quantity
known as the common difference which is denoted by "d".
 For instance 3, 6, 9, 12….. is an arithmetic progression with common difference 3.

The nth term of an arithmetic progression

If n is the number of terms of an arithmetic progression, then the nth term is denoted by An
Therefore An+1= An + d
e.g. First term = A1
Second term = A1+ d = A2
Third term = A2 + d = A3

Consider a series 3+6+9+12+.....

A1 = 3, d= 3
A2 = A1 + d
A3 = A2 + d = A1+d+d = A1+ 2d
A4 = A3 + d = A1+ 2d+ d = A1 + 3d
A5 = A4 + d = A1+ 3d+ d = A1 + 4d
A6 = A5 + d = A1+ 4d+ d = A1 + 5d

An = A[n-1] + d = A1+ (n-1)d

... The general formula for obtaining the nth term of the series is
An = A1+ (n-1)d

The general formula for obtaining the nth term in the sequence is also given by An =A1+[n-1]d

Question

1. A7 = A2 and A4 =16. Find A1 and d.

Solution

A7= A1+6d

=A1+6d= ( A1+d)

2A1+12d=5A1+5d

3A1=7d

A1= d
A 4 =16
A4=A1+3d = 16

d +3d= 16

d = 16

d= 3

But A1 +3d= 16

A1 +9=16
A1= 7

Exercise 2

1. The pth term of an A.P is x and the qth term of this is y, find the rth term of the same A.P
2. The fifth term of an A.P is 17 and the third term is 11. Find the 13th term of this A.P.
3. The second term of an A.P is 2 and the 16th term is -4 find the first term.
4. The sixth term of an A.P is 14 and the 9th of the same A.P is 20 find 10th term.
5. The second term of an A.P is 3 times the 6th term. If the common difference is -4 find the 1st
term and the nth term
6. The third term of an A.P is 0 and the common difference is -2 find;
(a) The first term
(b) The general term

7. Find the 54th term of an A.P 100, 97, 94

8. If 4, x, y and 20 are in A.P find x and y
9. Find the 40th term of an A.P 4, 7, 10……..
10.What is the nth term of an A.P 4, 9, 14

11.The 5th term of an A.P is 40 and the seventh term of the same A.P. is 20 find the

a) The common difference

b) The nth term
12. The 2nd term of an A.P is 7 and the 7th term is 10 find the first term and the common
difference
Exercise 2 Solution

1. d = y-x
rth = A1+[n-1]d

= A1+nd-d

= A1+n[y-x]-[y-x]

= A1+[ny-nx-[y-x]

=A1+[ny-y]-[nx-x]

A1+g[n-1]-x[n-1]

rth=A1+[y-x][n-1]

2.

A5=17

A3=11
A13=?

A5 =A1+4d = 17
A3=A1+2d =17
A1+2d=11

Solve the simultaneous equation by using equilibrium method.

A1+4d=17
A1+2d=11

=
d=3

A1+4[3]=17
A1+12=17-12
A1=5

A13=A1+12d
A13=5+12[3]
A13=5+36
A13 =41

3.

A2=2
A16=-4
A1=?

A2=A1+d
A1+d=2

A16=A1+15d
A1 +15d= -4

Solve the two simultaneously equations by using the elimination method

A1 + d=2

A1 +15d=-4

d=

From the 1st equation

A1 + =2

A1 = 2+

A1 =

4.

A6= 14

A9=20

A6= A1+5d = 14

A9 = A1+8d=20

Solve the simultaneous equation by using the elimination method

A1+5d= 14

A1+8d=20 ( difference between two equations)

Then d = 2

From 1st equation

A1 +5[2] = 14
A1 +10= 14-10
A1=4

A10= A1+9d
A10=4+9[2]
A 10=4+18
A10=22
An =A1+[n-1]d
An =4[n-1]2
An =4+2n-2
An= 2n+4-2
An=2n+2

5.

A2= 3 x Ab
D= -4
A1=?
An=?

Az = 3 x A6
A 1 +d = 3 x A1+5d
A1+d =3A1+15d
2A1+14d=0
d= -4

2A1+14[-4]=0
2A1+-56= 0
2A1= 56
A1= 28

An = A1+[n-1]d
An= 28+[n-1]-4
An=32-4n
An =32-4n

6.

(a) A3= 0
d= -2

From the formula

A1+2d= 0
A1+2[-2]= 0
A1-4=0
A1= 4

The first term is 4.

b) The general term

An =A1+ [n-1] d
A n =4+[n-1]-2
An = 4+ -2n+2
An = 6-2n

The general term is 6-2n.

7.

A54 =?
100, 97, 94 = A1, A2, A3

A54= A1+53d
d= A2-A1= A3-A2
d= 97-100= 94-97
d= -3

A54= 100+53[-3]
A 54=100 + -159
A54= -59

8.

4, x, y, 20
A 4= 20
A1 +3d=20 , but A1=4

4+3d= 20
3d=16
d = 16/3

A 1, A2, A3, A4

A2 =A1+d

4+

X=

A3 = A1+2d
4+ 2x

A3 =

Hence x= and y=

9.

A40 =?
A1 =4
A2= 7
A 3= 10
A1+39d=?

d= 7-4= 10-7
d= 3

A1 +39[3]
A1+117
4+117
A40 =121

10.

A1 =4
A2=9
A3=14
d= 9-4= 14-9
d= 5

An =A1+[n-1]d
An =4+[n-1]5
An =4+5n-5
An =5n-1

The nth term is 5n-1.

11.
a) the common difference
A5= 40
A7= 20

A1+ 4d= 40 ………… (1)

A1+ 6d= 20 ………….(2)

Subtracting equation (2) from equation (1) we obtain

-2d=20
d= -10

b) the tenth term

A10= A1+9d,
But A1 +4d=40
A1=80

∴A10=A1+9d
=80-90
A 10=-10

12.

A2= A1+d
A7= A1+6d
A1 +6d = 10
A1+d=7

Solving the simultaneous equations by using the elimination method;

-5d= -3
d = 3/5

A1 + = 7

A1 =

SUM OF THE FIRST n TERMS OF AN ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION

Consider a series with first term A1, common difference d. If the sum n terms is denoted by Sn, then

Sn = A1 + (A1+ d) + (A1 + 2d)+ ...+ (A1 - d) + An

+ Sn = An + (An- d) + (An - 2d)+ ...+ (A1 + d) + A1
 2Sn = (A1+ An) + (A1+ An) + (A1+ An)+ ...+ (A1+ An)+ (A1+ An)

There are n terms of (A1+ An) then

2Sn = n(A1+ An)
Sn = n(A1+ An)
2
.
. . The sum of the first n terms of an A.P with first term A1 and the last termAn is given by

Sn = (A1+ An)

But An =A1+ (n-1) d

Thus, from

Sn = (A1+ An)

Sn = [A1+ A1+ (n-1) d]

Sn = [2A1+ (n-1) d]

... therefore, the sum of the first n term of an A.P with the first A1 and the common difference d in given
by

Sn = [2A1+ (n-1) d]

Where

n =number of terms
A1= first term
An =last term
d= common difference

Example

i) Find sum of the first 5th term where series is 2, 5, 8, 11, 14 first formula

Solution

S5 = [2 + 14]
S5 = 40
 (ii)Sn = [2A1 + [n-1] d]

S5 = [2 x 2 + [5-1] (3)]

S5= 40

Arithmetic Mean

If a, m and b are three consecutive terms of an arithmetic. The common difference

d= M - a
Therefore M- a = b - M
2M = a+ b
M= a + b
2
M is called the arithmetic mean of and b
E.g. Find the arithmetic mean of 3 and 27
M = 3+ 27
2
= 30 = 15
2

GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION (G.P)

Defination:
Geometric progression is a series in which each term after the first is obtained by multiplying the
preceding term by the fixed number.
The fixed number is called the common ratio denoted by r.
E.g. 1+2+4+8+16+32+...
3+6+12+24+48

The nth term of Geometric Progression

If n is the number of terms of G.P, the nth term is denoted by Gn and common ratio by r. Then G n+1 = rGn
for all natural numbers.
G1 = G1
G2 = G1r
G3 = G2r = G1r.r = G1r2
G4 = G3r = G1r2.r = G1r3
G5 = G4r = G1r3.r = G1r4
G6 = G5r = G1r4.r = G1r5
G7 = G6r = G1r5.r = G1r6
G8 = G7r = G1r6.r = G1r7
The nth term is given by
Gn = G1rn-1
Example1: Write down the eighth term of each of the following.
(a). 2+ 4+ 8+...
(b). 12+ 6+ 3+ ...

Solution
(a) The first term G1 =2, the common ratio r=2 and n=8, Then from
Gn = G1rn-1
G8 =(2)(2)8-1
G8 = (2). 27
G8 = 256
(b) The first term G1 =12, the common ratio r=1/2 and n=8, Then from
Gn = G1rn-1
G8 =(12)(1/2)8-1
G8 = (12). (1/2)7
G8 = 12/128 = 3/32

Example2: Find the numbers of terms in the following 1+2+4+8+16+...+512.

Solution
The first term G1 =1, the common ratio r=2 and Gn= 512, Then from
Gn = G1rn-1
512 =(1)(2)n-1
512
= 2n-1
512 = 2n.2-1
512 x 2= 2n
1024= 2n
210 = 2n
n = 10

The sum of the first n terms of a geometrical progression

.

Let the sum of first n terms of a G.P be denote by Sn

Sn = G1+ G2+ G3+ G4+...+ Gn
Since the common ratio is r

From

G2 = G1r
2
G3 = G1r
3
G4 = G1r
...G = G rn-1
n 1
S = G + G r+ G r2+ G r3+...+ G rn-1
n 1 1 1 1 n
Multiplying by common ratio r both sides we have

rS = rG + + G r3+ G r4+...+ G rn
n 1 1 1 n
Substract S from rS
n n

rS - S - G
n n= 1
Sn(r- 1) = (rn- 1)

Sn = where r ≥ 1 for r≠1

G1= first term of G.P

r= common ratio
Sn = sum of the first nth term
n= number of terms

for r< 1 the formular is given by

sn - rsn = G1 - G1rn

Sn(1-r) = G1(1- rn)

Sn= for r<1

When r= 1, the sum is simply given by

Sn= G1+G1+G1+G1+G1+G1+...+G1

sn=nG1 for r=1

Example

1. Sum of the first 5th term of G.P where series is 2+4+8+16+32

S5 =

S5 =

S5 = 62

Sn =

2. The sum of the first n terms of a certain series is given by Sn= 3n-1 show that this series is a G.P
 Solution

When

n= 1;
S1 = 31-1 = 3 - 1
=2

n= 2;
S2 = 32-1 = 9 - 1
=8

n= 3;
S3 = 33-1 = 27 - 1
= 26

n= 4;
S4 = 34-1 = 81 - 1
= 80

2 + 6 + 18 + 54...

r=

r= 3

Exercise

1. An arithmetic progression has 41 terms. The sum of the first five terms of this A.P is 35 and the sum of
the last five terms of the same A.P is 395 find the common difference and the first term.

Solution

S5 = 35
A5 =395
d= ?
A1 =?
S5 = [2A1 + [5-1] d]

S5 = [2A1+4d]

S5= 5A1+10d

35= 5A1+10d ... (1)

395=5 A1+190d… (2)

Solve the simultaneous equations

Then the value of d = 2

From the 1st equation

5A1+10d=35
5A1+10[2]=35
5A1+ 20 =35
A1 = 3

Therefore the first term is = 3

2. An arithmetic progression has the first term of 4 and n th term of 256 given that the sum of the nth
term is 1280. Find the value of the nth term and common difference

Solution

A1 =4
An =256
Sn =1820
n=?
d=?

Sn = [A1 + An]

1820 = [4 + 256]

1820 = n [130]

n=
 n= 14

Therefore the n term = 14

An = A1+ [n-1]d
An = 4+[14-1]d
256= 4+13d
256-4=13d
252 = 13d

d=

∴ Common difference =

3. The 4th, 5th and6th terms of an A.P are (2x +10), (40x-4) and (8x+40) respectively. Find the first term
and the sum of the first 10

A4= 2x+10
A5= 40x-4
A6=8x+40

Solution

A4= A1+3d = (2x + 10)…i

A5 = A1+4d = (40x - 4)…ii

Solve the equations by using elimination method

A1+3d= 2x+10
A1+4d= 40x-4

- d = 2x + 10 - 40x + 4
d= 38x - 14

From 1st equation

A1+3[38x-14] =2x+10
A1+114x - 42=2x +10
A1 = 2x+10 - 114x + 42
A1= -112x +52

Therefore the first terms = -112x+52

S10= [ 2(-112x+52) +[10-1] 38x-14]

S10=5[-224x+104] +9 [38x-14]

S10=5[-224x+104+342x-126]

S10=5[118x-22]

S10=590x-110

4. The sum of the first n terms of an A.P is given by sn=n[n+3] for all integral values of n. write the
first four terms of the series

Solution

When;

n = 1 then sn=n[n+3] =1[1+3]

=4

n = 2 then =2[2+3]

= 10

n = 3 then =3[3+3]

= 18

n = 4 then =4[4+3]

= 28

The first four terms of the series is 4+6+8+10

5. The sum of the first and fourth terms of an A.P is 18 and the fifth terms is 3 more than the third term.
Find the sum of the first 10 terms of this A.P

Solution
A1+A4=18
A5 = ( A1 + 4d )=3( A1 + 2d)
S10 =?
A1+A1+3d =18

2A1+3d=18………..i and ( A1 + 4d )=3( A1 + 2d)

A1 + 4d = 3 A1 + 6d
2 A1 = - 2d
-A1 = d

Substitute the value of d into equation … (i)

2A1+3d=18
2A1+3(-A1)=18
A1 = -18

But -A1 = d this give us d = 18

The sum of the first ten terms Sn = [2A1 + [n-1] d

S10 = [2 x -18 + [10-1] (18)]

= 630

6. How many terms of the G.P 2+4+8+16…… must be taken to give the sum greater than 10,430?

Solution

G1+G2+G3+G4…………. 2+4+8+16

Sn =

Sn =

10430 =
 5215 =2n-1

5216 =2n then

n=

Then more than term should be taken to provide the sum greater than 10430

7. In a certain geometrical progression, the third term is 18 and the six term is 486, find the first term
and the sum of the first 10 terms of this G.P

Solution

G3= G1 r2 = 18 ………… (1)

G6= G1 r5 = 486……….. (2)

Take equation (2) divide by equation (1)

= 27

r= 3

But = 18

G1 = 2

Sn = then

S10 =

= 2046
 The first term is 2

The sum of the first 10 terms is 2046

8. Given that p-2, p-1 and 3p-5 are three consecutive terms of geometric progression find the possible
value of p

Solution

R= =

r=[p-1][p-1]=[p-2][3p-5]

r=p2-2p+1=3p2-5p-6p+10

p2-2p+1=3p2-11p+10

p2-2p+1=3p2-11p+10

0=3p 2-p2-11p+2p+10-1

2p2-9p+9=0

From the general quadratic formula

p=

p=

P=3 or p=

Geometric mean
If a, m and b are consecutive terms of a geometric progression then the common ratio
r= M/a = b/M
M2 = ab

M=

Example: Find the geometric mean of 4 and 16.

from G. M =

G.M=

G.M =

G.M = 12.

5.7. APPLICATION OF A.P AND G.P.

Simple interest is an application of arithmetic progression which is given by;

I=

Where

I=simple interest

P=principal

R= rate of interest

T= period of interest

Compound interest is an application of geometric progression it is given by;

An=p+1 or An =p )n

Where
An =an amount at the end of the New Year
R= rate of interest
n= number of years
T=period of interest
p= principal

Example

1. Find the simple interest on Tshs 10,000/= deposited in a bank at the rate of 10% annually for 4 years

Solution

I=

I=

I=1000x4

I=4000

The interest for 4 years will be 4000/=

CIRCLE

DEFINITION AND PROPERTIES OF A CIRCLE

A circle can be defined in two ways.

A circle: Is a closed path curve all points of which are equal-distance from
a fixed point called centre OR

- Is a locus at a point which moves in a plane so that it is always of constant

distance from a fixed point known as a centre.
O - Is called the centre of the circle.

OP - Is the line segment is the radius.

AB - Is the line segment of diameters of the circle.

O – (Centre) - Is a fixed point of circle.

OP (Radius) – Is the constant distance from the centre to any point on a

circumstance of a circle.

AB (Diameter) – Is a line segment which passes through the centre of a

circle.

A circumference – Is a length of a locus which moves around the centre.

Diameter =2 x Radius

D = 2r

Hence the diameter of a circle is equal to two times radius.

RS (Secant) - Is a line segment whose points are on the circle.

BOC – Is called a central angle

(PTQ) – A Segment – Is the part of a circular region included within the

chord and its arc.

(COB) Sector - Is the part of a circular region bounded by two radii and an
arc.

CENTRAL ANGLE

Consider a circle of radius r, length of arc l, subtending a central angle.

- The length of the circumference C of the circle is C = 2πr. This means that
the length of the arc intercept by a central angle 360º is 2πr.

- The length of an arc is proportional to the measure of the central angle of

the central angle. Thus if the central angle is 1

Example 1.

An arc subtends an angle of 200 at the centre of a circle of radius 25m.

Find the length of the arc.

Length of an arc is given by

= Length of an arc = 8.72m

An arc of length 5cm subtends 50º at the centre of a circle. What is the
radius of the circle.

Data

θ = 50º

Length = 5 cm

Radius = required

Length of an arc is equal to

 =5.73cm

Example 3

A circular running track has radius 50m. A sprinter runs 100m along the
track.

Through what angle has she turned?

Radius = 50m

Length of an arc = 100m

θ = Required

Length at an arc is equal to

The central angle is 114 .650

Questions:

1. An arc subs tends 25 at the centre of a circle of radius 40m. What is the
length of the arc?

Data

Length of an arc = required

Radius = 40m

θ =- 25

Length at an arc is equal to

The length at an arc = 17.44m

2. An arc of length 17cm forms a circle of radius 40cm what angle does the
arc subtend?

Data :-

Length of an arc = 17cm

Radius = 40cm

θ= Required

Length of arc is equal to

The arc subtends 24.330

3. An arc of length 16m subtends 400 at the centre of the circle. What is the
radius at the circle?

Data

Length an arc = 16m

Radius = Required

θ = 400

Length of arc is equal to

The radius = 22.85m

RADIAN MEASURE

Angles can also be used to measure the amount of turning. Turns of a

minute hand of a clock and a wheel can be measured in both angles and
radians. Example a minute hand of clock turns through an angle of 90º 0f
½ π radians between noon and 12:15pm as shown in the figure.

- The tip of the hand has covered a distance of ½ π radians.

From noon to 12:45 pm, the hrs turned through an angle of 270ºor 3/2πr
radians. The angle 270º is reflex angle.
- One complete turn at hand clock represents an angle of 360º or 2π
radians.

- Measures of angles more than 3600 or 2 π radius can be obtained if hand

of a clock measures more than one complete turn. Example from noon to
1:15 pm, the hand has turned through 1 ¼ turns. Now one turn is 3600 or
20 radians.

- 5/4 turns or 3600 x 5/4 0r 2π x 5/4 radians which reduce to 450º 0r 5/2π
radians.

- There fore from noon to 1:15 pm the hand turns through 450º or 5/2π
radians.

Questions

1. Give the size in degree at an angle through which a minute hand of a

clock has returned between noon and the following times.

(a) 12:40

Solution:
1min = 6

40min =?

X= 40min x 6

X = 240

(b) 3:00

Solution

1hour = 360

3 hour =?

X = 3 hour x 3600

X = 10800

(c) 9:00

Solution

1hour = 3600

9 hour =? X

X = 9 x 3600

X = 32400

2. Give the size in radians at angles through which the minute hand of a
clock has turned between noon and the following times.
(a) 12:20pm

Solution

1min = 60

20 min =? X

X= 20min x 6

X = 1200

πrad = 180º

? = 120º

x = π rad x 120

X = 2/3 π rad

(b) 2:15

Solution

1hour = 60 min

2 hour =? X

x =60 x 15min

X =120
120 x 6º=720º
 = 7200 +90º
= 810º

(c) 24:00 noon

Solution

1 hour = 3600

24hrs = ?

X = 3600 x 20

= 86400

πrad = 1800

?x = 86400

x = 86400 x πrad

X = 48πrad

RADIAN MEASURE
- The relation between the arc length l, the central angle θ, and the radius r,
can be used to compare the measurement of an angle in radius with the
measurements in degree.

Circumference of the circle for the given radian C = 2πr. Circumference

sector

But C = length at an arc

In abbreviation is written as:-

S = is radian measured of an angle

 θ = is the degree measure

θ= 17 .190

The angle in degree is 17. 190

Class Activity:-

1.Find the degree of each of the following :-

(i) 3/2π

Solution:-

= 900 x 3

= 3/2π = 2700

(ii) ¾π
 Solution

¾ π = 1350

Example 1:

Find in radian as multiple of π for each of the following degrees.

(a) 3150 (b) 2400

Solution:
(b) 2400

Solution:-

2. Change the following radians into degree

(a) 0.3 (b) 5

solution
Class activity.

1. Find the degree of each of the following

i) 3/2π

Solution.

ii 3/4 π

Solution

iii) 2 π
Solution

2.Find the radians multiple of the π following

(i)80°
Solution

ii) 215º

Solution
iii) 600

Solution

3. (i) Change the radians into the degree of 0.3

∴The angle the degree = 540

(ii) 5
Solution
The angle degree = 9000

ANGLES IN CYCLIC QUADRILATERAL

These are four angles whose vertices are lying on the circumference of a
circle.

The angles p, q, r, and t are called cyclic angles in a quadrilateral ABCD, q

and t, p and r are opposite angles.
1. THEOREM:

The opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral are supplementary (add up to

1800).

Given; A quadrilateral SPQR inscribed in a circle centered at 0

Required to prove: x+ y = 1800

Constuction; join OR and OP

Proof: in the above figure

a = Zx (angle s on a circle) PQR)

b = Zy (angle on arc PSR)

a+b = Zx + 2y but a+ b = 360º

3600 = 2 (x+y ) divide by 2 both sides

x+y = 1800

∴ x+ y = 180º hence proved.

Example:

Find the size of each lettered angle.

The opposite angles A and C, B and D

:. x +830 = 1800

y = 1800 – 83

y = 970

x+1070 = 1800

x= 1800 – 19

x = 630
2. THEOREM:

Any inscribed angle in a semicircle is a right angle.

Given

AB – Is a diameter at a circle.

O - Is the center.

C - Is any point on the Circumference

Required to prove that ACB = 900

2 ACB= AÔB (Angle at the centre)

But,

AÔB = 180o (Straight angle)

ACB = 90o Hence proved.

Example:

Calculate the Value of x

Soln:

PQR = 90o (Angle in a semi Circle)

Then 90o + 30o + x = 180o

(Angles sum in A)

x = 180o – 120o

x = 60o

An exterior angle is an angle formed outside a cyclic quadrilateral. An

internal angle is formed inside the cyclic quadrilateral when you provide
line from this angle you will form an angle which is outside called exterior
angle.
THEOREM: 3

Exterior angle of a cyclic quadrilateral is equal to the inside opposite angle.

Aim: to prove that PSR = PQT

Proof: let angle PQR = a

Angle PRS = b

Angle PQT = y

(i) PQR + PSR = 180o (Because it is opposite angle of cyclic

quadrilateral).
Thus a+b = 180o

(ii) Therefore when you equate them since both are 180o

(iii) PQR + RQT = 180o (Because they are adjacent angles on straight
line)

Thus a + y = 180o

Therefore when you equate them since both are 180o you will have:
a+b=a+y
 B=y
But b = PSR
And y = PSR
PSR = PQT
Proved.

THEOREM 4:Angles in the same segment are equal.

THEOREM 5: Angles in the semi circle are right angled triangle.

Aim: To prove that PxQ = PyQ

Construction: join OP and OQ

Let PÔQ = P

PVQ = q

PYR = r
 (i) PÔQ = 2p x Q and
P = 2q (Because angle at the centre is twice the angle at the
circumference)

(ii) PÔQ = 2PyQ (Because angle at the centre is twice the

angle at the circumference)
P = 2r
x = P = 2q, P = 2r
= 2q = 2r
q=r

TO ANSWER THE QUESTIONS:

1. Find the value of X. if O is the centre of Circle

Soln:

Angle at the centre is twice the angle at the circumference.

Since the circle at the centre is 360o

3 x + 2x = 360o

5x = 360o
 = 72o

(b) Angle at the centre is twice the angle of the circumference.

Opposite angle at a cyclic quadrilateral are supplementary (add up to 180o)

x + 3x = 180o

4x = 180

x=45
Soln:

Angle at the same segment are equal.

Angle at the centre is twice the angle at the circumference.

2 x + 260o = 360o

Since the circle at the centre is 360o

2x + 260o = 360o

2x = 3600-2600

2x=1000

x = 50o

Soln:

Angle at the centre is twice the angle at the circumference.

150o x 2 = 300o

Since the circle at the centre is 360o

x + 300o = 360o

x = 360o – 300

x = 60o

Soln:

Angle at the centre is twice the angle at the circumference.

40o x 2 = 80o

Since the circle at the centre is 360o

x + 80o = 360o

x = 360o – 80o

x = 280o

(f) Find the value of angles marked x, y and z

Soln:

Angle at the centre is twice the angle at the circumference.

X x 2 = 224o

X = 112o

Since the circle at the centre is 360o

y + 224o = 360o

y = 360o – 224o

y = 136o

Opposite angle of a cyclic quadrilateral are supplementary (add up to 180o)

Z + 112o = 180o

Z = 180o – 112

z = 68o
(g) Find ‘y’

Soln:

Angle at the centre is twice the angle at the circumference.

y x 2 = 2y

Since the circle at the centre is 360o

4y + 2y = 360o

y = 60o

Class activity

1. MN is a diameter of a circle and L is a point on the circle. If MNL = 135o,

Find NML
Soln:

Any inscribed angle in a semicircle is a right angled triangle.

let NML=X

X + 35o + 90o = 180o

X + 125o = 180o

X = 180o – 125o

NML = 55o

2. AB is a diameter of a circle radius 10 cm and e is a point on the

circumference.

CB = 12, find CA (Remember Pythagoras theorem)

Soln:
By using Pythagoras theorem

202 = CA2+ 122

400 = CA2+ 144

CA2= 400 – 144

CA2 = 256

CA= 16cm

3. AB is a diameter of a circle radius 40cm and C is point on the

circumference.

If CBA = 62O, then find CÂB

Soln:

Let X = CÂB

X + 62o + 90o = 180o

X + 152o = 180o

X = 180o – 152o

CÂB = 28o

THE CHORD PROPERTIES OF A CIRCLE

The chord of a circle is the line segment whose end point are on the circle. A
chord which passes through the centre of a circle is called a diameter.
It is very important for you to know what a chord is and how to
identify the chord properties of a circle because it will summarize
you with this unit.
Therefore in this section you are going to study about the chord itself and
the chord properties of a circle.

You are also going to study how to develop theorem which relate to these
properties at chord. At the end of the section you will be able to
identify the chord, prove the theorem of the chord. Properties in a
circle and then apply these theorems on solving related problems in
order to identify the properties of the chord properties it easier if you
draw a circle with centre O.

You can see that O is a centre of the OM is the radius of the circle and PQ is
chord of the circle.

Therefore you will discover that.

 (a) The centre of the circle lies on the perpendicular bisector of the
chord.

(b) The perpendicular from the centre of the circle to the chord

(c) The line joining the centre of the circle to the midpoint of the
chord.

Then from the information above you can develop the theorem
which can be written as;

THEOREM

The perpendicular bisector of a chord passes through the centre of the

circle.

AIM: To prove that OMP = OMQ = 90o

Construction: Join OP, OQ and OM
Proof:
(i) OP = OQ (Radii)
(ii) PN = QM (M is midpoint given)
(iii) ON = OM (common)
(iv) OPM = OQM (Bisected angles)
 The corresponding angle are congruent and hence OMP = OMQ = 90o
proved.

THEOREM: Parallel chords intercept congruence arc.

Aim: To prove that arc PR≡Are

Proof:

Arc AQ≡ Arc AP (AOB is diameter)

Arc AS≡ Arc AR (AOB is a diameter)

Arc PR ≡Arc AR – Arc AP and also

Arc QS≡ Arc AS – Arc AQ

By step (i) up to step (iii) above you can conclude that Arc PR≡ Arc QS
proved

Class Activity:
Two chords, AB and CD of the circle whose radius is 13cm are equal and
parallel.
If each is 12cm long, find the distance between them.

Soln: - By using Pythagoras theorem

AD2= AB2 +DB2

262 =122 + DB2
676 = 144 + DB2
DB2= 676 – 144
DB2 = 532
Square root both sides

2.A chord of length 32cm is at a distance of 12cm from the centre of a

circle.
Find the radius of a circle.

Soln:

By using Pythagoras theorem

AO2 = 122+ 162

= 144 + 256
= 400
Apply square root both sides

3. A distance of a chord PQ from the centre of a circle is 5cm.

If the radius of the circle is 13cm. Find the length of PQ
Soln:
By using Pythagoras theorem.
132 = 52 + PQ2
169 = 25 + PQ2
PQ2= 169 – 25
PQ2= 144
Apply square root both sides
PQ = 12cm
Since OS is perpendicular to PQ

Therefore PS = SQ

PQ = 12cm + 12cm

= 24cm.

4. The chord AB of a circle with centre O radius 3cm long.

Find the distance of AB from O. give your answer in cm form

Soln:

By using Pythagoras theorem

a 2 +b2 =c2

15+b2 =9 x 3

b2 =27-15

Apply square root both sides

5.Two chords AB and CD of a circle with centre O. if AB = 10cm,

CD = 6cm, AO = 7cm. Find the distance between two chords

Triangle (i)

By Pythagoras theorem

a2 x 6 = C2

52 + b 2 = 7 2

25 + b2 = 49

b2 = 49 – 25

b2 = 24

triangle (ii) by Pythagoras theorem

a2 + b2 = c2

3 2 + a2 = 7 2

9 +a2 = 49
 a2 = 49 – 9

a2 = 40

Class Activity:

XY and PQ are parallel chords in a circle of centre O and radius 5cm.

If XY = 8cm and PQ = 4cm, find the distance between two chords.

Soln:

1st triangle

By using Pythagoras theorem.

C2 = a2 + b2
52 = 42 + b2

25 = 16 + b2

b2 = 25 – 16

b2 = 9cm

square root both sides

b= 3cm

2nd triangle

By using Pythagoras theorem.

C2 = a2 + b2

52 = 22 + b2

25 = 4 + b2

b2 = 25 – 4

Example:

1. AB is a chord of circle with centre X. the midpoint of AB is m.

If XAB find MXA

 XAM + MXA = 180O

52o + 90o + MXA = 180o

MXA = 180o – 142º

= 38o

2. AB is a chord in a circle with centre C. the length of AB is 8cm and the

Radius of the circle is 5cm. find,

The shortest distance of AB from C

ACB
By applying Pythagoras theorem.

42 +mc2 = 52
Mc2 = 25 – 16
Mc2= 16
Square root both sides
Mc = 4m

Sin ACM = 0.8000

 ACM = Sin-1 ((0.8)

= 53o X 2

= 106o

A chord AB has length 12m. it is 7m from the centre of the circle.

Find the (a) length of AC

(b)ACB

Soln:

By using Pythagoras theorem.

Using:

Tan ACM = 0.8571

ACM = Tan-1

= 40o

ACB =400 x 2

= 80o

EXERCISE
1. M is the Centre at the chord AB at a Circle with centre X if
2. M is the centre at chord PQ at a circle with Centre O. if < PQO =
43 . Find
O
3. A circle has radius 13cm and centre X. a chord AB has length
24cm. find:-
(a) T distance of the chord from the Centre
(b) < AXB

By Pythagoras theorem

(AM)2 + (MX)2 = (AX)2

122 + (MX)2 = 132

144 + (MX)2 = 169

(MX)= 169 – 144

(MX)2 = 25

Square root both sides

(MX)2 = 25

MX = 5cm

The distance from the centre to chord is 5cm.

QUESTIONS:

1. Let A be the Centre at a chord PQ at a circle with Centre O. If < PQO = 43o,
find < POQ

Soln
1. Q is the centre at a Circle and AB is a Chord
(a) The length at AB
(b) The distance at A from C
 Soln:

3. PQ is a Chord in a Circle with centre R. PQ = 14cm and the distance at R

from PQ is 9cm, find:-
(a) The radius at a circle
(b) <PRQ

Soln:
 Let RQ = Radius
By using Pythagoras theorem

Using, SO TO CA
HAH
TANGENT PROPERTIES

A tangent to a circle touches it at exactly one point

THEOREM:

A tangent to a circle the line perpendicular to the radius at the point of

contact.

TAP is a line perpendicular to the radius CA show that TAP is a tangent as

follows:-
If b is another point on TAP then CB is the hypotenuse at A CAB and hence
CB is longer than CA it follows that B lies outside the Circle. Hence TAP needs
the Circle only at A. TAP is a tangent to the Circle.

Hence a tangent is perpendicular to the radius.

Examples:
1. TA is a tangent to the Circle with centre C. If

Line AT⊥AC = 90°

<CAT+<ACT +<ATC=180°
90° + 49° + <ATC =180°

139° + <ATC =180°

<ATC=180° - 139°
∴ <ATC = 41°
2. A point T is 8cm from the centre C of a circle of radius 5cm. Find
(a) The length of the tangent from T to the circle
(b) The angle between the tangent and TC

By using Pythagoras theorem

(AC)2 + (AT)2 = (TC)2
52 + (AT)2 = 82
25 + (AT)2 = 64
AT2 = 64 – 25
(AT)2 = 39
AT = 6.24

=39º
QUESTIONS:
1. TA is a tangent to the circle at A. the centre is C. if <CTA=32º
(a) Find <ACT
(b) If TC = 8cm, Find AT and radius of the circle

Solution: (a)

Line AT ⊥ AC = 900

<ACT +=1800

<ACT +900 + 32º =1800

<ACT= 1800– 1220

<ACT= 580
Solution: (b)

= 8 (0.5299)

AT = 4.2392cm

2.TA is a tangent to a circle at A. The centre at the circle C if angle ACT =

73°and radius of the circle is 2m. find:-
(a) <ATC
(b) TA and TC

Line TA AC = 900
<ATC+<ACT +<CAT=180°

90° + 73° + <ATC =180°

 <ATC + 1630 = 1800
<ATC = 1800 – 1630
<ATC =17º

Solution: (b)
(i)

Opp = 2 Tan 730

=2(3.2709)

TA = 6.5418m

(ii) By using Pythagoras theorem

TA = 6.5418m

≈7m

C2 = a2 + b2

= 22 + 72
 = 4+49

c2= 53

Square root both sides

C2 = 53

3. A point T is 6m form the center C of a circle radius 3cm. Find:-

(a)The length of Tangent from T to the circle
(b)The angle between the tangent and TC

Solution: (a)

Using Pythagoras theorem

A2 + b2 =C2
32 + b2 = 62

9 + b2 = 36

b2 = 36 – 9

b2 = 27

Square root both sides

b2 = 27

Solution: (b)

Cos = 0.5
 = Cos -1 (0.5)

= 300

Angel between tangent and TC is 300

Class Activity

1.A point, 10m from the center X of circle at radius 6m. A tangent is drawn
from P to the circle touching at A. Find the length of the tangent from P to
the circle.

By using Pythagoras theorem

C2 = a2 + b2
102 = 62 + b2
100 = 36 + b2
b2 = 100 – 36
b2 = 64
Square root both sides
b2 = 64
 b = 8m
∴The length of the tangent from P to the circle is 8m

2.A tangent is drawn from T to a circle of radius 8cm. The length of the
tangent is 4cm. Find,
(a) The distance of T from the Centre C of the circle
(b) The angle between TC and the tangent

(a) By using Pythagoras theorem

C2 = a2 + b2
= 82 + 42
= 64 + 16
= 80
Square root both sides
C2 = 80
θ = tan-1 (2)

= 60

the angle between TC and tangent is 63º

TANGENT FROM A POINT

Suppose T is outside a circle there are two tangent from T to the circle and
they are equal in length
Proof:

Consider the angle TCA and TCB

CA = CB (Both are radii)

TC = TC (Common)
<TAC=<TBC

CHORD AND TANGENT

Suppose the chord CD gets shorter and shorter is that C and D approach a
common point E then the chord CD becomes the tangent at E, by interesting
chord theorem.
XA x XB = AC x XD

XA x XB = XE x XE

XA x XB = (XE)2

Example
1.TX is a tangent to a circle. The line TAB cuts the circle at A and B with TA
= 3cm and AB = 9cm. Find TX

Solution:
(TA) (TB) = TX x TX

(TA) (TB) = (TX)2

Since, TB = (TA) + (AB)

= 3cm + 9cm

= 12cm

From the theorem

(TA) (TB) = (TX)2

3cm x 12cm = (TX)2

Square root both sides

36cm2 = (TX)2

TX = ± 6cm

Since there is no -ve dimension therefore TX is 6cm

More Examples:

Find the length of unknown in the diagram.

Solution:

(CB) (CA) = (DC) (DC)

(CB) (CA) = (DC)2

Since CA = (CB) + (AB)

= 2m + a

From the theorem.

(CB) (CA) = (DC)2

(2m) (2m +a) = (4m)2

4m2 + 2ma = 16m2

2ma = 16m2 – 4m2

2ma = 12m2
a = 6m
Solution:

(CB) (CA) = (CD)2

Since CA = (CB) + (AB)

= 9m + 7m

= 16

From the theorem

(CB) (CA) = (CD)2

(9m) (16m) = (b)2

Square root both sides

144m2 = b2

b = ±12m

Since there is no -ve dimension b= 12m

2.TC is a tangent to a circle and Tab cuts at AB and B. if TA = 2cm and TB =
8cm, find TC

Soln:
From the theorem
(TA) (TB) = (TC)2
2cm x 8cm = (TC)2
16cm2 = (TC)2
Square root both sides
16cm2 = (TC)2
TC = 4cm

3. TX is a tangent to a circle and TYZ cuts the circle and Y and Z. if TX= 10m
and TY = 4m. Find TZ

Solution:
(TY) (TZ) = (TX)2
Let ZY = y
Since TZ = TY + ZY
= 4m + y
From the theorem
(TY) (TZ) = (TX)2
(4m) (4m + y) = (10m)2
16m2 + 4my = 100m2
4my = 100m2 – 16m2
4my = 84m2

Y = 21m
Since ZY = y
TZ = TY + ZY
= 4m + 21m
= 25m
Class Activity
1.TA is a tangent to a circle and TBC meets the circle at B and C. TA = (9cm
and BC = 24cm). Find TB

Solution:

(TB) (TC) = (TA)2

Let (TB) = y
Since TC = TB + CB

= y + 24cm
From the theorem
(TB) (TC) = (TA)2
(y) (y+ 24cm) = (9cm)2
Y2 + 24cmy = 81cm2
Y2 + 24cmy – 81cm2 = 0
By using General formula
Where a = 1, b = 24, c = 81
Since there is no negative dimension, the length at TB is 3cm
2.TX is a tangent to a circle and TPQ meets the circle at P and Q. TX = 12cm
and PQ = 7cm, find TP
Solution:

(TP) (TQ) = (TX)2

Let (TP) = Z
Since TQ = TP + QP
= Z + 7cm
From the theorem
(TP) (TQ) = (TX)2
(z) (z +7cm) = (12cm)2
z2 + 7z = 144
z2 + 7z – 144 = 0
By using the general formula
Where a = 1, b = 7 and c = -144
Since there is no negative dimension, the length at TP is 9cm
3.AB is a chord at a circle at length 5cm. C is another point on the circle. AB
extended on the circle meets the tangents at C and T. if the TC = 6cm, find
the possible value of TB.
Solution:

(TB) (TA) = (TC)2

Let
(TB) = x
Since TA = TB + AB
= x + 5cm
From the theorem
(TB) (TA) = (TC)2
(x) (x + 5) = (6cm)2
X2 = 5x = 36
X2 + 5x – 36 = 0
By completing the square
X2 + 5x – 36 = 0
X2 + 5x – 36 = 0
X2 + 5x = 36
Add (½ b) 2 both sides
 X2 + 5x + (½ x 5) = 36 + (½ x 5)2
X2 + (5/2)2 = 36 + 25/4

(x + 5/2)2 = 169/4

Square root both sides

(x + 5/2)2 = ±169/4

X + 5/2 = ± 13/2
X = -5/2 ± 13/2
= -5/2 + 13/2
= 4cm
Or
X = -5/2 – 13/2
= -9cm
Since there is no negative dimension, the length of TB is 4cm.

4. XY is a chord of a circle at length 2cm. z is another point on the circle. XY

extended meets the length at z at T. if TX = 18cm, find the possible value of
TZ
Solution:
 (TY) (TX) = (TZ)2
Since TX = TY + XY
18cm + 2cm= 20cm
From the theorem
(TY) (TX) = (TZ)2
(18cm) (20cm) = (TZ)2
360cm2 = (TZ)2 square root both sides
(TZ) 2 = 360cm2

ALTERNATE SEGMENT THEOREM

AT is a tangent to the circle and AB is a chord. The alternate segment theorem

state that:-

THEOREM: The angle between the chord and tangent is equal to the angle
in the alternate (others)
Segment i.e. < TAB = <ACB

Proof:

< TAB = <ACB

Aim: Is proving that <ACB= <BAT

Let ACB = X and Centre of a Circle to be

‘O’ AOB = 2x (< at the centre is twice the angle at the circumference).

AC,BC, and AB or chords in the Circle and AO = OB

∴Δ AOB is isosceles triangle since AO and OB are equal

<OAB=1/2(180º - 2x)

= 900 – x

<BAT+ <OAB =<OAT

<BAT=<OAT - <OAB

=90° - (90° - x)
 = 900-900 +x
=0+x

∴<BAT=x
hence proved
∴<ACB=<BAT
=x

QUESTIONS:
1.ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral TA is the tangent to the Circle at A. if <TAC
= 73º, find <ABC

Solution:
TAC = 730
Angle at the same segment equal
TAC = ADC
 <ADC + 730 = 1800
Take out 730 both sides
<ABC = 1800 – 730
<ABC=107º

2. PQRS is a cyclic quadrilateral. ST is the tangent to the Circle at S. if <QRS

= 132º.Find <RST

Soln:

<QRS +<RST =180º

1320 +1320=180º

Take out 1320 both sides

<RST =180º-1320
=48º

3. C is the centre of the Circle. If <BAT=39º. find <ACB.

 Soln:
Angle at the Centre is twice the angle at circumstances

<ACB = <BAT
39º=<BAT
<ACB x 2=< ABC
< ABC=39º x 2
=78º
4.X is the Centre of the Circle if<CXD =88º, find <TCD

Soln:
<DXC=<DCT/2
Angle at the Centre is twice the angle at the circumstances.
∴<TCD=88º/2
 = 44º

THE EARTH AS A SPHERE

SPHERE

Is a set of a point which equidistance (equal distance) from the fixed point
called the centre of the Sphere.
-The distance from the centre of the sphere to any point at the circumference
of the sphere called Radius at the earth which is approximately as 6370km.
-The surface of the earth is not exactly spherical because it is flattened in its
northern and southern pole or we say. The earth is not perfect sphere, as it is
slightly flatter at the north and southern pole than at the equator. But for
most purpose we assume that it is a sphere

THE EARTH AS PERFECT SPHERE

We consider the earth to be a perfect sphere of radius 6370km at

approximately 6400km.
-Whereby O is the center of the earth.
-R is the radius of the earth
-The earth rotates once a day about a line called polar axis (earth axis)
-This axis basses through the center and joins the northern and southern
poles

The equator has 00

DEFINITIONS OF TERMS
I. GREAT CIRCLE (EQUATOR)

Is the line which drawn from west to east with 00. Or

Is an imaginary line which divides the earth surface into two equal parts:
Southern part and Northern part through the Centre of the earth called
hemisphere.

The equator is the only Great Circle perpendicular to the earth axis

-Earth point on the earth’s surface is said to be either in northern hemisphere

or southern hemisphere.

II. SMALL CIRCLE (LATITUDE)

Is the line drawn from West to east and measure in degree from the centre at
the Earth (Equator) Northward or Southward.
- Latitude range from 00N or 900S

- The radius of parallel at latitudes becomes smaller as one moves towards

the southern or northern pole

Example of the line of latitude that should be drawn from west to east .
- The equator is the standard zero latitude from which other latitude are
measured
- Any other line of latitude is named by the longitude basses through when
rotating from the Equator to the line of latitude this angle is either north or
south of the equator.

When naming a latitude it is essential to say whether it is north or south of

the Equator.

III. MERIDIAN (LONGTUDE)

- These are lines drawn from north to south measured degree from the
prime meridian westward or eastward.
- These circles are not parallel as they meet at the poles. These circles have
radius equal to that of the earth and they are called great circle.
- Longitudes are also called meridian.

Diagram:
- In order to name lines at longitudes it has been necessary to choose a
standard zero called the prime meridian.

This is a line at longitude which passes through Greenwich, London.

IV.THE GREENWICH MERIDIAN

-Greenwich meridian: Is a longitude whose degree measure is zero (00)
-Greenwich meridian is also considered as prime meridian

-Greenwich meridian is standard longitude in which other meridian are

measured in degree from East for West.
- The Greenwich divides the earth’s into two parts eastern part and western
part
- Each point on the earth surface is said to be either on the eastern part or
western part.
Diagram:
- The longitude of a place varies from 00 along the Greenwich meridian to
1800E or 1800W. The Radius of all longitude are equal to that of the earth.

LOCATION OF POINTS ON THE EARTH SURFACE

1.O is the centre of the earth. The latitude of P is 500N and of Q is 400S
Solution:
Since the given point has been allocated into different hemisphere therefore
the angle subtended by an arc PQ = 500 + 400= 900

2. Two towns are on the same circle of longitude. One town is 200N and other
is 300S. What is the angle subtended by an arc of these two angles.
Solution:

Since the two towns has been found into different hemisphere the
angle subtended by an arc of the two angle are
200 + 300 = 500

3. Two towns C and D line on the equator. The longitude of C is 700E and for
D is 30º
E.
What is the angle subtended by an arc.
Solution:
 Since C and D are in the same hemisphere the angle subtended by an
arc CD = 700 – 300

CD= 400

4. Two towns A and B are on the equator.

The longitude of A is 350E and the B = 720W. Find the angle subtended by an
arc AB
 Since the point given has been found in the different hemisphere the
angle subtended by an arc AB = 720 + 350

= 1070

HOME WORK
1.Given that Morogoro is (70S, 380E) and Moscow is (560N, 380E). Find the
angle subtended by the area which connect the two places at the centre of
earth.
Solution:

Since the given places have been alocated in the different hemisphere
therefore subtended by an arc = 560 + 70

= 630
2. What is the difference in longitude between Brazivile Congo
(40S, 150E) and Mombasa Kenya( 40S, 400E)
Solution:
Since the given places have been allocated in the same hemisphere therefore
the different between the two places = 400 – 150

= 250

DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO PLACES MEASURED ALONG GREAT

CIRCLE

Note: Great circles means either the equator or lines of longtudes.

Consider two points P and Q both found on the equator.

Diagram:
O is the centre of the earth OP = OQ = Radius of the earth angle POQ is the
central angle line PO = ‘l” is the length at arc PQ on the equator. θ is the
difference in longitudes between points P and point Q.

Remember, If P and Q are on the same hemisphere. θ will be found by

subtracting their respective longitudes and if P and Q are in different
hemisphere, the value of θ will be obtained by taking their sum of the
respective longtude.

θ=l

3600 = 2πR

Whereby, π= 3.14
 R = 6370km

Example:

Three points A(00,140W), B(00,250W) and C(00, 460E) are on the Earth’s
surface.

Calculate the length of the equator

(a)AB (b) AC (c) BC
 The distance of points A and B is 1223km
(b)
 The distance of point AC is 6668km

(c)

The distance of point BC is 7891

HOME WORK
1.Three points are such that A(430N, 100E), B(160N, 100E) and C(280S, 100E).
calculates the lengths at the following arcs measured along the longitudes.
(a) AB (b) BC (c) AC
Solutions:
 The distance at point AB is 3000km.

(b)
 The length at point BC is 6156km.

(c)
 The distance of point AC is 7,891km.

Home Work
1.Two towns R and Q are 2813km apart R being direction of North of Q. If
the latitude Q is 50S, find the Latitude of R.
Solution:-
Data
Distance RQ = 2813km
R = Required
Q = 50S
Since R is due to North of Q,the latitude of R is 20.33º

Class Work
1.Calculate the distance between Tanga (50, 390E) and Ruvuma (12ºS, 39°E)
in;
(a) Nautical mile
(b) Kilometre

(a)Solution:
(α ± β) 600 = Nm
(120 - 50) 600 = Nm
70 x 600 = Nm

(b) 1Nm = 1.852km

420.1Nm =?

The distance between Tanga and Ruvuma is

(a) 420. 1Nm
(b) 778km

1.Find the distance between point x and y given that X(340N, 1240E) and
Y(410N,1240E)
(a)In nearest Nautical mile
(b)In nearest Kilometers
Solutions:
( β) 600 = Nm
(410 – 340) 600 = Nm
70 x 600 = Nm

= 420.1Nm

The distance between point X and Y is

(a)420 Nm
(b)793Km
Home Work
1.An air Craft took a height from town A(40N, 120E) moving southwards
along a great circle for a distance of 2437Km. write the position of the town
it landed.
Solution:
Distance = 2437Km
A = 40N, 120E
B = Required (5º 120E)
 4° + β = 21.93°
β = 21.93° - 4°
=17.930

The position of town of Landed is 17.930

DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO POINTS ALONG THE PARALLEL OF

LATITUDE.
Except the equator, other parallels of latitudes are small circles. Simply
because their radii are less than the radius of the earth

Consider the point P and Q both found on the same parallel of latitude, let
say α0N and Q is the different in longitudes between P and Q.

R is the radius parallel latitude of α0N

Diagram

Length at arc PQ = θ

Circumference 0f small circle 3600

But; r is the radius of small circle.

But PQ is the distance between two points but θ = α ± β

Example
1.Calculate the distance between P(500N, 120W) and Q(500N, 260E)
Solution:
Home Work
1. Find the distance between point A(580N, 230E) and (580N, 400W)
Solution
 The distance between point A and B is 370Km

CLASS ACTIVITY
1. Calculate the distance from town P and Q along the parallel of latitude.
If P (230N,100E) and Q (230N, 540E)
Solution:
 4.501 x 1000 =4501 x 1
= 4501km
The distance from P to Q is 4501 Km

2. Two Towns both on latitude 450S differ in longitude by 500. Calculate the
distance between two towns measured along the parallel of latitude.
Solution:
 3.929 x 1000 = 3929 x 1
=3929Km

The distance between two towns is 3929km.

Example;

A plane flying at 595km/hour leaves Dar es Salaam (70S, 390E) at 8:00 am.
When will it arrive at Addis Ababa at (90N, 390E)

Solution:
1.778 x 1000

1778km

The distance from Dar to Addis Ababa (Ethiopia) is 1778km

= 2:54

Since it spent 2:54 and left at Dar around 8:00 am now will reach Addis Ababa at 10:54am

CLASS ACTIVITY
1.An aero plane flies from Tabora (50S, 330E) to Tanga (5ºS, 39ºE) at 332 km/hour along
parallel of latitude. If it leaves at Tabora at 3:00 pm. Find the arrival time at Tanga airport.
Solution.

664.3km

The distance between Tabora and Tanga is 664km.

= 2 hours

Time arrival time at Tanga air port is 3:00pm + 2:00pm = 5:00pm

Home Work
1.A ship is Steaming in a eastern direction from town A to town B. if the position A is
(320N, 1360W) and B is (320N, 1380W). What is the speed of sheep
if it takes 3hours from town A to town B.
Solution:

2.73 X 1000=2073Km

The distance from town A to B is 2073km.

The speed of sheep is 691km/hour.

In solving problems involving speed at ships, a term known as knot is usually used. By definition
a speed of one nautical mile per hour is called knot
Therefore
1knote = 1Nm/hour = 1.852km/hour
Example: 1
When a ship is given 20knots is actually sailing at 20 nautical miles per hour or approximately
37 kilometer per hour.

Example: 2
A ship sails northwards to Tanga (50S,390E) at an average speed of 12 knots. If the ship starting
points is Dar es Salaam (70S, 390E) at 12:00noon, when will it reach Tanga.

Solution: 1
How did 37km obtained.
1knote = 1.852km/hour
= 2 x 18.52km/hr
= 37.04km
= Approximately 37km

Solution: 2
 1knot = 1.852km/hr
12knot= x
1knot x = 12knots x 1.852km/hr

X = 10.09
= 10:00
∴From 12:00 noon adding 10hours will sail at Tanga at 10:00pm.

Home Work
1. A ship is teaming at 15knots in western direction from Q to R. if the position of P is
40ºS, 178ºe and that of Q is 40ºS, 172ºE, how long will the journey take?
Solution:
 510.7 km is the distance from point Q to R.

= 18:12

The journey took = 18 hours and 12 minutes

Class Activity
1. A speed boat traveling from Zanzibar (60S, 450E) to Mwanza (90S, 450E) using 30knots left
Zanzibar at 11:30am at what time did it reach at Mwanza?
Solution:

The distance from Zanzibar to Mtwara is 333.4km

= 5:54pm
 Since it spent 5:54pm and left at Zanzibar at 11:30am. Now it will reach at Mtwara
5:24pm.

2. Find the time taken for a ship to sail from town P(800N, 600W) to town Q(600S, 600W)
in 70knots
Solution:

=129.64km/hr
 ≈130km/hr

= 119:36
The ship will take 119hours and 36 minutes from town P to town Q

Class Activity.
1. A ship sails from A (00,200W) to B (100N, 200W) at 16 knots. If it leaves A at 8:00am
on Tuesday when will it reach B?
Solution:
 1knot = 1.852km/hour
16knots =?

= 16 x 1.852km/hour
= 29.632km/hour
30km = 1hour

= 37hours

37 - 24hour = 13hours

8:00 + 24hr = 8:00am

8:00am + 13hours = 9:00am

The ship will reach town B at 9:00 am on Wednesday

Home Work
A ship sails from point A (100S, 300W) to B(100N, 300W) at 20 knots. If it leaves point A
at 12:00 midnight on Monday when will arrive at B?
Solution:

1kont = 1.852km/hour
20knot = x?
knot x = 20knot x 1.852km/hour
 ≈37km/1hour
2222km = x?
37km x = 2222km x 1hour

=60hours

Since 12:00pm on Monday the ship has spend 2 and ½ days where by it will arrive at B at 12:00
afternoon on Thursday.

THE EARTH AS A SPHERE

The earth surface is very close to being a sphere. Consider a sphere representing the shape of the earth
as below.
NS is the Axis of the earth in which the earth rotates once a day.

O is the center of the earth.

The radius of the Earth is 6370 Km.

GREAT CIRCLES.

Is that which is formed on the surface of the earth by a plane passing through the center of the Earth. Its
radius is equal to the radius of the Earth.

Examples;

ARB and ANB.

The equator is also a great circle.

NDBS, NGS and NPRS all are meridians. (Longitude).

EQUATOR: Is the line that circles the Earth midway between the North and the South Pole.

PRIME MERIDIAN ( : is a meridian (longitude) which passes through Greenwich, England.

 SMALL CIRCLES : is one formed on the surface of the Earth by a plane that cuts through the Earth but
does not pass through the centre of the Earth. Eg. ARB.

LATITUDE: The angular distance of a place north to south of the earth’s equator or of a celestial object
north or south of the celestial equator. It is measured on the meridian of the point.

Example 1.

CASE 1

1. 1. Points A and B have the same longitudes but different latitudes. Point A (66o N, 400E) B, Point
B ( 25oN ,400E)A. Find the angle subtended at the center of the Earth by arc AB if A is (250N,400E) and
B is (66os ,400E)

AOB =BOP- AOP

AOB =660- 25o

=410

Exercise 1

In questions 1 to 4 consider the town and cities indicated an d the answer the questions that follow.

1. Which of the following towns and cities lie on the same meridian?
 •Tabora (5 0s, 33 0E) Dar-es salaam (7 0s, 39 oE) Mbeya (90 s,330E) Chahe Chahe (5 0s, 40 0 E),
Tanga ( 50S, 390E) Moshi ( 30 s, 370 E) , Zanzibar ( 60 S, 40 0 E),Mwanza ( 30 S, 330 E) Morogoro
(70 S, 380 E), Nakuru ( 0 0 , 360 E) , Kampala (00,330E) , Gulu ( 30N,320E)

2. Which town and cities have latitudes like that of;

a. a) Moshi?

Mwanza

b. b) Chahe Chahe?

Tanga and Tabora

3. Which towns and cities have longitudes like that of

a. Mbeya? Tabora , Mwanza and Kampala.

b. Dar-Es-Salaam? Tanga

4. Find the angle subtended at the center of the Earth by arc AB if A is Mwanza and B is Mbeya.
5. Find the angle subtended at the centre of the Earth by arc XY if X is Nakuru and Y is Kampala

Solution

1. A Mwanza (30 S, 330 E)

B Mbeya (90 S, 330 E)

SOB = BOA- AOS

SOB= 90 – 30

SOB = 60

5. c. X Nakuru ( 00 , 360 E)

d. Y Kampala ( 00 , 330 E)

e. TOX = XOY –TOY

f.
TOX= 360 – 33 0
g.
TOX = 30
 CASE 2

Point A and B are on the same latitude but different longitudes.

Examples

1. Find the angle subtended at the center of the Earth by arc XY if X is Nakuru (00 , 360
E) and Y is Kampala ( 00 , 330 E)

XOY = XOP- YOP

= 360 – 330

= 30

2. Two towns A and B are on the equator.The longitude of A is 350 E and that of B is
720 W. Find the angle subtended by the arc AB at the center of the Earth.

Solution

AOB = AOP + POB

= 350 + 720
 = 1070

3. Two towns A and B in Africa are located on the Equator. The longitude of A is 100 E
and that of B is 420 E . Find the angle subtended by the arc AB at the center of the
Earth.

Solution

AOB = SOB – SOA

= 420 – 100

= 320
 The angle formed by arc AB is 320

Exercise 2

1. In the figure below, if the center through N,G,S is the prime meridian , the center of the Earth and the
Equator passes through B and G , the longitude and latitude of A.
Longitude of A = ( 00 , 300 W)

Latitude of A = ( 500 N, 00 )

There after draw a figure similar to that of question 1 to illustrate the position of point H
(600S,450E).

2. P and Q are towns on latitude 00 . if the longitude of P is 1160 E and that of Q is 1050 W, find
the angle subtended by the arc connecting the two places at the center of the Earth . Draw a
figure to illustrate their positions.

LENGTH OF A GREAT CIRCLE.

Distance on the surface of the Earth are usually expressed in nautical miles or in kilometers. A
nautical mile is the length of an arc of a great circle that subtends an angle of 1 minute at the
center of the Earth.

The length of arc AB is 1 nautical mile;

10 = 60 minutes
10 = 60 nautical miles

For a great circle, angle at the center if the Earth is 3600 .

Length of a great circle.

10 = 60 nautical miles
3600 = ?
3600 x 600 = 21600 nautical miles.

Therefore, equator and all meridians are great circles , distance (length) is equal to 21600
nautical miles.

In kilometers.

1 nautical mile = 1.852 Km

21600 nautical miles = ?
21600x 1.852 = 40003.2 km
OR

We can use the following formula to find the distance.( length)

C= 2π r

Where “r” is the radius of the Earth.

r= 6370
π=3.14
C= 2x3.14x6370

C= 40003.6 km

Example

1. If the latitude of Nakuru is O0 , find the distance ( length) in nautical miles from this
town to the North Pole.

Solution.

From O0 to North Pole , the angle is 900

10 = 600 nautical miles.

900 = ?

900 x 600 = 5400 nautical miles

1 nautical mile = 1.852 km

5400 nautical mile = ? km

Distance = 1. 852 x 5400

= 10000.8km

2. calculate the distance of the prime meridian from south to North pole in

a. nautical mile

b. kilometers.

Solution

a. 10 = 60 nautical miles.
 1800 = ? nautical miles

1800 x 600 = 10800 nautical miles.

... The distance of prime meridian from south to north pole is 10800Nm

b. 1 nautical mile = 1.852 km

10800 Nautical miles =?km

10800x 1.852= 20001.6 km

.
. . The distance of prime meridian from south to north pole is 20001.6 km

3. Calculate the distance of the equator from east to West in Nautical Miles.
10 = 60 nautical miles.
180o ?
1800 x 60 0= 10800 nautical miles.
.
. . The distance of the equator from East to West in Nm is given by 10800Nm

Length of small circle.

Let P be any point on the surface of the earth through this point a small circle is
drawn with parallel of latitude θº as shown above. The radius of the earth as R and the
radius of the parallel latitude (r) are both perpendicular to the polar axis.
Note: SP is parallel to OQ (Both are perpendicular to NS)
 ...θº = OPS
Then we have

From trigonometrical ratios

r= R cos θ where R is the radius of the earth and r is the radius of the small
circle of latitude θ.
... Distance of parallel of latitude θ = 2πr
= 2πRcos θ

Example 1.

1. Calculate the circumference of a small circle in kilometers along the parallel of

latitude 100 S.

Soln

C = 2πR cos θ

= 2x 3.14x 6370x cos 100

=39395.54528km

2. Calculate the length of the parallel of the latitude through Bombay If Bombay is
located 190 N, 730 E

C= 2πR cos θ

= 2x3.14x6370xcos190

=37823.40km
 In nautical miles.

3782km/1.852km/miles = 20423 nautical miles.

Exercise

In the questions below , take the radius of the Earth , R= 6370km and π = 3.14

1. The city of Kampala lies along the equator. Calculate the distance in kilometers from the city of
Kampala to the South Pole

2. How far is B from A if A is 00 ,00 and B is 00, 1800 E.

3. What is the latitude of a point P north of the Equator if the length of the parallel of the latitude
through p is 28287 kilometers.( give your answer to the nearest degree.
4. What is the radius of a small circle parallel to the equator along latitude 700 N

Solution
1. 10= 60 nautical miles.
900 = ?
600 x900 = 5400 nautical miles.

In kilometers .

5400nm x 1.852km/nm= 10000.8km

2.

10 = 60nm

1800 = ?
= 1800 x 600 = 10800 nm
1nm = 1.852 km
10800nm =?
10800x 1.852= 20001.6 km
3.
C= 2πR cos θ

28287= 2 x 3.14x 6370 x Cos θ

Cos θ = 0.7071

θ= 45º
4.

r = Rcos θ

= 6370 x 0.3420

=2178.4 km

Distance between points along the same meridian.

A ( 600 N , 300 E)

B (200 N , 300 E)

K=200

∝= 600

= 600 - 200

10 = 60 nautical miles

40 0 = ? Nm
 400 x 60 0 = 2400 nautical miles

Examples

1. 1. Find the distance between A ( 300 N, 1390 E) and B ( 450 N , 1390 E) in

a. Nautical miles.
b. Kilometers.
Solution

Since A and B have the same longitudes , they are on the same meridian. The difference
between their latitudes is

= (45-30)0

=150

=150 x 60 nm/ 0 = 900 nautical Mile

OR

Distance AB = πRθ/ 1800

= 1666.8 km

1nautical mile = 1.852 km

= 900 nautical miles

2. 2. Find the distance in kilometers between A (90 S, 330 E) and B ( 80 S, 330 E)

Solution

The points have the same longitudes but their latitudes differ.

The difference in latitude is

=90 - 80

= 10

10 = 60 nm

The distance is 60nm

3. 3. Find the distance in nautical miles on the same meridian with latitude
a. 100 N, 350 N
 b. 200 N, 420 S

Solution

a. 350 - 10 0 = 250

1 0 = 60 nm

250 =?

60x25= 1500 nm

b. 200 + 420 = 620

10 = 60 nm

620 =?

60x 62 = 3720 nm

4. 4. Find the distance AB In nautical miles between each of the following pairs of places.

a. A (180 N, 120 E)
B (650 N, 120 E)

(65-18) 0= 470

10 = 60 nautical miles

470=?

60 x 470= 2820 nautical miles

b. A( 310 S, 760 W) and B ( 220 N , 760 W)

310 S + 220 N = 53 0

10 = 60 nm

530 =?

=3180nm

5. Find the distance in kilometers

between;
a. Tanga (50 S, 390 E) and Addis Ababa (90 N, 39 0E)
Solution:

(9+5) = 140

10 = 60 nm

140 = ?

=840 nautical miles

1nm = 1.852 km

840nm =?

Distance = 1555.68 km

b. Mbeya (90 S, 330E) and Tabora ( 50S, 330E)

Soln.

(9-5) 0 = 40

10 = 60 nm

40 =?

= 240nm

=240 nmx 1.852km/nm

=444.48 km

6. A ship sails northwards to Tanga (50 S, 390 E)at an average speed of 12 nm/ hr. If the ships starting
point is Dar Es salaam (70S, 390E) at 12:00 noon , when will it reach Tanga?

Solution

(7-5) 0= 20

10= 60 nm

20 = ?

Distance = 120 nm

Velocity = 12nm/hr
Time = 10 hours

It will reach tanga at 10:00 pm

7. A plane flying at 595 km/hr leaves dar-es-salaam (70 s , 390 E) at 8:00 am. When will it arrive at
Addis Ababa (90 N, 390 E)?

Solution

90 N + 70 S = 160

10 = 60 nm

160 =?

Distance = 960 nm=1777.92km

Time = 2.988 hours

It will arrive at 11: 00 am

DISTANCE BETWEEN POINTS ALONG THE PARALLEL OF LATITUDES.

Consider the figure below, points A and B are two points having the same latitude 00 , since both lie
on the parallel of latitude but they are different in their longitudes i.e. That point A is on a different
longitude from that of point B. the difference between their longitudes is θ.
 3600 = 2πr
θ =?

Example.

1. A ship is streaming in a western direction from Q and P. if the position of P is ( 400 S, 1780E) and
that of Q ( 400 S, 1720E). how far does the ship move from Q to P?

Solution

Difference in longitude = 178-172= 60

Exercise
1. Two points on latitude 50 0 N lie on longitudes 350E and 40 0W. what is the distance between
them in nautical miles.

2. An airplane flies westwards along the parallel of latitude 200 N from town A on longitude 400 E to
town B on a longitude 100W. find the distance between the two towns in kilometers.

3. An aeroplane flies from Tabora ( 50S, 330E) to Tanga ( 50S, 390E) at 332 kilometers per hour along a
parallel of latitude. If it leaves Tabora at 3 pm, find the arrival time at Tanga airport?

4. The location of Morogoro is (70 S , 380E) and that of Dar-Es-Salaam is ( 70S, 390E). find the distance
between them In kilometers.
5. A ship after sailing for 864 nautical miles eastwards find that her longitude was altered by 300.
What parallel of the latitude is the ship sailing?
6. An aeroplane takes off from B (550 S, 330E) to C ( 550 S, 390E) at a speed of 332 km/ hr . if it leaves
B at 3:00 pm , at what time will it arrive at C airport?
7. A ship sails due North from latitude 200 S for a distance of 1440km. find the latitude of the point it
reaches.

Solution

1.

350E + 400W = 750

10 = 60 cos θ

750= ?

600x 750x Cos 45º= 2892.6 nm

2.

100W +40 0 E = 500

10 = 60 cos 200

50 0=?

= 2819.1 nm

1nm =1.852 km

2819.1nm= ?

Distance = 5221km
 3.

(39-33)0 = 6 0

1 0 = 60 0 cos θ

60=?

=60x 60 xcos 50

=359nm

Velocity = 332 km /hr

Distance = 664.86 km

Time = 2 hrs

Arrival time = 5:00 pm

4.

Longitude difference = 390- 380= 10

= 110.29Km

5.

L = 864 nm =1600.128km
 Cos θ = 0.4799952
θ = 61º

6.

(39-33) 0= 60

1 0 = 60 cos θ nm

60= ?

Where θ = 55 0

= 358.632nm

But 1 nm = 1.852 km

359nm =?

Distance =665 km

Time = 2 hours

3:00 pm + 2 hours = 5:00 pm

7.

1 nm = 1.852 km

? = 1440 km

= 777.54 nm

10 = 60 nm
 ? = 777.54 nm

=12.95 0

The latitude it reaches will be 12.95 0

ACCOUNTS
Accounts is a place in a ledger where all the transactions are relating to a particular asset, liabilities and
capital, expenses,or revenue items were recorded.
Accounts is a wider concept with identifying measuring and communicating economic information to
permit informed judgments and decisions by users of the information. The part of accounting that is
concerned with recording data is known as book keeping.

Book keeping - is the art of recording financial business transactions on a set of books in terms of money
or money’s worth.

Why do we need to keep business records?

•To determine whether the business is making profit or loss.

To determine financial strength of the business.
•To enable the government to access reliable resources.
•To enable different stake holders to make reliable decisions about the business
i.e. investors, bankers, customers etc.

THE DOUBLE ENTRY SYSTEM

Before looking at the system of double entry let us look at the meaning of business transactions.
Transactions means movements of money,goods or services from one part/person to another. For
example: Selling goods in cash Tshs 10,000/= or selling goods worth Tshs 10,000 on credit to Aisha.

The double entry system - Is the process of recording these business transactions twice.

LEDGERS

A ledger is a main principle book of accounts in which business transactions are recorded in double
entry system.
The ledger contains section called "Accounts" which contain detail of transactions for specific items
each account bears a title and a number called folio i.e. page of the ledger.

Each account should be shown on a separate page. The double entry system divides each page into two
values;
a. The left hand side is called the debit side
b. The right hand side is called the credit side.

The title of each account is written across the top of the account at the center so double entry system
needs every debit entry should have corresponding credit entry. An example of a ledger;

NAME OF THE ACCOUNTS

Date Particulars folio Amount Date particular folio Amount

Each side of account should have four column i.e. date, particulars, folio and amount.

Use of columns;

i) Date column
For writing year, month and date.

ii) Particulars
For short descriptions of the transactions

iii) Folio column

For pages of reference

iv) Amount column

For writing amount of money

Worked examples on how to record transactions in double entry system;

1. Juma starts business with Tshs 20,000/= in cash on 1st January 2006. The transaction needs to debit
cash account and credit capital account as follows.

Dr CASH ACCOUNT Cr

Date Particular folio Amount Date particular folio Amount

 1/1/2006 capital 20,000

Dr Capital account Cr

Date Particular folio Amount Date particular folio Amount

1/1/2006 Cash 20,000

2. John started a business on 1st Jan 2000 with capital at Tshs 5,000,000 in cash

January

2) 2 purchased goods and paid in cash T.shs. ………… 1,000,000/=

3) 3 Brought goods for cash. ………………… 500,000/=

5 paid wages in cash …………… 50,000/=

7 sold goods in cash …………… 300,000/=

8 brought goods in cash ………. 800,000/=

9 received loan from C.R.D.B………….. 70,000/=

12 bought parking materials in cash…….. 20,000/=

28 paid transport charges ……… 30,000/=

28 drew cash for burial Tshs……….. 10,000/=

Enter the above transaction in the ledger and complete the double entry

Solution
EXERCISE

1. Mark commenced business on 1st June 2001 with capital Tshs. 1,000,000.

June 2 bought for cash……… 500,000/=

2 paid transport charges………….. 50,000/=

3 bought parking charges………….. 10,000/=

4 sold goods for cash …………. 300,000/=

5 sold goods for cash…………… 100,000/=

6 purchased goods and paid cash… 180,000/=

8 paid wages ……. 38,000/=

10 cash sales…… 200,000/=

12 cash purchases…………. 180,000/=

15 cash sales to date ……….. 250,000/=

20 paid rent …………. 50,000/=

Enter the above transactions in the cash account complete the double entry balance the accounts at the
end of the month and extract a trial balance
TRIAL BALANCE AT THE END OF THE MONTH 30TH JUNE 2001

NO. Details Debit Credit

1 Cash 872,000

2 Capital 1,000,000

3 Purchases 830,000

4 Transport 50,000

5 Packing 10,000

6 Sales 850,000

7 Wages 38,000

8 Rent 50,000

Total 1,850,000 1,850,000

FIRMS NAME

DR Trading account for the year ended CR

Opening stock xxx Sales xxx

Add purchases xxx Less. RIN xxx

Less outwards xxx Net sales xxx

Net purchases xxx

Cost of goods available

For sale xxx

Less : closing stock xxx

Cost of goods sold xxx

Gross profit c/d xxx

Xxx Xxx
 PROFIT AND LOSS ACCOUNT

This is an account prepared in order to ascertain the net profit and loss by the business. All expenses
are debited to this account while gains or profits are credited to this account and debited with all
incurred expenses.

Note

If the business has made profit it increases the capital and if it has suffered loss it reduces the capital.

It’s lay out;

FIRM’S NAME

DR PROFIT AND LOSS ACCOUNT FOR THE YEAR ENDED CR

Expense xxx Gross profit b/d from trading account xxx

Net profit xxx Other gains [income] xxx

xxx
xxx

Note

The excess of expenses over incomes is formed as net profit.

Example
1. From the following trail balance you are required to prepare a trading profit and loss account. For the
year ended 30th June 2006 B Samanga.

Trial balance as at 30th June 2006

s/n NAME OF THE ACCOUNT DEBIT CREDIT

1 Sales 3,850

2 purchases 2,900

3 Rent 240

4 Lighting expenses and general expenses 150

5 Fixtures and fittings 60

6 Debtors 300

7 Salaries 680

8 creditors 910

9 Cash in hand 1,710

10 Bank 20

11 Drawings 700

12 Capital 2000

Note
Closing stock was valued at Tshs 300. B Samanga and profit account.

DR TRADING ACCOUNT B SAMANGA AS AT 30TH JUNE 2006 CR

Opening stock 0000 Sales 3,850

Add purchases 2,900 R.Inward 0000

Less R outwards - 0000 Net sales 3,850

Net purchases 2,900 Add all receivables

Cost of goods available for sale 2900

Less closing stock -300

Cost of goods sold 2,600

Gross profit c/d 1,250

3,850 3,850

Balance b/d 1,250

Expenses

Rent 240 Gross profit 1,250

L and G 150

Salaries 680

Total expenses 1,070

Net profit/balance c/d 180

1,250 1,250

Balance b/d net

profit 180

BALANCE SHEET FOR THE YEAR ENDED 30TH JUNE 2006

ASSETS LIABILITIES

Fixed assets Long term liabilities

Fixture and fittings 60 Capital 2,000

Current assets Creditor 910

Stock 300 Net profit 180

Debtors 300 3,090

Less drawing - 700

Bank 20

Cash hand 1,710

Total current assets 2,330

Total fixed asset 2,390 2,390