AP3456 - 9-1 - The Earth, Distance and Direction

CHAPTER 1 - THE EARTH, DISTANCE, AND DIRECTION

THE EARTH

The Form of The Earth

1. For most navigational purposes the Earth is assumed to be a perfect sphere, although in reality it
is not. For many centuries man has been concerned about the shape of the Earth; the early Greeks in
their speculation and theorizing ranged from the flat disc to the sphere, and even cylindrical and
rectangular Earths have been propounded.

2. The basic shape of the Earth is almost spherical, being slightly flattened at the poles. This shape
is more properly termed an oblate spheroid, which is the figure generated by the revolution of an ellipse
about its minor axis. Because of this flattening, the Earth’s polar diameter is approximately 27 statute
miles shorter than its average equatorial diameter.

3. The ratio between this difference and the equatorial diameter is termed the compression of
the Earth, and indicates the amount of flattening. This ratio is approximately 1/300 but geodetic
information obtained from satellite measurements indicates that the Earth is very slightly 'pear-
shaped', the greater mass being in the southern hemisphere.

4. The Poles. The extremities of the diameter about which the Earth rotates are called poles. In
Fig 1a these are represented by P and P1.

5. East and West. East is defined as the direction in which the Earth is rotating. This direction, anti-
clockwise to an observer looking down on the pole P, is shown by the arrows in Figs 1a and b. West is
the direction opposite to East.

9-1 Fig 1 Earth References

a b
North Pole
P

Observer Directly
Above The Pole
P
W E W E

P1

6. North and South. The two poles are distinguished arbitrarily; the North Pole (P in Fig 1a) is said
to be the pole which lies to the left of an observer facing East. North is therefore that direction in which
an observer would have to move in order to reach the North Pole; it is at right angles to the East-West

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 AP3456 - 9-1 - The Earth, Distance and Direction

direction. The other pole (P1 in Fig 1a) is known as the South Pole. The directions East, West, North
and South are known as the cardinal directions.

Lines Drawn on the Earth

7. The shortest distance between two points is the length of the straight line joining them. It is,
however, impossible to draw a straight line on a spherical surface and so all lines drawn on the Earth
are curved, some regularly and others irregularly. The regularly curved imaginary lines on the Earth
which are of interest to the navigator are described below.

8. Great Circle. A great circle is a circle on the surface of a sphere whose centre and radius are
those of the sphere itself. Because its plane passes through the centre of the sphere, the resulting
section is the largest that can be obtained, hence the name great circle. Only one great circle may be
drawn through two places on the surface of a sphere which are not diametrically opposed. The
shortest distance between any two points on the surface of a sphere is the smaller arc of the great
circle joining them (see Fig 2).

9-1 Fig 2 Great Circle

Great Circle

Shortest Distance

9. Small Circle. A small circle is a circle on the surface of a sphere whose centre and radius are not
those of the sphere. All circles other than great circles on the surface of a sphere are small circles
(see Fig 3).

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9-1 Fig 3 Small Circle

Small Circle

10. The Equator. The equator is the great circle whose plane is perpendicular to the axis of rotation
of the Earth. Every point on the equator is therefore equidistant from both poles. The equator lies in
an East-West direction and divides the Earth into northern and southern hemispheres.

11. Meridians. Meridians are semi-great circles joining the poles; every great circle joining the poles
forms a meridian and its anti-meridian. All meridians indicate North-South directions.

12. Parallels of Latitude. Parallels of latitude are small circles on the surface of the Earth whose
planes are parallel to the plane of the equator. They therefore lie in an East-West direction (see Fig 4).

9-1 Fig 4 Equator, Meridians and Parallels

North Pole

Meridians
of Longitude

Equator

Parallels
of Latitude
South Pole

13. Rhumb Line. A rhumb line is a regularly curved line on the surface of the Earth cutting all
meridians at the same angle. Only one such line may be drawn through any two points. Parallels of
latitude are rhumb lines as are the meridians and the equator, though the latter two are special cases
as they are the only examples of rhumb lines which are also great circles. Thus, when two places are
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 AP3456 - 9-1 - The Earth, Distance and Direction

situated elsewhere than on the equator or on the same meridian, the distance measured along the
rhumb line joining them is not the shortest distance between them. However, the advantage of the
rhumb line is that its direction is constant, therefore the rhumb line between two points may be followed
more conveniently than the great circle joining them since the direction of the latter changes
continuously with reference to the meridians. The saving in distance effected by flying a great circle
rather than a rhumb line increases with latitude but it is appreciable only over great distances,
consequently flights of less than 1,000 miles are usually made along the rhumb line. Rhumb lines are
convex towards the equator (excepting parallels of latitude, the equator and meridians) and lie nearer
the equator than the corresponding great circles (see Fig 5).

9-1 Fig 5 Rhumb Line

Great Circle 0

0 Rhumb Line

Equator

Earth Convergence

14. From Fig 5 it can be seen that the meridians are only parallel to one another where they cross the
equator, elsewhere the angle of inclination between selected meridians increases towards the poles.
This angle of inclination between selected meridians at a particular latitude is known variously as Earth
convergence, true convergence, meridian convergence and convergency.

UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

Angular Measurement

15. The sexagesimal system of measuring angles is universally employed in navigation. In this system
the angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc equal to the 360th part of the circumference is
called a degree; each degree is subdivided into 60 minutes (') and each minute into 60 seconds ("). Thus
the size of any angle may be expressed in terms of degrees, minutes and seconds.

16. In spherical calculations it is frequently convenient to express spherical distances (ie great circle
distances) in terms of angular measurement rather than in linear units. This is possible because of a
simple relationship between the radius, arc, and angle at the centre of a circle. Thus the length of the
arc of a great circle on the Earth might be expressed as 10º 38'; this would convey little unless there
were some ready means of converting angular units to linear units. This difficulty of converting from
angular to linear units has been overcome by the definition of the standard unit of linear measurement
on the Earth, the nautical mile.

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Measurement of Distance

17. Assuming the Earth to be a true sphere, a nautical mile is defined as the length of the arc of a
great circle which subtends an angle of one minute at the centre of the Earth. Thus the number of
nautical miles in the arc of any great circle equals the number of minutes subtended by that arc at the
centre of the Earth. The conversion of an angular measurement of spherical distance to linear units
requires only the reduction of the angle to minutes of arc; the number of minutes is equal to the
spherical distance in nautical miles.

18. In Fig 6a, if AB, the arc of a great circle, subtends an angle at the Earth’s centre of 40º 20', AB is
said to be 40º 20' in length. Forty degrees 20 minutes is equivalent to 2,420 minutes of arc which is
equal to a length of 2,420 nautical miles.

9-1 Fig 6 Angular Distance and the Nautical Mile

Fig 6a Angular Distance

NP
Great Circle

s
nm
4 20 B
2
0'=
o 2

40 o 20
'
40
A
E Centre of Q
The Earth

r
Equato

SP

19. Because of the Earth’s uneven shape the actual length of the nautical mile is not constant, but
varies with latitude from 6,046 feet at the equator to approximately 6,108 feet at the poles. A more
accurate definition of the nautical mile than that given in para 17 is that it is the length of the arc on the
Earth’s surface that subtends an angle of one minute at its own centre of curvature. In Fig 6b the arc
BC is on a comparatively flat part of the spheroid and the distance to the centre of curvature is
relatively long (AB or AC); therefore an angle φ is subtended by a comparatively long arc BC. The arc
YZ is at a comparatively curved part of the spheroid, the distance to the centre of curvature (XY or XZ)
is shorter and the angle φ is subtended by a shorter arc length. However, for the purpose of navigation
a fixed unit of measurement is helpful. Until 1 March 1971 this was the UK Standard Nautical Mile of
6,080 feet. Since that time the International Nautical Mile of 1,852 metres (6,076.1 feet) has been
adopted as the standard unit of distance for air navigation.

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Fig 6b Nautical Mile

B C

Y
X
φ
Z
A

20. The other mile unit in common use is the statute mile (so called because its length, 5,280 feet, is
determined by law). The statute mile evolved from the Roman "milia passuum" (1,000 paces -
approximately 4,860 feet). Unlike the nautical mile, the statute mile is not readily converted into
angular measurement terms.

21. Metric Units. The SI unit of distance is the kilometre. One kilometre is the length of 1/10,000th
part of the average distance between the equator and either pole; it is equivalent to 3,280 feet.

Speed

22. Speed is a rate of change of position. It is usually expressed in linear units per hour. As there are
three main linear units, there are three expressions of speed:

a. Nautical miles per hour, stated as "knots" (kt).

b. Miles (ie statute miles) per hour (mph).

c. Kilometres per hour (km/hr).

DIRECTION

Direction on the Earth

23. In order to fly in a given direction it is necessary to be able to refer to a datum line or fixed
direction whose orientation is known or can be determined. The most convenient datum is the
meridian through the current position, since it is the North-South line. By convention, direction is
measured clockwise from North to the nearest degree, i.e. from 000º to 360º. It is always expressed
as a three-figure group; thus East, which is 90º from North, is written 090º, and West is 270º.

24. True Direction. Direction measured with reference to True North, the direction of the North
geographic pole, is said to be the True direction. True direction has the following advantages:

a. It is a constant directional reference (ie True direction about a point does not change with time).

b. It is the basis of nearly all maps and charts.

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c. It is the direct and continuous output from inertial systems.

However, magnetic direction continues to be used as an aircraft heading reference and as the basic
direction reference in non-inertial systems.

25. Magnetic Direction. The Earth acts as though it is a huge magnet whose field is strong enough
to influence the alignment of a freely suspended magnetic needle any where in the world. The poles of
this hypothetical magnet are known as the North and South magnetic poles and, like those of any
magnet, they can be considered to be connected by lines of magnetic force. Although the magnetic
and geographic poles are by no means coincident (the respective North poles are separated by
approximately 900 nm), the lines of force throughout the equatorial and temperate regions are roughly
parallel to the Earth’s meridians. A freely suspended magnetic needle will take up the direction
indicated by the Earth’s lines of force and thus assume a general North-South direction; the actual
direction in which it points, assuming no other influences are acting upon it, is said to be Magnetic
North. With such a datum available it is possible to measure magnetic direction. If, at any given point,
the angular difference between the directions of Magnetic North and True North is known, then it is
possible to convert Magnetic direction to True direction.

Variation

26. The angular difference between the direction of True North and Magnetic North at any given point,
and therefore between all True directions and their corresponding Magnetic directions at that point, is
called Variation. Variation is measured in degrees and is named East (+) or West (–) according to
whether the North-seeking end of a freely-suspended magnetic needle, influenced only by the Earth’s
field, lies to the East or West of True North at any given point. The algebraic sign given to Variation
indicates how it is to be applied to magnetic direction to convert it to True direction. At any point,
therefore, the True direction can be determined by measuring Magnetic direction and then applying the
local Variation (see Fig 7). A useful mnemonic is:

"Variation East, Magnetic least,

Variation West, Magnetic best."

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9-1 Fig 7 Variation

In Fig 7a it can be seen that: In Fig 7b it can be seen that:

Magnetic direction = 100º (M) Magnetic direction = 100º (M)
Variation = 10º E (+) Variation = 10º W (–)
∴ True direction = 110º (T) ∴ True direction = 090º (T)

a b

North
North North North
(True)
(Magnetic) (Magnetic) (True)

Variation Variation
o
10 E 10o W

o
110 (T) 90o (T)
o 100o (M)
10 0 (M)

Isogonals

27. Variation is not constant over the Earth’s surface, but varies from place to place. This change
is gradual and follows a more or less regular pattern. By means of a magnetic survey, the variation
at numerous points is accurately measured and tabulated. From such a survey, it is possible to
discover a number of points where variation has the same value. Lines joining these points of equal
variation are known as isogonals, and these lines are printed on maps and charts.

28. The variation at any given point is not a fixed quantity, but is subject to gradual change with the
passage of time because the magnetic axis of the Earth is constantly changing. This change, which
is indicated in the margin of the chart, is not large but, in certain places, may amount to as much as
one degree in five years. It is important, therefore, that charts indicate the date to which variation
values apply, and also the annual change, so that the isogonal values may be updated.

Deviation

29. When a freely-suspended magnetic needle is influenced only by the Earth’s magnetic field, the
direction it assumes is known as Magnetic North. If such a needle is placed in an aircraft, it is subject
to a number of additional magnetic fields created by various electrical circuits and magnetized pieces
of metal within the aircraft; consequently its North-seeking end deviates from the direction of magnetic
North and indicates a direction known as compass North.

30. The angular difference between the direction of Magnetic North and that of Compass North,
and therefore all Magnetic directions and their corresponding Compass directions, is called
Deviation. Deviation is measured in degrees and is named East (+) or West (–) according to
whether the North-seeking end of a compass needle, under various disturbing influences, lies to
the East or West of Magnetic North. The algebraic sign given to deviation indicates how it is to
be applied to compass direction to convert it to Magnetic direction.

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31. Deviation is not, as might be imagined, a constant value for a given compass; instead it varies
with the heading of the aircraft. Nor is the deviation experienced by two different compasses likely to
be the same under identical conditions (see Volume 5, Chapter 15). Thus, in order to convert the
directions registered by a particular compass to Magnetic directions, a tabulation of the deviations of
that compass, found on various headings, is required. Such a tabulation of the deviation, usually in the
form of a card, must be provided and placed near the compass to which it applies. The method by
which compass cards are produced (known as 'compass swinging') is covered in detail in Volume 5,
Chapter 16.

32. The deviation of a compass will change as its position in the aircraft is changed. Deviation will
also change, over a period of time, due to changing magnetic fields within the aircraft. Moreover, as
the aircraft flies great distances over the Earth, changes occur in deviation because of the Earth’s
changing magnetic field. It is not sufficient, therefore, to prepare a deviation card and expect it to last
indefinitely, the card must be renewed at frequent intervals in order that it may always record the
deviation as accurately as possible. A useful mnemonic for the application of deviation is:

"Deviation East, compass least,

Deviation West, compass best."

Figure 8 illustrates the two cases, Deviation East and Deviation West, for the following values:

9-1 Fig 8 Deviation

Fig 8a Fig 8b
Compass direction 100º (C) Compass direction 100º (C)
Deviation 4º E (+) Deviation 4º W (–)
Magnetic direction 104º (M) Magnetic direction 096º (M)

a Deviation East b Deviation West

North North
(Magnetic) (Compass) North North
(Compass) (Magnetic)
Deviation
4o E Deviation
4o W
104o (M) 096o (M)

100o (C)
100o (C)

Derivation of True Direction

33. It is possible, therefore, to express a direction given with regard to a particular compass needle as
True direction, provided that deviation and variation are known. To avoid the complications arising
from the changing values of variation and deviation during flight, plotting is usually carried out using
true directions. An example is shown in Fig 9:

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9-1 Fig 9 Three Expressions for Direction

Compass direction 225º (C)

Deviation 2º W (–)
Magnetic direction 223º (M)
Variation 12º W (–)
True direction 211º (T)
CM T

Deviation
2o W Variation 12o W

211o T
223o M
225o C

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 AP3456 - 9-2 - Position

CHAPTER 2 - POSITION

Introduction

1. Since air navigation is the process of directing an aircraft from one point to another, it is essential to
be able to define these points as positions on the Earth’s surface.

LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE

General

2. On the Earth, position is normally defined by a reference system known as latitude and longitude.

Latitude

3. Latitude is defined as the angular distance from the equator to a point, measured northward or
southward along the meridian through that point. This quantity is expressed in degrees, minutes and
seconds and is annotated N or S according to whether the point lies North or South of the equator (see
Fig 1).

9-2 Fig 1 Latitude

N
Parallel of
Latitude

W 0 Latitude E

Equator

Longitude

4. The longitude of any point is the shorter angular distance along the equator between the meridian
running through Greenwich (the Greenwich or Prime Meridian) and the meridian through the point
(Fig 2). It is expressed in degrees minutes and seconds, and is annotated E or W according to
whether the point lies to the East or West of the Greenwich Meridian. As the plane of the Greenwich
Meridian bisects the Earth, longitude cannot be greater than 180º East or West (Fig 3).

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9-2 Fig 2 Longitude

N

Greenwich
W E
Z

Equator Longitude(E)

9-2 Fig 3 Extremes of Longitude

Equator

o
Meridian of 180

N Pole
Greenwich
West
Z

Longitude (E)
A
B
East

Recording Position

5. In air navigation, it is usually sufficient to express latitude and longitude in degrees and minutes only. By
convention, the group of figures representing latitude is always written first and is followed by the figures
expressing longitude. To avoid ambiguity, there are always two figures used to denote degrees of latitude,
those below ten being preceded by the digit 0. Similarly, three figures are used to denote degrees of
longitude, employing leading zeros as necessary. The letters N, S, E, and W are used to indicate the
hemisphere. Thus the position of a point situated in latitude 53 degrees 21 minutes North and in longitude
zero degrees 5 minutes East, is written: 53 21 N 000 05 E, the spaces being optional.

Change of Latitude

6. The change of latitude (ch lat) between two points is the arc of a meridian intercepted between their
parallels of latitude. It is annotated N or S according to the direction of the change from the first point to
the second. By convention, northerly latitudes are considered positive, while southerly latitudes are
considered negative.

7. If the two points are on the same side of the equator, and thus have the same sign (as in
Fig 4a), the ch lat is found by subtracting the lesser latitude, that of A, from the greater, that of B. If A
and B are on opposite sides of the equator, and thus have the different signs (as in Fig 4b), the ch lat
is equal to the sum of the latitudes of A and B. In Fig 4a the ch lat of point B from an observer at point
A is annotated N, in Fig 4b the ch lat of point B from point A is annotated S.

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9-2 Fig 4 Change of Latitude

a b

N N

B
Ch Lat
A A E
West East West O East
Ch Lat
Equator Equator
B

S S

Change of Longitude

8. The change of longitude (ch long) between two points is the smaller arc of a parallel intercepted
by the meridians through the two points. It is annotated E or W according to the direction of the change
from the first point to the second. By convention, easterly longitudes are considered positive, while
westerly longitudes are considered negative.

9. In Fig 5a, the points A and B are in the same hemisphere and so have the same sign. The change
in longitude is the difference between them. The ch long from A to B is westerly, while the ch long from B
to A is easterly. In Fig 5b, the points A and B are in different hemispheres and so have different signs.
The change in longitude is the sum of their longitudes. The ch long from A to B is westerly, while the ch
long from B to A is easterly. When considering the example in Fig 5c, it is vital to remember the definition
of ch long given in para 8. Points A and B are in different hemispheres and so have different signs. By
calculating their sum, the derived ch long would be a measurement of the larger arc of the parallel
intercepted by the meridians through the two points. Thus, in this situation, ch long is derived by
subtracting the sum of the longitudes of the points from 360º.

9-2 Fig 5 Change of Longitude

a b c
Westerly Easterly
o Longitudes o Longitudes
180
o
180 180
B A
Ch Long
B

Ch Long o o o

A
Greenwich
Ch Long
o B 0
o A o
Westerly 0 Easterly 0
Westerly Easterly
Longitudes Longitudes Longitudes Longitudes

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Departure

10. The distance between two given meridians, measured along a stated parallel and expressed in
nautical miles, is called departure. In general terms, it is defined as the East-West component of the
rhumb line distance between two points. The value of departure between two meridians varies with
latitude, decreasing with increasing latitude (Fig 6); the change of longitude between these meridians
remains the same, irrespective of the latitude.

9-2 Fig 6 Departure and Change of Longitude

A B 70 N
d

10 N
A1 B
1
d = 410 nm West (A from B)
1 1
30 W 1
d 10 W d1 = 1181 nm West (A from B )
Ch Long

11. The departure between any two points is a function of their latitudes and the change of longitude.
The relationship is given by:

Departure (nm) = ch long (mins) × cos (mean lat)

lat A + lat B
where mean lat =
2

Disadvantages of the Latitude and Longitude Reference System

12. The latitude and longitude method of reporting position suffers from certain disadvantages:

a. The possibility of confusion in areas close to the equator and the prime meridian.

b. The necessity of giving an 11 character group to obtain positional accuracy of 1 min e.g. 5136 N
00125 W.

c. One minute of latitude and one minute of longitude represent different distances on the earth,
except at the equator, and the distance represented by one minute of longitude decreases with
increasing latitude.

13. To overcome these disadvantages, military forces use reporting systems based on networks of
lines (grids) which are a fixed distance apart and cut each other at right angles. Examples of these
systems discussed in this chapter are:

a. The British National Grid System (covering Great Britain and the Isle of Man).

b. The Irish Grid (covering Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland).

c. The Universal Transverse Mercator Grid (UTM) (covering the latitudes between 80º S and 84º N).

d. The Universal Polar Stereographic Grid (covering the north and south polar regions).

e. The Geographic Reference System (GEOREF). Note that this system is based on graticule
lines (latitude and longitude), and is not a true grid system.

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THE BRITISH NATIONAL GRID SYSTEM

Description of the Grid

14. The British National Grid is the national grid for Great Britain and is a unique system for use by both
civilian and military authorities. It is based on the Transverse Mercator projection with a central meridian
at 2º W, to which all grid lines are parallel or perpendicular. The origin of the grid is at 49º N 2º W, with a
false origin located 100 km north and 400 km west of the grid origin to ensure that all coordinates on the
grid are positive (see Fig 7). British National Grid coordinates are given in terms of metres east and
metres north of the false origin. Depending on the scale of the chart, the distance between grid lines
shown on the chart is 10,000 metres, 1,000 metres or 100 metres. The distance between grid lines
shown on the chart is termed the 'grid interval'.

The British National Grid Reference System

15. The British National Grid Reference System is the means by which national grid references are given
using the British National Grid. The British National Grid is first divided into 500 km grid squares. Each
500 km square is assigned a letter, referred to as the 500 km 'square identification', as shown in Fig 8.
Each 500 km square is subdivided into 100 km squares, each of which is assigned a 'square
identification' letter. The 100 km squares are lettered A to Z (omitting I), starting in the top left of the
whole 500 km grid square, as shown in Fig 7. It can be seen from Fig 7, that by combining the square
identification letters, each 100 km square has a unique identifier. The 100 km squares can be further
sub-sub-divided into 10 km, 1 km, and 100 metre squares, depending on the scale of the chart in use
(see para 14). Each grid square within the 100 km square is designated by the respective metric
distances of its South-West corner from the West and South margins of the 100 km square. The user
can extract these distances from the figures printed in the margins of the maps against the grid lines.

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9-2 Fig 7 The National Grid showing the Grid Origin and False Origin

10OW 8OW 4E
O

62 O 6W
O
4W
O O
2 W
O
0 2OE 62ON

HL HM HN HO HP JL JM
O O
60 60 N
HQ HR HS HT HU JQ JR

HV HW HX HY HZ JV JW

58
O NA NB NC ND NE OA OB 58 N
O

NF NG NH NJ NK OF OG

NL NM NN NO NP OL OM
O O
56 56 N

NQ NR NS NT NU OQ OR

NV NW NX NY NZ OV OW
O O
54 54 N
SA SB SC SD SE TA TB

SF SG SH SJ SK TF TG
52O 52ON
SL SM SN SO SP TL TM

SQ SR SS ST SU TQ TR

O
50 SV SW SX SY SZ TV TW 50 N
O

False Grid Origin

Origin 490N20W
O
10 W 8OW O 4E
O
O
6W 4OW 2OW
O
0 2E

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9-2 Fig 8 The 500 km Grid Squares of the British National Grid

H J

N O

S T

2W

16. A full grid reference consists of the two letters representing the square identifications, followed by
a numerical element to identify a position within the square. The numerical part of a grid reference
consists of an even number of digits in two equal groups. The first group represents the eastings and
the second group the northings. Each group is made up as follows:

a. Principal Digits. Principal digits label the grid lines and are shown on the chart. For a chart
with a 100 metre grid, each grid line has three principal digits (Fig 9a). For a 1,000 metre grid,
each grid line has two principal digits (Fig 9b). For a 10,000 metre grid, each grid line has one
principal digit (Fig 9c).

b. Estimated Tenths. A 'standard reference' obtained from a chart is a grid reference to a

precision of one tenth of the grid interval of the chart. The grid square is divided into tenths, either by
measurement or estimation, in an easterly and northerly direction and counted respectively from the
left and south grid lines.

An eight figure reference identifies a point to a precision of 10 metres. A six figure reference identifies
a point to a precision of 100 metres. A four figure reference identifies a point to a precision of 1,000
metres. This can be seen in Fig 9. In Fig 9a, the grid interval is 100 metres and so the estimated
tenths gives a precision of 10 metres. Grid references always read right (eastings) first and then up
(northings). A grid reference is written without any spaces.

17. Examples of standard grid references, appropriate to various scales, are illustrated in Fig 9.

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9-2 Fig 9 Grid References on Various Scale Charts

a 1:2,500 b 1:50,000 c 1:250,000
263 264 265 25 26 27 28 29 30
732 75 8

P 74
P
P
TQ 26437315 73
TQ 2673
731 TQ 264731 7

72

71

70 6
730
2 3 4

THE IRISH GRID

Description of the Grid

18. The Irish Grid is shown on military maps and charts that cover Northern Ireland and the Republic
of Ireland. It is based on the Transverse Mercator projection with a central meridian at 8º W to which
all grid lines are parallel or perpendicular. The origin of the grid is 53º 30' N and 8º W, with a false origin
250 km south and 200 km west of the grid origin. Irish grid coordinates are given in terms of metres east
and metres north of the false origin. Depending on the scale of the chart, the distance between grid
lines shown is 10,000 metres, 1,000 metres or 100 metres. The distance between grid lines shown on
the chart is termed the 'grid interval'.

The Irish Grid Reference System

19. The system for reporting grid references on the Irish Grid is almost identical to the British National
Grid Reference System (para 16). The difference is that the whole of the island of Ireland falls within a
single 500 km square which is designated by the letter 'I'. This letter is not used anywhere else, either
in the reference system used with the Irish Grid, or in the British National Grid Reference System. As
with the British National Grid Reference System, a full grid reference consists of two letters, the first
identifying the 500 km square in which the point lies, and the second identifying the 100 km square in
which the point lies. Grid letters are followed by the numerical part of the grid reference that identifies
a position within a grid square.

THE UNIVERSAL TRANSVERSE MERCATOR GRID

Introduction

20. Any rectangular grid system must be based on a flat projection of the Earth’s surface. However,
because the Earth’s surface is curved, any flat projection will become increasingly distorted as the area of
projection is extended. Therefore, the area covered by one particular grid must not be extended beyond
the limits at which its distortion becomes excessive.

Description of the Grid

21. The Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) Grid is a world-wide grid extending from 80º S to 84º N. It is
based on sixty separate grid zones, each one covering six degrees of longitude and each with its own
projection. The UTM Grid is based on the Transverse Mercator Projection with each grid zone having a
central meridian, central to that zone, to which all grid lines are parallel or perpendicular. The origin of each
of the grid zones is the intersection of its central meridian with the equator. Each grid origin is assigned false

Revised Jul 10 Page 8 of 20

 AP3456 - 9-2 - Position

coordinates which are 500,000 metres east and 0 metres north for the northern hemisphere, and 500,000
metres east and 10,000,000 metres north for the southern hemisphere. This effectively creates false origins
500 km west of the true origins on the equator, for the northern hemisphere, and 500 km west and 10,000
km south of the true origins for the southern hemisphere. UTM Grid coordinates are given in terms of
metres east and metres north of the false origin in the hemisphere of the UTM grid zone in which the point
falls. Some UTM grid zones are extended at the expense of others. These are shown in Table 1.
Depending on the scale of the chart, the distance between the grid lines shown is 10,000, 1,000 or 100
metres. The distance between the grid lines shown is termed the 'grid interval'.

9-2 Table 1 Extended UTM Grid Zones

Latitude Band Zone Width

55º N to 64º N 31 3º (0º to 3º E)
32 9º (3º E to 12º E)
72º N to 84º N 31 9º (0º to 9º E)
32 Eliminated
33 12º (9º E to 21º E)
34 Eliminated
35 12º (21º E to 33º E)
36 Eliminated
37 9º (33º E to 42º E)

22. The UTM grid is further divided into twenty bands of latitude. Each band covers eight degrees of
latitude, (except for the most northerly band which covers the twelve degrees between 72º N and 84º N).
Each band of latitude is given a designation letter from C to X (omitting letters I and O) starting at 80º S
and continuing to 84º N.

23. Grid Zone Designation Areas are formed by the intersection of the UTM Grid Zones and the latitude
bands. Each Grid Zone Designation Area is identified by a unique Grid Zone Designation (GZD). The
GZD consists of the number of the UTM grid zone followed by the designation letter of the latitude band.
Grid Zone Designation Areas are illustrated in Fig. 10.

9-2 Fig 10 The UTM Grid

84º
X 31 33 35 37
72º
W 64º
V 32
56º
U 48º
T 40º
S 32º
R 24º
Q
16º
P 08º
N 00º
M 08º
L
16º
K 24º
J 32º
H 40º
G
48º
F 56º
060º
096º

084º

012º

006º

024º

036º

042º

072º

084º

090º

096º
168º

090º

042º

030º

000º

006º

012º

018º

048º

054º

066º

102º

108º

114º

126º

138º
072º

066º

060º

048º

036º

024º

018º

078º

120º

132º

144º

168º
174º

138º

120º

108º

078º

054º

030º

150º

156º

162º
180º

156º

150º

144º

132º

126º

114º

102º

174º

180º
162º

E 64º
D 72º
C
80º

24. Each Grid Zone is sub-divided into columns and rows to form 100,000 metre (100 km) squares
(Fig 11). Each column and row is given an identifying letter. Thus, each 100,000 metre square is
identified by two letters corresponding to its column and row respectively. This pair of letters is termed the

Revised Jul 10 Page 9 of 20

 AP3456 - 9-2 - Position

100,000 metre square identification. Because the UTM Grid covers much of the Earth’s surface, 100,000
metre square identifications will be repeated. To identify individual 100,000 metre squares, the square
identification is preceded by the grid zone designation. In Fig 11, it can be seen that there are two
100,000 metre squares designated YA but they are differentiated by the prefix of their UTM Grid Zone
Designation Area, (in this case 3Q and 3N). The 100,000 metre squares are fitted into each 6º zone so
that they are uniformly spaced about the central meridian of the zone and along the equator. As a result,
the 'grid squares' along the borders of the 6º zones do not form squares.

9-2 Fig 11 Identification of 100 km Squares on the UTM Grid

180º 174º 162º
24º 168º 24º
BG CG DG EG FG GG LM MM NM PM TG UG VG WG XG YG
AG KM QMRM ZG
HG JM SG

BF CF DF EF FF GF KL LL ML NL PL TF UF VF WF XF YF
AF
QL
ZF
HF JL RL SF

BE CE DE EE FE KK LK MK NK QK TE UE VE WE XE YE
GE PK ZE
AE
HE JK RK SE

CD DD ED FD KJ LJ MJ NJ QJ TD UD VD WD XD YD
BD
AD
HD PJ ZD
HD JJ RJ SD

BC CC DC EC FC GC KH MH UC VC WC XC YC
LH NH PH QH TC
AC ZC
HC JH RH SC

BB CB DB EB FB GB KG LG MG NG PG QC TB UB VB WB XB YB
AB ZB
HB JG RG SB

BA CA DA EA TA UA VA WA XA YA
FA GA KF LF MF NF PF QF ZA
AA
2,000,000 m HA JF RF SA 2,000,000 m

BV CV DV EV FV GV KE LE ME NE PE QE TV UV VV WV XV YV
AV ZV
HV JE RE SV

BU CU DU EU FU GU QD TU UU VU WU XU YU
KD LD MD ND PD ZU
AU
HU JD RD SU
16º 16º
BT CT DT PC TT UT VT WT XT YT
ET FT GT KC LC MC NC QC ZT
AT
HT JC RC ST

BS CS DS ES FS GS TS US VS WS XS YS
AS
KB LB MB NB PB QB ZS
HS JB RB SS

BR CR DR ER FR TR UR VR WR XR YR
GR KA LA MA NA PA QA ZR
AR
HR JA RA SR

BQ CQ DQ EQ FQ TQ UQ VQ WQ XQ YQ
GQ KV LV MV NV PV QV ZQ
AQ
HQ JV RV SQ

BP CP DP EP FP GP KU MU NU PU QU TP UP VP WP XP YP
AP
LU ZP
HP JU RU SP

BN CN DN EN FN GN TN UN VN WN XN YN
AN
KT LT MT NT PT QT ZN
HN JT RT SN

BM CM DM EM MS PS QS TM UM VM WM XM YM
FM GM KS LS NS ZM
AM
HM JS RS SM

AL BL CL DL EL FL MR PR QR TL UL VL WL XL YL ZL
GL HL JR KR LR NR RR SL

AK BK CK DK EK FK UK VK WK XK YK ZK
GK HK JQ KQ LQ MQ NQ PQ QQ RQ SK TK
8º 8º
AJ BJ CJ DJ EJ FJ TJ UJ VJ WJ XJ YJ ZJ
GJ HJ JP KP LP MP NP PP QP RP SJ

AH
BH CH DH EH FH GH HH JN KN LN MN NN PN QN RN SH TH UH VH WH XH YH ZH

AG
BG CG DG EG FG GG LM MM NM PM QM UG VG WG XG YG ZG
HG JM KM RM SG TG

AF
BF CF DF EF FF KL UF VF WF XF YF ZF
GF HF JL LL ML NL PL QL RL SF TF

AE
BE CE DE EE FE GE KK VE WE XE YE ZE
HE JK LK MK NK PK QK RK SE TE UE

AD BD CD DD ED FD GD KJ LJ MJ PJ QJ TD UD VD WD XD YD ZD
HD JJ NJ RJ SD

AC
BC CC DC EC FC GC HC JH KH LH MH NH PH QH RH SC TC UC VC WC XC YC ZC

AB
BB CB DB EB FB GB PG TB UB VB WB XB YB ZB
HB JG KG LG MG NG QG RG SB

AA BA CA DA EA FA TA UA VA WA XA YA ZA
GA HA JF
KF LF MF NF PF QF RF SA
0º 0º
180º 174º 168º 162º

25. Starting at the 180º meridian and moving eastwards for 18º along the equator, the 100,000 metre
columns (including those along 6º zone borders) are lettered alphabetically from A to Z (with I and O
omitted). This is repeated at 18º intervals.

Revised Jul 10 Page 10 of 20

 AP3456 - 9-2 - Position

26. In odd numbered UTM Grid Zones, the rows of 100,000 metre squares are lettered northwards
alphabetically from A to V (with I and O omitted), the partial alphabet being repeated every 20 rows. In even
numbered UTM Grid Zones, starting at the equator, the rows are lettered F to V (omitting I and O) followed
by A to V (omitting I and O). This is done to increase the distance between 100,000 metre squares with the
same square identification. Below the equator, the 100,000 metre rows are lettered northwards in such a
way that they fit into the sequence of letters above in the same zone.

THE UNIVERSAL POLAR STEREOGRAPHIC GRID

Description of the Grid

27. The Universal Polar Stereographic Grid consists of two grids - one covering the North Polar area,
(north of 84º N), and the other, the South Polar area (south of 80º S). These grids are based on a polar
stereographic projection with the origin of each at the respective pole. The Northern and Southern UPS
grids extend to 83º 30' N and 79º 30' S respectively to provide a 30' overlap with the UTM grid. Easting
grid lines are parallel to the Greenwich Meridian (0º) and the 180º meridian. Northing grid lines are
parallel to the 90º W and 90º E meridians. The grid origins are assigned false coordinates of 2,000,000
metres east and 2,000,000 metres north. When used in conjunction with the UTM grid the UPS Grids
provide world-wide coverage.

28. The North polar area is divided into two parts by the Greenwich and 180º meridians (Fig 12). The
half containing the West longitudes is given the grid zone designation Y whilst that containing the East
longitude is given the grid designation Z. Similarly, the South polar area (Fig 13) is divided into two
halves. The half containing the West longitudes is lettered A, whilst the other half, containing the East
longitudes, is lettered B. No numbers are used in conjunction with these letters.

9-2 Fig 12 The UPS Grid - North Polar Area

WEST EAST
° 174° 180° 174° 168°
° 168 162
162 ° 1
°
156 XP YP ZP AP BP CP
56°
15
0° 0°
15 14
4°
2,000,000m E

4°
14 XN YN
UN 2,500,000 ZN AN BN CN FN 13
8° GN 8°
13 TN mN
2°
°

13
84
84
13

TM UM XM YM ZM AM BM CM FM GM
2
°
°
6°

HM
12
12

6°
0°

SL TL UL XL YL ZL AL BL CL FL GL HL
12
12

0°
°

114
114

SK TK UK XK YK AK BK CK FK GK HK
°

RK ZK
°

GRID ZONE DESIGNATIONS

108

JK
108

180°
YJ
° 102

BJ
102°

RJ SJ TJ UJ XJ ZJ AJ CJ FJ GJ HJ JJ
°

88
88

°
°
96°

96°

RH SH TH UH XH YH ZH AH BH CH FH GH HH JH
90°

NORTH POLE
Y
90°

Z
2,000,000m N 2,000,000m N

RG SG TG UG XG YG ZG AG BG CG FG GG HG JG
84°
84°

2,500,000m E
1,500,000m E

78°
78°

°
88

RF SF TF ZF HF JF
88

UF XF AF CF FF GF
°

WEST EAST
YF BF
72°

72°

0°
RE JE
SE TE UE XE YE ZE AE BE CE FE GE HE
66°

66°

SD TD HD
60

UD XD YD ZD AD BD CD FD GD
60
°
54

°
54

SC HC
°

TC UC XC CC FC GC
2,000,000m E

YC ZC AC BC
°
48

48
°
84

84
°

1,500,000m N
°

42
° TB GB 42°
36 UB CB FB
° XB YB ZB AB BB 36
°
30 °
° 30
24° XA YA BA CA
18° ZA AA 24°
12° 18°
6° 0° 6° 12°
WEST EAST

Revised Jul 10 Page 11 of 20

 AP3456 - 9-2 - Position

9-2 Fig 13 The UPS Grid - South Polar Area

WEST EAST
YZ 6° ZZ 0° AZ 6° BZ 12
1 2° °
18 ° 1 8°
XY YY ZY AY BY CY 24°
24°TY UY FY GY
° 30
30 CX
°
RX SX TX UX XX YX ZX AX BX FX GX HX JX
36
°
36 °
° RW SW TW UW XW YW ZW AW BW CW FW GW HW JW 42
42QW KW °

80
80
°
QV

º
48
UV XV ZV CV HV

48
RV SV TV YV AV BV FV GV JV KV

°
PU LV

54
54
PU QU TU SU TU UU XU YU ZU AU BU CU FU GU HU JU KU LU

°
LU PU

60
60
LT PT QT RT ST TT UT XT YT ZT AT BT CT FT GT HT JT KT LT PT

°
6 6°

66 °
84
84
LS PS QS RS SS US XS YS ZS AS BS FS HS JS KS LS PS

º
KS
TS CS GS QS
GRID ZONE DESIGNATIONS

7 2°
UR XR ZR KR

72°
LR PR QR RR SR TR YR AR BR CR FR GR HR JR LR PR
KR QR
0º
78 °
KQ LQ PQ QQ RQ SQ TQ UQ XQ YQ ZQ AQ BQ GQ HQ KQ LQ PQ QQ

78°
CQ FQ JQ

JP YP BP RP
KP LP PP QP SP TP UP XP ZP AP CP FP GP HP JP KP LP PP QP
84°

RP

88

84°
88

º
KN PN QN TN UN XN ZN AN BN GN HN
JN LN RN SN YN CN FN JN KN LN PN QN RN
90°

90°
SOUTH POLE

A B JM KM LM PM QM RM SM TM UM XM YM ZM AM BM CM FM GM HM JM KM LM PM QM RM
RM

96°
96°

º
88

88
KL LL PL QL RL SL TL UL XL YL ZL AL BL CL FL GL HL JL KL LL PL QL RL

º
JL

102 °
1 02 °

KK LK PK QK RK SK TK UK XK YK ZK AK BK CK FK GK HK JK KK LK PK QK
WE
ST 180º EAST KJ QJ

°
108

108
LJ PJ QJ RJ SJ TJ UJ XJ YJ ZJ AJ BJ CJ FJ GJ HJ JJ KJ LJ PJ
°

QH
KH
KH TH GH
LH PH QH RH SH UH XH YH ZH AH PH
114

°
BH CH FH HH JH KH LH

114
º
84

84
º
°

LG PG

0°
PG QG RG SG TG UG XG ZG AG BG CG FG GG HG JG KG LG
12

YG

12
0°

LF
LF PF
PF QF RF SF TF UF XF YF ZF AF BF CF FF GF HF JF KF LF

6°
12

12
6°

PE LE
QE RE SE TE UE XE YE ZE

°
AE BE CE FE GE HE JE KE
13

2
13
2°

º
80

80
13 QD
º

KD
8° RD SD TD UD XD YD ZD AD BD CD FD GD 8°
HD JD 13
14
4° 4°
RC SC TC UC XC YC ZC AC HC JC14
15 BC CC FC GC
0° 0°
156TB UB 15
FB GB 56°
° 1 XB YB ZB AB BB CB ° 1
62 °
168° YA ° 162
174° ZA180°AA 174° BA 16 8
WEST EAST

29. Both polar regions are divided into 100,000 metre squares in a similar manner to the UTM system.
Columns are defined to be parallel to the 180º /0º meridian and rows parallel to the 90º W/90º E meridian.
In the eastern hemisphere, columns are lettered consecutively eastwards, starting at the 180º/0º meridian
with A and omitting the letters D, E, I, M, N and O. In the western hemisphere, the columns start at the
180º/0º meridian with Z and the lettering proceeds backwards through the alphabet omitting W, V, O, N
and M. The omission of the letters shown ensures that there is no duplication with UTM references within
18º in any direction. In the North polar region, rows start with A at 84º N 0º E, the letters increasing
northwards to the Pole, then southwards finishing with P at 84º N 180º E and omitting I and O. In the
South polar region, rows start with A at 80º S 180º E, the letters increasing southwards to the Pole, then
northwards finishing with Z at 80º S 0º E and omitting I and O.

THE MILITARY GRID REFERENCE SYSTEM

Description of the System

30. The Military Grid Reference System (MGRS) is a grid reference system designed to be used with
the UTM and UPS grids. It is a method of defining any point by means of a Grid Reference. A full grid
reference is reported in the same way as that for the British National Grid (see para 16), and consists
of the Grid Zone Designation (see para 23 for the UTM Grid and para 28 for the UPS Grid), followed by
two letters representing the square identifications, followed by an even number of digits that identify a
position within the grid square.

31. Most military maps and charts that carry the UTM Grid have a grid reference box in the margin
that explains how to report a grid reference. The grid reference box will indicate the Grid Zone
Designation(s) applicable to the map or chart. On larger scale products, the grid reference box will
also show the grid square identifications that fall on the map or chart.

Revised Jul 10 Page 12 of 20

 AP3456 - 9-2 - Position

32. The MGRS Grid reference of the point marked Guernsey Airport in Fig 14 is obtained in the
following manner:

9-2 Fig 14 Example Grid Reference

VA WA 0
VVWV

9
0 1 2 3 4
548 8
Guernsey
Airport

7
Latitude
Value - 49° 20’ N
Longitude - 3° W 50 52 54
Value

Grid Zone Designation 30U*

*(This can be found from the grid reference box on the chart, ONC E1 in this example)

100 km square identifier WV

Easting 2 followed by 9 (estimated tenths)
Northing 7 followed by 5 (estimated tenths)

Full grid reference

Guernsey Airport 30UW V2975

This four figure reference defines the point to a precision of 1,000 metres.

WORLD GEOGRAPHIC REFERENCE SYSTEM (GEOREF)

Introduction

33. The use of latitude and longitude as a method for reporting position suffers from the disadvantages
stated in para 12. These disadvantages can be overcome by the use of a reporting system based on a
lettered rectangular grid. However, rectangular grids which ignore the curvature of the earth, while
satisfactory over a limited area, become excessively distorted with any great extension of the area of
use. To avoid this distortion, any reference system which is to have universal coverage, must be
based on the graticule of meridians and parallels.

34. The World Geographic Reference System (GEOREF) was introduced with the object of providing a
simple, speedy, unambiguous method of defining position which is capable of universal application. It
incorporates the best of both systems by utilizing the orthodox graticule of meridians and parallels and by

Revised Jul 10 Page 13 of 20

 AP3456 - 9-2 - Position

expressing the position of any point, in relation to it, by a system of alphanumeric references. In this way,
the disadvantages of latitude and longitude (stated in para 12 sub-paras a and b) are overcome.

35. It is emphasized that the GEOREF system replaces neither the latitude and longitude nor the
rectangular grid methods of reporting positions. However, it provides a convenient means of reporting
position within the framework of the latitude and longitude system.

Description of the System

36. The GEOREF system divides the surface of the Earth into quadrangles, the sides of which are
specific arc lengths of longitude and latitude. Each quadrangle is then identified by a simple,
systematic, lettered code.

37. The first division of the Earth’s surface is into 24 longitudinal zones, each 15º wide, which are
lettered A to Z inclusive (omitting I and O), commencing eastwards from the 180º meridian. A
corresponding division is made of the Earth’s surface into 12 latitudinal bands, each 15º wide, which
are lettered A to M inclusive (omitting I), commencing northwards from the South Pole. The Earth is
therefore divided into 288 quadrangles, of 15º sides, each of which is identified by a unique
combination of two letters. The first letter is always that of the longitude zone or easting, and the
second that of the latitude band or northing. In this respect, the system differs from that of latitude and
longitude in which the latitude is always given first. For example, in Fig 15, it can be seen that the
majority of the UK is in the 15º quadrangle MK.

9-2 Fig 15 GEOREF System of 15º Identification Letters

38. Each 15º quadrangle is now sub-divided into 15 one-degree longitudinal zones and latitudinal
bands, lettered A to Q inclusive (omitting I and O), commencing eastwards and northwards

Revised Jul 10 Page 14 of 20

 AP3456 - 9-2 - Position

respectively from the South-West corner of the 15º quadrangle. Thus, the 15º quadrangles are sub-
divided into 225 one-degree quadrangles, each being identified by means of four letters. The first two
letters identify the 15º quadrangle, the third letter the one-degree zone of longitude, and the fourth
letter the one-degree band of latitude.

39. Salisbury, in the County of Wiltshire, therefore lies in the one-degree quadrangle MK PG (see Fig 16).

9-2 Fig 16 One-degree Quadrangles

o o o o o o o o
20 16 12 8 4 0 4 8

o
60

Q
ML N
P
o N
56
M

J
o
52 H

MKPG
F
G
MK
E

48
o D
SALISBURY
C

A
o B
C
44 D
E
F G H J K L M N P Q

o o o o o
12 8 4 0 4

40. Each one degree quadrangle is divided into sixty minutes of longitude, numbered eastwards from
its western meridian, and sixty minutes of latitude, numbered northwards from its southern parallel.
This method of numbering is used no matter where the one degree quadrangle is located, and does
not vary even though the location may be west of the Prime Meridian or south of the equator.

41. A unique reference defining the position of a point to a precision of one minute in latitude and longitude
(a precision of 2 km or less) can now be given by quoting four letters and four numerals. The four letters
identify the one degree quadrangle. The first two numerals are the number of minutes of longitude by which
the point lies eastward of the western meridian of the one degree quadrangle. The second two numerals are
the number of minutes of latitude by which the point lies northward of the southern parallel of the one degree
quadrangle. If the number of minutes for either of the longitude or latitude values is less than ten, the first
numeral of the pair will be zero and must be written. Thus the reference of Salisbury Cathedral
(51º 04' N 001º 48' W) is MKPG 1204 (see Fig 17).

42. Occasions may arise (very infrequently) when it is necessary to define a position to an accuracy
greater than one minute. The GEOREF system can be expanded to allow for this. A reference to one
tenth of a minute of longitude and latitude is obtained by a further sub-division of the one-minute
quadrangle into tenths of a minute of longitude eastwards and into tenths of a minute of latitude

Revised Jul 10 Page 15 of 20

 AP3456 - 9-2 - Position

northwards from the bottom left-hand corner of the minute quadrangle. The accuracy is now
approximately 608 ft, and the reference is given by quoting six numerals instead of four. A further
refinement to an accuracy of approximately 61 ft is obtained when the eastings and northings are
given additional figures. In this case, the first four numerals represent the eastings in minutes and
hundredths of a minute of longitude and the remaining four numerals represent the northings to a
similar accuracy. Thus the GEOREF of Salisbury Cathedral, to an accuracy of one-tenth of a
minute, is MKPG 122039 and to a hundredth of a minute, MKPG 12250386 (see Fig 17).

9-2 Fig 17 Part of the One-degree Quadrangle containing Salisbury Cathedral in detail

400
51 10’N 51 10’N

0
40 0
40

400
400

51 00’N 51 00’N

002 00’W 001 50’W 001 40’W

43. On local operations, where the risk of ambiguity with a neighbouring 15º quadrangle is unlikely,
the first two letters of the reference may be dropped. The reference given in para 41 would then
become PG 1204.

44. When a position lies on a dividing meridian of two longitudinal zones, or a dividing parallel of two
bands of latitude, the reference letters quoted are for the most easterly zone or the most northerly
band; e.g. the GEOREF of 50º N 00º W is NKAF 0000 (see Fig 16).

Use of GEOREF

45. The GEOREF system is used specifically in:

a. The control and direction of forces engaged in the air defence of the United Kingdom and the
countries of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization.

b. The coastal defence of the United Kingdom.

46. Although the system has a restricted use, it is available for universal application should the occasion
arise. Whenever security demands, it is a simple operation to change the code letters periodically.

Revised Jul 10 Page 16 of 20

 AP3456 - 9-2 - Position

Conversion of Latitude and Longitude to GEOREF Co-ordinates

47. Using the description of the GEOREF system (para 36) and Fig 15, a method of deriving a
GEOREF coordinate from a latitude and longitude position can be determined. It must be
remembered, when following the example below, that in the latitude and longitude system,
latitude is always written before longitude, but, in the GEOREF system, the longitude value is
written before the latitude value.

Example: To convert 55º 05' N 010º 29' W to GEOREF

a. Apply the conventional signs for N(+), S(–), E(+) and W(–) to the latitude and longitude
position. Thus, 55º 05' N 010º 29' W becomes +55º 05' –10º 29' (The preceding zero can
dropped from the longitude degree value).

b. Add 90º to the latitude and 180º to the longitude.

90º 00' 180º 00'

+55º 05' –10º 29'
145º 05' 169º 31'

c. Divide both of the whole degree portions (145 and 169) by 15:

9 11 (This gives respective quotients of 9 and 11)

15 145 15 169

135 165
10 4 (This gives respective remainders of 10 and 4)

d. Add 1 to the quotients: 9 + 1 = 10 and 11 + 1 = 12.

e. Write down the letters corresponding to these numbers, omitting I and O in the count.

A B C D E F G H J K L M N P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4

The longitude value (12) gives M and the latitude value (10) gives K.

f. Combine the letters to give MK; this is the 15º quadrangle identifier.

g. Add 1 to each remainder: 10 + 1 = 11 and 4 + 1 = 5.

h. Write down the letters corresponding to these numbers, omitting I and O in the count.

The longitude value (5) gives E and the latitude value (11) gives L.

i. Combine the letters to give EL; this is the 1º quadrangle identifier.

j. The numerical portion of the GEOREF is taken from the minutes part of the latitude and
longitude values after the sum in sub-para b. The longitude minutes are 31 and the latitude
minutes are 05.

k. Thus 55º 05' N 010º 29' W corresponds to MKEL 3105 in GEOREF.

Revised Jul 10 Page 17 of 20

 AP3456 - 9-2 - Position

Advantages and Disadvantages of the GEOREF System

48. Advantages.

a. GEOREF provides an easy and quick method of position reference.

b. There is no risk of ambiguity.

c. It is eminently suitable for use over R/T or telephone.

d. It is capable of universal application.

e. For purposes of security, it is comparatively simple to change the code letters periodically.

f. To provide a reference to a precision of l minute, the group is smaller than the corresponding
reference by latitude and longitude.

49. Disadvantages.

a. Like the latitude and longitude system, it compares unfavourably with a rectangular grid,
since a different scale has to be used for the measurement of the number of minutes of longitude
and latitude.

b. The system can be confusing because, contrary to latitude and longitude procedures, the
minutes of longitude are given before the minutes of latitude. Similarly, the method of reporting a
GEOREF in the southern and western hemispheres is the same as for the northern and eastern
hemispheres.

LOCAL DATUMS

Introduction

50. A datum can be considered as a set of mathematical constants that define the size and shape of the
ellipsoid and how that ellipsoid is fixed to the geoid. It is used in conjunction with the production of a
particular map. Despite the introduction of world-wide standards such as WGS 84, many nations still
produce maps and charts using local datum references. Provided that all references to position are based
upon the same datum, little confusion will ensue. However, co-ordinates for a point on the Earth’s surface
using one datum will, in most cases, not match the co-ordinates for the same point using another datum.

Error Potential

51. Fig 18 shows two maps of the same area but bearing differing grid overlays. Fig 18a is based
upon WGS 84 and Fig 18b on the European Datum (ED) 50. The position of the centre of the
runway at BROCZYNO can be identified by the co-ordinates 851308 under WGS 84 and as
852310 under ED 50. If this airfield were to be a target, provided that both the target planner
and the tasked aircrew were using maps with the same datum, there would be no problem. If
not, the position tasked would not be the position attacked.

Revised Jul 10 Page 18 of 20

 AP3456 - 9-2 - Position

9-2 Fig 18 Grid Position Comparison

a WGS 84 Grid - Target Position 851308

15
32
0

145
Broczyno
162
15 153
0
14 0
150
31 Broczyno 140
152
150

145
15

14
0

30 145 5

145
141

83 84 85 Athletic Field 87 88
86
Trzciniec

15
Jezioro Siemiecin Distillery
150

0
145

163

b ED 50 Grid - Target Position 852310

15
0

32
145

Broczyno
162
15 153
0
14 0
150
Broczyno 140
31 152
150

145
15

14
0

145 5
145

30 141

83 84 85 Athletic Field 87 88
86
Trzciniec
15

Jezioro Siemiecin Distillery

150
0
145

163

OTHER METHODS OF EXPRESSING POSITION

Introduction

52. The methods so far discussed have defined position relative to a pair of reference lines.
However, there are occasions when simpler methods will suffice.

Pin-points

53. The simplest method of reporting an aircraft’s position is to name the point directly beneath the
aircraft at that time. This is known as a 'pin-point', and may be a town, airfield, radio beacon
etc. However this may be an imprecise method because:

a. Easily recognized features are rarely small.

b. It is difficult for the pilot to determine, and view, the position vertically beneath the aircraft.

c. It relies on the receiving agency’s knowledge of the area, and is therefore open to some confusion.

Revised Jul 10 Page 19 of 20

 AP3456 - 9-2 - Position

Range and Bearing

54. An alternative method is to express the aircraft’s position as a range (distance in nautical
miles) and bearing (angular relationship) from an easily identified datum or feature. This method
is sometimes referred to as a rho-theta (ρ, θ) system.

55. Fig 19 illustrates three expressions of bearing for the same aircraft position:

a. Fig 19a shows the relative bearing (measured from the fore-and-aft axis of the aircraft) of the
feature from the aircraft. The receiving agency must know the aircraft’s heading to interpret this
message.

b. Fig 19b shows the true direction of the line joining the feature and the aircraft, measured at
the feature. This is known as a 'true' bearing.

c. Fig 19c shows the magnetic direction of the line joining the feature and the aircraft, measured at
the feature (known as a 'magnetic' bearing). This method is often used in conjunction with TACAN
and VOR/DME beacons, which provide this information directly. When obtained from beacons,
magnetic bearings are normally referred to as 'radials', e.g. "I am on the 180 radial from Wallasey
VOR", indicates that the aircraft is on a line drawn at 180º (M) from Wallasey VOR.

9-2 Fig 19 Range and Bearing

A Spurnhead is 090º Relative at 10 nm B The Aircraft is 10 nm on 310º (T) from Spurnhead

TN

TN

o
090 (R) 10
nm
10
nm

o
310 (T)

C The Aircraft is 10 nm on 320º (M) from Spurnhead

MN TN

10o W

10
nm

320 o (M)

Revised Jul 10 Page 20 of 20

 AP3456 – 9-3 - Map Projections

CHAPTER 3 - MAP PROJECTIONS

Introduction

1. The Earth is an irregularly shaped solid figure whose surface is largely water, out of which the
various land masses rise. A map or chart is a representation of this surface at some convenient size
on a flat sheet. The term 'map' is generally taken to be a representation of land areas while 'chart' is
traditionally reserved for sea area representation. The aviator is not always concerned with this
distinction and the air chart covers both. Other terms used are 'plan', to describe a bird’s-eye view of a
small area, and 'graphic', to describe maps which vividly portray topography.

2. A map projection is a systematic laying down of the meridians and parallels on to a flat sheet in
such a way that the result displays certain features of the actual surface. There are many ways in
which this can be done and clearly a way must be chosen which generates a useful product. However,
just as it is meaningless to try to represent a circle by a square, so it is not feasible to represent the
Earth’s three-dimensional shape on a flat plane in a wholly accurate manner.

3. It would, however, be possible to construct a square which had some features in common with a
circle, e.g. the same area, the same perimeter, or the diagonal equal to the diameter. In order to
represent all of the circle’s features, many different squares would be necessary. Similarly, not all of
the Earth’s features can be represented accurately on a single map projection. The user must
therefore select the correct projection to meet a specific use.

4. For navigation purposes it is important that bearings and distances are correctly represented and
easily measured; for convenience the path which is flown should be shown as a straight line and the
plotting of radio and other bearings should be straightforward. In order to achieve these
characteristics, other properties must be sacrificed; areas may be out of proportion and it may be
necessary to restrict the area of coverage of any single map.

5. Before looking at projections and properties closely, the shape of the Earth deserves some more
attention. The true topographic surface, with mountains, valleys and oceans, is too irregular for any
simple treatment, and it is easier to deal with if approximated by less complicated shapes. There are
various possibilities. The water surface (the mean sea surface together with the outline which would
be traced if frictionless canals were let into the land masses) is known as the 'geoid'. The geoid is also
an irregular surface, but it can be well represented by the smooth surface of an oblate spheroid (or
ellipsoid), which is a regular mathematical figure. For many charting purposes, a further simplification
can be made by replacing the oblate spheroid by a sphere of the same general size. These are all
shown in Fig 1.

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 AP3456 – 9-3 - Map Projections

9-3 Fig 1 Shape of the Earth

Ellipsoid or Sphere
Geoid Oblate Spheroid Ellipsoid

Geoid

Topographical Mountain
Surface Geoid

s oid
Ellip
ed
an B
Oce

The Vertical Datum

6. The zero surface to which elevations or heights are referred is called the Vertical Datum. Because it
is available worldwide, traditionally, surveyors and mapmakers have taken sea level as the definition of
zero elevation. The Mean Sea Level (MSL) is determined by continuously measuring the rise and fall of
the oceans at 'tide gauge' stations on sea coasts. This averages out the highs and lows of the tides
caused by the changing effects of the gravitational forces from the sun and moon, which produce the
tides. It is evident, however, that there can be a considerable variation in the average of the local sea
level for a particular ocean and that of another. MSL, therefore, becomes more properly defined as the
zero elevation for a local or regional area. The heights of mountains or structures on locally produced
maps of the area are determined by using the local MSL as the datum. With the advent of satellite
navigational systems, which compute heights against a worldwide standard datum, some variation may
be observed between heights depicted on the map and those calculated by the instrumentation. If such
instrumentation (e.g. Global Positioning System) is being used to provide height information for an
instrument approach, it is of paramount importance that the height being presented to the pilot is based
upon the same datum as the radar picture being monitored by the approach controller.

Zero Surfaces of Height Systems

7. The differences encountered in height measurements and their representation on maps or

equipment displays can be attributed to the differences between the topographic surface of the Earth, the
associated flattened spheroid (ellipsoid) and the geoid as described in para 5 and illustrated in Fig 1.

8. Topographic Surface. The topographic surface is the actual surface of the Earth tracing the
ocean floors to the tops of mountains.

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 AP3456 – 9-3 - Map Projections

9. Geoid. The geoid is the physical model of the Earth and approximates MSL. It is the zero
surface as defined by the Earth’s gravity. The direction of gravity is perpendicular to the geoid at every
point. Variations in the topography and the different densities within the Earth’s crust produce slight
variations in the gravity field, described by the dips and peaks of the geoid. Since the sea surface
conforms to this gravity field, sea level also contains slight hills and valleys similar to, but much
smoother than, the topographical surface. At any one point on the ocean, therefore, the sea level may
be closer to, or farther from, the centre of the Earth than another such point and this variation may be
as much as 5 metres.

10. Spheroid or Ellipsoid. The ellipsoid is a smooth representation of the oblate spheroidal shape of
the Earth and is used as its geometric model. An ellipsoid is generated by the revolution of an ellipse
about one of its principal axes. The ellipsoid which approximates the geoid is an ellipse rotated about
its minor axis. In some texts describing the Earth, the term oblate spheroid is abbreviated to spheroid
and is synonymous with ellipsoid. The term ellipsoid will be used in this chapter hereafter.

Height Calculation

11. Any zero surface can be used as a datum to express height, even the centre of the Earth. Fig 2 is
an enlargement of detail from Fig 1 and shows how each datum discussed may be used to express
height.

9-3 Fig 2 Detail from Fig 1 - Representation of Height

Topographic
Surface
H
h

Geoid
N

Ellips
To centre of o id
the Earth

H = Orthometric Height (approx AMSL)

h = Ellipsoid Height (approx N+H)
N = Geoid Height

12. Orthometric Height. Height above MSL is approximately the same as orthometric height (H), the
technical name for height above the geoid. There are a few points on land which fall below the geoid,
and in such cases, H can be negative.

13. Geoid Height. Geoid height (N) is the separation between the geoid and the ellipsoid. It can be
plus or minus depending upon whether the geoid is further from, or closer to, the centre of the Earth
than the ellipsoid. N is positive where the geoid is further from the centre of the Earth than the
ellipsoid, zero when they are coincident and negative when the geoid is closer to the Earth’s centre.

Revised Feb 16 Page 3 of 52

 AP3456 – 9-3 - Map Projections

14. Ellipsoid Height. Ellipsoid height (h) is a measure of distance above or below the ellipsoid (plus
or minus). h is also called geodetic height. h is approximately equal to N + H.

Height Interpretation by Global Positioning System (GPS)

15. GPS receivers normally output elevations based upon the ellipsoid. However, the system has the
capability to output height, on demand, converted to MSL and most modern receivers are able to
access that option. GPS MSL height is based on the best geoid information available for the area in
question and this is being continually improved with technological advances in geodesy and
instrumentation.

Map Projections

16. Many maps are drawn on projections of the ellipsoid. As stated in para 10, the ellipsoid is the
solid figure generated by rotating an ellipse about its minor axis, Fig 3, and lends itself to a tolerably
simple mathematical treatment. The minor axis PP′ is the polar axis and the major axis EE′ is the
a−b
equatorial axis; an ellipsoid can be defined by stating one radius and the ratio , known as the
a
flattening (f). A single mean ellipsoid can be used to represent the whole Earth, but because the geoid
is irregular an ellipsoid can be found which represents one part of the world with fair precision and yet
is unsuitable in another part. Some of the ellipsoids in use are listed in Table 1 below.

9-3 Fig 3 The Ellipsoid

3a – Examples of Flattening 3b – Earth Flattening is Approx 1/300

Minor
Axis P'

b
f=0
(A circle) Major
f= f= f= f= f=
1 1 1 1 1 Axis E E'
50 10 5 3 2 a
Major
Axis

a = ½ of the Major Axis

P b = ½ of the Minor Axis

Revised Feb 16 Page 4 of 52

 AP3456 – 9-3 - Map Projections

Table 1 Examples of Ellipsoids in Use

Radius Flattening
Area Ellipsoid Name
km nm
Russia Krassovsky 6378.250 3443.98 1/298.3
N America Clarke 1866 6378.206 3443.96 1/295.0
Europe International 1909 6378.388 3444.05 1/297.0
Japan Bessel 1841 6377.397 3443.52 1/299.2
Africa Clarke 1880 6378.249 3443.98 1/293.5
India Everest 6377.276 3443.46 1/300.8
World Geodetic System 1972 (WGS72) 6378.135 3443.55 1/298.3
World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS84) 6378.137 3443.56 1/298.3

17. Because of the difference between the ellipsoids, the position discrepancies between maps based
on neighbouring ellipsoids can give errors as great as 1500 m. However, it is possible to select the
correct datum in advanced navigation systems to alleviate this.

18. The ultimate simplification of the figure of the Earth is the sphere. The geometry is easy, and
projections can be reduced very often to ruler and compass constructions. In the chapters which
follow, projections of the sphere, which are often used in practice, are described; projections of the
ellipsoids follow similar patterns but are very much more complicated. From a practical point of view
no projection allows precise measurement of bearing and distance, and there is little advantage to be
gained from complexity. When great precision is required the quantities are best calculated, rather
than measured, from the appropriate ellipsoid.

19. Summary. The points which this introduction has attempted to make are as follows:

a. The Earth’s figure can be described in order of reducing precision as the geoid, an ellipsoid
(sometimes called a spheroid) or a sphere. Map projections are drawn using a sphere or an
ellipsoid as the figure of the Earth.

b. A map projection is not in general a picture of the Earth. It is a plane drawing on which
certain distances, areas, directions, or other features on the Earth required for navigation
purposes are reproduced.

Classification of Map Projections

20. A simple insight into the problems of representing the Earth on a flat surface can be gained by
imagining a balloon blown up to some manageable size to make a model of the Earth. Having drawn
all the shapes and lines on the balloon, it could be deflated, and the piece required cut out and
stretched to make it flat. Of course, it could be stretched more in one direction than another and a
great variety of shapes obtained. Each time the flat elastic plane was altered, another map projection
would result. Fig 4 illustrates some of the many possibilities.

Revised Feb 16 Page 5 of 52

 AP3456 – 9-3 - Map Projections

9-3 Fig 4 Elastic Projections

21. Most of the projections obtained in this way would not be very useful. It would be more convenient
if the meridians were straight lines for example, and this could be obtained by suitably manoeuvring the
material; also, by sticking down parts of the rubber the amount of stretch in a given direction could be
varied along that direction. But it would be difficult to control the rubber to give any predetermined
projection and this model is not used in practice.

22. In actual map projections a relationship between points on the surface of the Earth and the
corresponding point on the plane is formulated mathematically. For each of the odd-looking diagrams
in Fig 3 some such point-to-point relationship exists. The relationship may be a complicated formula
involving many variables, or it may be extremely simple.

23. Perspective Projections. The simplest relationships are those which can be reproduced by
simple geometric construction. They are called perspective projections since they are nothing more
than drawings of the shadows which would be cast by the meridians and parallels on a transparent
model Earth on to a plane surface, or on to a surface which can be made plane. One example of this
is given in Fig 5 where a point source of light at the North Pole of the model Earth (usually called the
reduced Earth) projects the meridians and parallels on to a plane tangential at the South Pole. Variety
is obtained by moving the light and the plane.

9-3 Fig 5 A Perspective Projection

NP Light Source

Reduced Earth

E Q
Plane Surface

Q'
E' Equator (Projected)

24. Non-perspective Projections. When the relationship is such that simple geometric construction is
impossible the projection is designated non-perspective. The majority of map projections are non-
perspective, but every non-perspective projection can be thought of as perspective projection which has
been adjusted in some way. Hence a study of the simple projections leads without too much difficulty to

Revised Feb 16 Page 6 of 52

 AP3456 – 9-3 - Map Projections

the more complicated ones. In this section each of the non-perspective projections, which comprise
nearly all the most useful ones, will be dealt with under a generic title which really describes its
perspective primitive.

Types of Perspective Projections

25. The surface on to which the shadows described in para 23 are cast need not be a simple flat
surface, and any surface which can be subsequently opened out and laid flat will do. For example a
cone (Fig 6) can be placed over the reduced Earth, the projections carried out, and then the cone can
be cut and opened (the technical expression is 'developed') to lie flat.

9-3 Fig 6 Development of a Cone

A C B

B C

26. A cylinder can also be wrapped around the reduced Earth and developed after projection as
shown in Fig 7.

9-3 Fig 7 Development of a Cylinder

C A
A C

D B
B D

27. These three projection surfaces provide the generic titles as follows:

a. Azimuthal projections are perspective projections on to a plane surface, together with certain
associated non-perspective projections.

b. Cylindrical projections are perspective projections on to a cylinder, together with the

associated non-perspective projections.

c. Conical projections are perspective projections on to a cone, together with the associated
non-perspective projections.

28. Variety in each group is obtained by varying the light source position. In fact the classification is
somewhat artificial since a cylinder is a cone whose apex angle is 0º, and a plane is a cone whose
apex angle is 180º. The cylinder and the plane are therefore limiting cases of the cone.

Revised Feb 16 Page 7 of 52

 AP3456 – 9-3 - Map Projections

Representation of Scale

29. The balloon model of the Earth in para 20 was impractical because it would be difficult to control
the stretching of the rubber to obtain a particular projection. However, one point was quite clear -
stretching was required to lay it absolutely flat. This point is vital. It is not possible to project a sphere
on to a plane without at least some elongation taking place.

30. Scale is defined as the ratio of chart length to Earth length; because of the distortion which takes
place it is impossible for this ratio to be constant all over any projection and small lengths only can be
considered. The rubber can be stretched to make the scale constant along one line for example, or it
can expand in all directions from a point; it cannot be arranged to have the same value everywhere.

31. On a great many charts scale changes by different amounts in different directions from a
point. It is usual therefore when stating scale to quote where it exists.

32. Methods of Expressing Scale. Three methods of expressing scale are in general use:

1
a. The representative fraction, e.g. or 1 in 500,000, or 1: 500,000.
500,000

b. The plain statement, e.g. "2 cm to 1 km".

c. The graduated scale, as shown in Fig 8.

In most calculations it is convenient to use the representative fraction; note that 1:500,000 is referred to
as a larger scale than 1: 1,000,000.

9-3 Fig 8 The Graduated Scale

Scale of Nautical Miles

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
85° 89°
75° 80°
65° 70°
55° 60°
50°
100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000

Scale of Statute Miles

5 0 5 10 15 20

33. Scale Factor. Mention has been made already of the reduced Earth. Since this is a model of the
Earth its scale can be expressed as a ratio of Reduced Earth length to Actual Earth length and will be
constant. In map projections a reduced Earth of given scale is used as the basis of a given projection;
somewhere on each projection a point or line (or lines) will exist with the same scale as the reduced
Earth. This is the scale usually printed on maps and charts and scale at other points is determined with
the aid of a ratio known as scale factor.

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 AP3456 – 9-3 - Map Projections

Scale factor is defined as:

Chart Scale
Scale Factor =
Reduced Earth Scale
or
Chart Length
Scale Factor =
Reduced Earth Length

the length being those of a given distance element on Earth.

34. Scale Deviation. The stated scale of a chart is usually the reduced Earth scale, hence at a point
where stated scale is correct (ie where Chart scale equals Reduced Earth scale), Scale Factor = 1. At
other places the scale factor will be other than unity, it may be more if the scale has expanded, or less
if there has been compression. The difference between scale factor and unity describes the scale
deviation and is expressed as a percentage change, i.e.,

Scale Deviation % = (Scale Factor – 1) × 100.

As an example, suppose it is necessary to find the scale and scale deviation at a point, B, where the
scale factor is 1.01, and where the stated scale of the map is 1: 1,000,000.

Scale at B = Scale factor at B × Reduced Earth Scale

1
= 1.01×
1,000,000

1
=
990,099

or 1 in 990,099

Scale Deviation at B = (1.01 – 1) × 100 = 1%

35. Measurement of Distance. One of the prime requirements of a map projection is that distance
measurement should be simple and accurate. Since a constant scale is impossible throughout any
projection the demand is realized by using charts on which the pattern of scale expansion is well
defined in any direction from a point, or by using only those small sections of a given projection over
which scale expansion is so small that the chart can be regarded as having a constant scale (for
practical purposes a limit of ± 1% scale deviation is accepted).

Conformal Projections

36. For navigation purposes it is important that a chart should give an accurate representation of
bearings; the bearing of one point from another on the Earth’s surface should be represented by the
same angle on the chart. This requires that at a given point on the chart the scale expansion is the
same in all directions. A projection which has this property is called conformal or orthomorphic. Some
of the features of conformal projections are discussed below.

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 AP3456 – 9-3 - Map Projections

37. Representation of Great Circles. The sum of the angles of a plane triangle is 180°, but the sum
of the angles of a spherical triangle, whose sides are great circles, is always in excess of 180°; the
triangle contained by two meridians and an arc of the equator has two right angles. Hence it is not
possible to project all great circles as straight lines on a conformal projection (Fig 9). As with scale,
however, it is often possible to use a restricted section of a projection in which all great circles are
approximately straight lines.

9-3 Fig 9 Great Circle as Straight Lines

Great Circle Arcs

B'
B
A'
A

C'
C

^ ^ ^
If A + B + C > 180°, then A' B' C' is impossible

38. Representation of Rhumb Lines. Since rhumb lines cut successive meridians at the same
angle they can be represented by straight lines. Of course, this does not mean that they are straight
lines on all charts; indeed, as a general rule they are not.

39. Meridians and Parallels. Since the meridians and parallels intersect at right angles on the Earth,
they must intersect at right angles on a conformal projection. They need not be straight lines and
Fig 10 illustrates some of the possibilities.

9-3 Fig 10 Meridians and Parallels

Meridians Parallels Meridians Parallels Meridians Parallels

40. Scale at a Point. By definition scale at a point must be the same in all directions. If a point, P,
and a small area around it is considered, (so small that the Earth is sensibly flat) then if 100 m to the
North of P is represented by 1 mm so also must 100 m in any direction be represented by 1 mm if the
compass rose at P is not to be distorted. The result of different scales in various directions is
illustrated in Fig 11. It is not always possible to check scale in all directions, but if the meridians and
parallels are orthogonal and scale is the same along both at a point then the chart is conformal.

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 AP3456 – 9-3 - Map Projections

9-3 Fig 11 Scale of a Point

N
100 m
D A
100 m
D A

100 P 100
45° 45° m m
100 P 100
m m
45° 45°

C B C B
100 m 100 m

Bearings from P are all correct Bearings from P are not correct

41. A Meaning for 'Same Scale'. Since there has to be a scale expansion it is a useful starting
point to define what it will be in one direction and then to see what must happen in other directions if
the chart is to be conformal. Suppose that scale along a meridian on a given projection follows the
pattern shown in Fig 12, let the mean scale over CD be 1:500, and the mean scale over AB be
1:1000. Since these values apply exactly only at points somewhere in CD and AB, suppose they
apply at E and F (not necessarily the mid-points). If the chart is conformal the scales in any
direction at the points E and F must be 1:1000 and 1:500, and in particular these scales apply in the
directions East and West. Applying this pattern to a larger area of the chart, if on this conformal
projection the parallels are concentric then the meridians must be radii of those circles. In other
words the scale expansion along GH must be the same as that along EF. The scale at G must
equal the scale at E, and that at H equal that at F, and so for all points on the parallels EG and FH.
There can only be one conclusion, the scale must be constant along each parallel and have the value
given by the expanding meridian scale at its latitude. Thus, the apparent paradox that while scale
expansion differs about a point, nevertheless the scale about the point is the same, is seen to be
meaningful. Parallels and meridians have been considered here for simplicity. In some projections it
is convenient to define different co-ordinate systems, but the same rules will apply.

9-3 Fig 12 Same Scale in all Directions

G
A E
E
B

H
C
F F
D

Non-conformal Projections

42. For many purposes, outside navigation, charts having properties other than orthomorphism are
required. In atlases it is often useful to have a map on which areas are shown in their correct

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 AP3456 – 9-3 - Map Projections

proportion. This property is obtained by elongation, or shearing, so that scale is not the same in all
directions at a point, but the product of the scales in two perpendicular directions is the same
everywhere. A typical equal area, or equivalent, projection is shown in Fig 13.

9-3 Fig 13 Bonnes Equal Area Projection

20 40 40 20

0 60 60 0
180 180

80 80
160 Nort 160
h Pole
80
140 140

120 60 120
Paris
100 40 100

80 20
80

60 60
40
Equator 40
20 0 20

43. Very few non-conformal projections are useful for navigation, but it is clearly useful to have charts
on which all great circles are straight lines, or on which distances from a specified place (and no other)
can be precisely measured using a constant scale. These properties can be obtained on non-
conformal projections known as the gnomonic and azimuthal equidistant projections respectively.

Earth Convergency

44. The angle which one meridian on the Earth makes with another is known as Earth convergency.
At the poles its value is ch long (Fig 14a), but it reduces away from the pole until, at the equator where
the meridians are parallel to one another, its value is 0º. If the Earth is considered as a sphere its
value is given by:

Earth convergency = ch long sin lat

45. More generally this term applies to the difference in great circle bearing over two meridians.
The angle (β – α) in Fig 14b is Earth convergency given approximately by:

Earth convergency = ch long sin mean lat.

9-3 Fig 14 Earth Convergency

a b
Ch Long P
P

β C

(β–α)
B
Equator
α

Meridians Parallel

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 AP3456 – 9-3 - Map Projections

46. Convergency, as defined in para 45, is one feature which can never be faithfully projected, for, like
scale, it is a property inherent in the sphere. It describes the shape of the Earth’s surface, and any
map on which it is correctly shown must itself be a spherical surface.

Chart Convergence

47. The angle which one meridian makes with another on a projection is known as chart convergence.
If the meridians are represented by straight lines, then chart convergence will be a constant; if the
meridians are curved, it will differ from one point to another.

Definitions and Dimensions

48. Depending on the degree of simplification which is applied to the shape of the Earth, so different
definitions of latitude arise. These are illustrated in Fig 15 as follows:

a. Astronomical Latitude. On the geoid, the astronomic latitude is the angle between the
vertical (the direction of gravity) at a place and the plane of the equator. It is therefore indicated
by the normal to the geoid at the place.

b. Geodetic (or Geographic) Latitude. On an ellipsoid, the geodetic latitude is the angle
between the normal to the ellipsoid meridian at a place and the plane of the ellipsoidal equator.
This is the latitude plotted on navigation charts.

c. Geocentric Latitude. The geocentric latitude at a point is the angle made with the Earth’s
equatorial plane by the radius from the Earth’s mass geocentre through that point.

9-3 Fig 15 Definitions of Latitude

Earth’s Axis
of Rotation Geoid
Earth
Centred
Ellipsoid
Astronomic
Latitude
Geodetic Latitude
Geocentric Latitude

49. In practice, when using astro, the astronomic latitude is determined (for example when a Polaris
sight is taken), but the difference between this and geodetic latitude is so small that a correction is not
usually applied. Geocentric latitude is useful in certain problems. If the Earth is considered as a
sphere, then geodetic and geocentric latitude coincide.

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 AP3456 – 9-3 - Map Projections

50. Reduced Earth. The first stage in map projection is the making of a reduced Earth to the scale
required. This model can be ellipsoidal or spherical. If it is spherical then, in effect, the projected
latitudes which result are corrected by the difference between the geodetic and geocentric latitudes.
This difference is known as reduction of latitude; it is a quantity which also occurs when certain
navigation tables based on the sphere are used. Reduction is maximum at latitude 45º when its value
is about 11.6 minutes.

51. Length of a Parallel of Latitude. By considering the Earth as a sphere, a simple expression for
the length of a parallel of latitude can be found. In Fig 16, the length of the parallel of latitude is the
circumference of the circle, centre B, radius BA swept through ADC. Since:

Circumference = 2πr
∴ length of parallel = 2πBA
= 2πOA cos φ
= 2πR cos φ
= 2πR sin (90 – φ)
= 2πR sin κ

where R is the radius of the sphere, φ is the latitude and κ the co-latitude. By substituting R = reduced
Earth’s radius, the length on the model Earth can be found.

9-3 Fig 16 Length of Parallel of Latitude

C
B A
D

φ
E
O R
Equator

52. Arc of a Meridian - The Nautical Mile. The nautical mile, at a given place on the Earth’s surface, is
the length of an arc of the meridian subtended by an angle of 1' at the centre of curvature at that place. If the
Earth were a sphere, this distance would be constant, but because of the ellipticity it must clearly vary with
latitude, being shorter at the equator than at the poles. An expression for the nautical mile is:

Length of nautical mile = 1852.9 m (9.3 cos 2φ metres)

or 6079.2 ft (30.6 cos 2φ feet)

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 AP3456 – 9-3 - Map Projections

In practice, a mean figure is convenient, and the standard adopted since 1 Mar 1971 is the
International Nautical Mile = 1,852 m (6,076.1 ft) - (prior to that date the UK Standard Nautical Mile was
taken to equal 6,080 ft). The 1,852 m standard is correct at about 42º 08' on the International Ellipsoid,
on which the true nautical mile varies from 1,843.6 m (6,048.5 ft) at the equator to 1,862.3 m (6,109.8
ft) at the poles. When a standard unit is adopted for use within automatic instruments, some errors
will accrue, as discussed below.

53. Latitude Error. For most practical purposes, an aircraft which flies one nautical mile is assumed
to have changed its position by the length of an arc which subtends an angle at the centre of the Earth
of one minute. This is not strictly accurate as the relationship between a standard nautical mile and the
angle subtended at the Earth’s centre varies with latitude. A graph of the difference between the
International Nautical Mile and the true nautical mile is at Fig 17.

9-3 Fig 17 Errors in the Length of a Nautical Mile

90
80
70
60
UM
Latitude

50 D AT
ft
6 .1
40 60 7
m or
30 52
18
20
10
0 − 8 − 6 − 4 −2 0 +2 +4 +6 +8 +10 m
−30 − 20 −10 0 +10 +20 +30 ft
Error

54. Height Error. Since an aircraft will fly at a height above the surface of the earth, instruments will, in
general, indicate too great a distance flown between two points as measured on the map. The discrepancy
will increase with increasing height. From Fig 18 it will be seen that an arc S (representing the ground
distance to be flown) subtended by an angle θ radians at the centre of the Earth of radius R is equal to R θ.
For an aircraft flying at a height (h), there is a small increase in arc flown equal to δ S such that:

S + δ S = (R + h) θ
=Rθ+hθ

∴δS=hθ

as θ = S / R

hS
δS=
R

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 AP3456 – 9-3 - Map Projections

9-3 Fig 18 Height Error

S S

h
S

A graph of the height error values for heights between 0 ft and 60,000 ft is given in Fig 19.

9-3 Fig 19 Height Error Values

60
Height (Feet × 1,000)

50

40

30

20

10

0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30

% Overread

Some Map Projections Compared

55. In Fig 20, a sphere has been projected by various devices. On the sphere, a man’s face is
outlined, and his appearance is seen to alter from one projection to the next.

56. If the sphere is seen from an infinite distance (i.e. it is projected by parallel rays on to a flat
surface) the face has the podgy look of Fig 20a. This particular projection is known as orthographic, it
is neither conformal, nor equal area, nor has it any other particularly useful property, but it can be
regarded as a starting point since it is how the face would appear if viewed through a telescope from a
great distance.

57. Figs 20b and e are conformal projections. The bearing of one place from another (measured from
the local meridian) is the same on each projection and is the same as that obtained on the surface of
the sphere. It should be noted that the meridians are curved in e and straight in b, and that the face is
quite different in each; Fig 20b is a polar stereographic projection, and e is a transverse Mercator
projection.

58. Figs 20c and 20d, (the azimuthal equidistant and gnomonic respectively), are non-conformal
projections. In c the scale is constant along all meridians, in d it expands very rapidly along the

Revised Feb 16 Page 16 of 52

 AP3456 – 9-3 - Map Projections

meridians, so much so that the equator cannot be shown - it is at an infinite distance from the pole.
Once again, the face changes.

59. These drawings illustrate the important point that none of the projections reflects what the face is
really like. Each face is different, yet the similarities are sufficient to show that the same face is
portrayed on each. In the same way a map projection will illustrate all the topographical features of the
Earth’s surface - and yet it cannot show what the surface really looks like.

9-3 Fig 20 Projections of a Sphere

a Orthographic b Stereographic c Azimuthal Equidistant

Equator Equator Equator

Pole Pole Pole

d Gnomonic e Transverse Mercator

Equator
30° Parallel

Pole
Pole

Equator

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AZIMUTHAL PROJECTIONS

Introduction

60. This chapter deals with one of the limiting cases of the conic projections; the azimuthal
(or zenithal) projection. Unless otherwise specified, the Earth is treated as a sphere for simplicity.

61. In this case the apex angle of the cone is 180°, i.e. the projection is on to a plane tangential at a
point to the reduced Earth. All projections of this type have the property that bearings from the point of
tangency are correctly represented. Three types of azimuthal projection are discussed:

a. The Gnomonic Projection. The gnomonic projection is a perspective, non-conformal

projection, on which great circles are straight lines.

b. The Stereographic Projection. The stereographic projection is conformal and perspective.

c. The Azimuthal Equidistant. The azimuthal equidistant projection is a non-conformal, non-

perspective projection on which distances from the point of tangency are represented at a
constant scale.

The plane can, in each type, be orientated to be tangential at a pole, or at the equator, or more
generally in an oblique attitude as shown in Fig 21.

9-3 Fig 21 Azimuthal Projections

21a - Polar 21b - Equatorial 21c - Oblique

NP NP NP
T

T
EQ T EQ EQ

SP SP SP

THE GNOMONIC PROJECTION

General

62. The gnomonic projection is perspective; the meridians and parallels being projected on to the plane
surface from the centre of the sphere. It has the unique property of representing all great circles as
straight lines. Scale increases away from the point of tangency, but as the scale is not the same along
the meridians and the parallel at any point (except the point of tangency) the projection is not conformal.

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The Polar Gnomonic

63. The point of tangency in this case is at one of the poles. The graticule is projected from the centre
of the Earth (Fig 22); the parallels appear on the projection as concentric circles about the pole and the
meridians are radials from the same point.

9-3 Fig 22 Polar Gnomonic

Projection Plane NP X1
T
Parallel of X
Latitude

φ
0 Equator
75
60
45

30

64. Scale. Scale increases away from the pole of tangency, but the rate of change along the meridians
differs from that along the parallels. At a latitude φ, the scale factor along the parallel is given by
sec (90° – φ) and the scale factor along the meridian by sec2 (90° – φ).

65. Coverage. This projection is limited in extent to less than 90° from the point of tangency; the
equator cannot be shown since it would project as a plane parallel to the tangent plane.

The Equatorial Gnomonic

66. The principle of projection is the same as for the polar gnomonic but in this case the point of
tangency is on the equator (Fig 23). The meridians appear on the projection as parallel straight lines
perpendicular to the equator, and the parallels as curves concave to the nearer pole, as shown in Fig 24.

9-3 Fig 23 Equatorial Gnomonic Projection

1 NP
X
X

φ 0
T Equator

SP

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 AP3456 – 9-3 - Map Projections

9-3 Fig 24 Equatorial Gnomonic Graticule

50 50

40 40

Central
30 Meridian 30

20 20

10 10

0 0
Equator

67. Scale. Scale increases away from the point of tangency with the same pattern as the polar case.

The Oblique Gnomonic

68. The oblique gnomonic projection uses a point of tangency at any point on the Earth other than a
pole or on the equator (Fig 25). The graticule appears on the projection with the meridians as radial
straight lines from the nearer pole and the parallels as curves concave to the same pole.

9-3 Fig 25 Oblique Gnomonic Projection

1
X NP
X
T Point of
Tangency
0
Equator
T

SP

69. Scale, as before, expands away from the point of tangency.

Properties of Gnomonics

70. The properties of all gnomonic charts are as follows:

a. Any straight line on the projection exactly represents a great circle.

b. Bearings are correctly represented from the point of tangency, but not otherwise. The
projection is not conformal.

c. Rhumb lines are curves concave to the nearer pole.

d. Coverage is limited to less than 90° from the point of tangency.

e. Scale increases away from the point of tangency.

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 AP3456 – 9-3 - Map Projections

Uses of Gnomonics

71. Great Circle. Great circle tracks can be found on the gnomonic chart and transferred to the
plotting chart. A chart designed with this purpose in view is the Meade’s Great Circle Diagram
(Admiralty Chart 5029) discussed in para 75.

72. Radio Bearings. Gnomonic charts are sometimes used for D/F triangulation. The bearings
(which are great circles) are passed to the master station where they are plotted on a gnomonic chart.
An oblique gnomonic is used, the point of tangency being the position of the master station. The slave
stations are plotted in their correct positions on the chart and offset compass roses are drawn about
them to allow for distortion.

World Projection on to a Cube

73. Gnomonic projections can be used to obtain complete coverage of the world by arranging
orthogonal planes around the sphere. The cube formed can be orientated to produce two polar and
four equatorial projections, or six oblique projections.

74. The oblique case is illustrated in Fig 26. Care is required in using such a chart since a straight
line joining positions in adjacent projection squares represents two great circle arcs which intersect on
the boundary, and not the great circle joining the places.

9-3 Fig 26 Projection of the World on a Cube

North
Pole

Equator

Eq tor
ua ua
tor Eq

Equator

South
Pole

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 AP3456 – 9-3 - Map Projections

Meade’s Great Circle Diagram (Admiralty Chart 5029)

75. Meade’s Great Circle Diagram, (Admiralty Chart 5029), is a chart on which the blank graticules of polar
and equatorial gnomonic projections are shown. The polar gnomonic extends from lat 60° N or S to 83° N
or S, and the equatorial gnomonic from the equator to 65° N or S. Both graticules cover 150° ch long and
are graduated in degrees. The meridians on both graticules can be renumbered to any required longitude.

76. Since a straight line on either graticule represents a great circle, positions may be plotted on this
chart and the great circle track between them transferred to the plotting chart. Full directions for use
are provided on the actual diagram.

THE STEREOGRAPHIC PROJECTION

General

77. The stereographic projection is also perspective but differs from the gnomonic by having the point
of projection diametrically opposite the point of tangency instead of at the centre of the sphere (Fig 27).
As with all other azimuthal projections there are three cases but only the polar case is extensively used
in navigation. In the final presentation of the polar graticule, the meridians are represented by radial
straight lines from the point of tangency (the pole) and the parallels of latitude by concentric circles
about it. The polar stereographic projection can be extended to cover points more than 90° from the
point of tangency and the equator can be shown. Scale expands away from the point of tangency
along the meridians, and scale along a parallel is equal to the meridian scale at that latitude; scale is
therefore the same in all directions at a point and the projection is conformal. A graph of polar
stereographic scale factor is shown in Fig 28.

9-3 Fig 27 South Polar Stereographic Projection

NP

E Q

T
E Q

Great Circle

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 AP3456 – 9-3 - Map Projections

9-3 Fig 28 Stereographic Projection Scale Factor

2.25

2.00

Scale Factor 1.75

1.50

1.25

1.00
80° 60° 40° 20° 0°
Latitude (Polar Projection)

Properties

78. The properties of the polar stereographic are as follows:

a. Scale expands along the meridians with distance from the point of tangency.

b. The scale at any point is the same along its meridian and parallel; the projection is therefore
conformal.

c. All meridians are projected as straight lines; all other great circles are represented by arcs of
circles, but because of the large radii they are not usually easy to plot. Near the pole the great
circle and the straight line are almost coincident.

d. A rhumb line is a curve concave to the pole of tangency.

e. Scale may be taken to be constant near the pole of tangency (scale deviation is less than 1%
above latitude 78.5°).

f. It can be extended to cover a whole hemisphere or more.

g. The constant of the cone (n) = 1.

Plotting of Radio Bearings

79. The plotting of radio bearings on a polar stereographic is simple near the pole since the
divergence of the straight line from the great circle is very small. This divergence, ∆, is given by:

∆ = ½ ch long (sin mean lat – n)

Typical values of ∆ are:

ch long mean lat ∆

10º 75º 0.17º
20º 75º 0.34º
35º 85º 0.066º

These divergences are too small to be of any significance using ordinary plotting instruments, and,
providing the chart is not used below, say, 75° no correction need be applied.

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 AP3456 – 9-3 - Map Projections

Uses

80. The common uses of the polar stereographic are:

a. Polar plotting charts.

b. Topographical maps of polar regions.

THE AZIMUTHAL EQUIDISTANT PROJECTION

General

81. This is not a perspective projection; it is drawn so that all distances from the point of tangency are
correct to scale. On this type of projection, the bearing and distance of any point may be measured
correctly from the point of tangency. Only the polar and oblique projections of this type are discussed;
remarks made on the oblique case apply equally to the equatorial case.

The Polar Equidistant

82. The point of tangency is the pole and the graticule presents the meridians as radial straight lines
from the point of tangency and the parallels as equally spaced concentric circles about that point
(Fig 29). The scale along the meridians is constant but along the parallels is given by:

К radians
Where К= co - lat
sin К

9-3 Fig 29 Polar Equidistant Projection

T X1 180
NP
X

κ
90W 90E

83. Properties.

a. The scale along the parallels increases with distance from the pole. Scale along the
meridians is correct. Scale errors are small provided the projection does not extend far from the
pole (1% scale deviation at about 84°).

b. It is not conformal.

c. Except for meridians, a straight line does not represent a great circle.

d. The whole world can be represented on a single projection.

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 AP3456 – 9-3 - Map Projections

84. Uses.

a. Admiralty maps of polar regions.

b. Star maps, including Sky diagrams of Air Almanacs.

Oblique Azimuthal Equidistant

85. The graticule for the oblique azimuthal equidistant projection is difficult to construct and
complicated in appearance (Fig 30). The chart is constructed using the bearings and distances of
required points from the point of tangency.

9-3 Fig 30 Oblique Azimuthal Equidistant Projection

86. Properties.

a. Scale along radials from the point of tangency is constant. In other directions, scale variation
is complicated and measurement very difficult.

b. Straight lines passing through the point of tangency are great circles. A straight line
elsewhere does not represent a great circle.

c. It is not conformal.

d. The whole world can be shown on the projection.

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 AP3456 – 9-3 - Map Projections

87. Uses.

a. Maps for Strategic Planning. The projection is based on a point of importance.

Concentric circles from this point show correct ranges which could represent, for example, radii
of action.

b. Civil Uses. For example, a projection based on the position of a radio transmitter will show
the great circle distance and bearing of any receiver in the world.

CYLINDRICAL PROJECTIONS

Introduction

88. The cylindrical projections are those in which the apex angle of the cone is zero; the cone
becomes a cylinder tangential to the reduced Earth along a great circle and the meridians and parallels
are projected onto it. When developed the great circle of tangency is shown as a straight line as are all
great circles orthogonal to it. The poles of the projection, those points removed 90° from the great
circle of tangency, cannot be shown on most projections of this type.

89. When the great circle of tangency is the equator the projection is known as a normal cylindrical;
when it is other than the equator it is a skew cylindrical.

SIMPLE NORMAL CYLINDRICALS

General

90. Two simple normal cylindrical projections are discussed; the first is perspective, the second non-
perspective.

Geometric Cylindrical Projection

91. The geometric cylindrical projection is provided by a light source at the centre of the reduced
Earth which projects the parallels and meridians on to a cylinder wrapped around the reduced Earth
and tangential at the equator. The developed projection shows the equator as a straight line of length
equal to the equatorial circumference of the reduced Earth. The meridians are parallel straight lines at
right angles to the equator while the parallels of latitude are straight lines parallel to the equator and of
length equal to it. The general appearance is shown in Fig 31, where it can be seen that the meridian
spacing at the equator is the actual reduced Earth spacing.

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 AP3456 – 9-3 - Map Projections

9-3 Fig 31 Geometrical Cylindrical Projection

70°

R Tan 60°
60°

40°

20°
60°
0°
R
20°

40°

60°

70°
2 πR

92. Since the equator of the reduced Earth has length 2πR, so the equator and all parallels are of
length 2πR on the chart. The parallels are drawn (Fig 1) at heights above or below the equator given
by R tan φ, and it is clear from this, and from Fig 30, that latitudes 90° N and 90° S cannot be shown.

93. Scale. Scale factor along the parallels is equal to the secant of the latitude. Along the meridians
scale factor can be shown to equal the square of the secant of the latitude.

94. Properties. Since scale increases at one rate along the meridians and at another along the
parallels the projection is not conformal. Further, the difference in scale expansion means that it is
very difficult to measure intercardinal directions. The chart is not equal area, nor indeed has it any
useful property beyond its simplicity.

Equidistant Cylindrical Projection

95. The equidistant cylindrical projection, also called the Plate Carree, is non-perspective, but is like
the geometric cylindrical in some ways. The equator is represented by a straight line of length 2πR.
The meridians are shown as parallel straight lines at right angles to the equator, at intervals on it equal
to the reduced Earth interval. The parallels of latitude are straight lines parallel to the equator and of
length 2πR.

96. The difference between the two charts lies in the heights above or below the equator at which the
parallels of latitude are drawn. In the equidistant cylindrical, they are erected at their actual reduced
Earth distance from it; thus 40° N is drawn at a scale distance of 2,400 nm from the equator. The
complete sphere can be projected, the poles being represented by straight lines at a scale distance of
5,400 nm from the equator. The graticule appearance is shown in Fig 32.

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 AP3456 – 9-3 - Map Projections

9-3 Fig 32 Equidistant Cylindrical

90

60

40

20

20

40

60

90
0

97. Scale. Scale factor along the meridians is clearly 1, since the parallels are laid down at correct
distances from the equator. Along the parallels scale factor is the same as that on the geometric
cylindrical, sec φ.

98. Properties. This chart was much used by navigators prior to the sixteenth century. Scale is correct
and constant along the equator and meridians and is reasonably constant between 8° N and 8° S; beyond
this the expansion along the parallels exceeds 1%, and the measurement of distance is difficult. The chart is
neither conformal nor equal area, but it has the advantage of projecting the complete sphere.

MERCATOR’S PROJECTION

Orthomorphic Cylindrical Projection

99. An orthomorphic, or conformal, projection is one on which angles, and therefore the shapes of
elementary areas, are correct. Such a projection will result if the meridians and parallels are drawn at
right angles and if the scale along the meridians is made to be the same as that along the parallels.

100. On the geometric cylindrical and on the equidistant cylindrical, the meridians and parallels are at
right angles and the scale factor along the parallels in each case is sec φ. If the scale factor can be
made to equal sec φ along the meridians, the new projection will be conformal. This is precisely the
method adopted in Mercator’s projection which, because it provides straight rhumb line tracks, remains
one of the most important projections for navigation charts (see Fig 33).

9-3 Fig 33 Rhumb Line

Meridians

Rhumb Line cuts Meridians

at a Constant Angle

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 AP3456 – 9-3 - Map Projections

101. Appearance of Graticule. The final projection is very like the geometric cylindrical projection. T
e equator is a straight line equal in length to the reduced Earth equator; the meridians are straight lines
mounted on the equator at right angles to it and spaced upon it at reduced Earth spacing; the parallels
of latitude are straight lines parallel to the equator and of length equal to it. The parallels are drawn in
at heights above and below the equator which are a little less than on the geometric projection, but the
poles remain at infinity and cannot appear on the projection.

Scale

102. Scale factor along the parallels of latitude can be derived as sec φ. A graph of Mercator scale
factor is shown in Fig 34.

9-3 Fig 34 Scale Factor

6.0

5.0
Scale Factor

4.0

3.0

2.0

1.0
O O O O O O O O O O
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Latitude

103. The distortion of areas and the excessive scale expansion away from the equator, characteristic
of the Mercator projection, are illustrated in Fig 35.

9-3 Fig 35 Distortion of Mercator Projection

W E
o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o
165 150 135 120 105 90 75 60 45 30 15 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 160

A R T I C
A R C T I C O C E A N
o o
75 O C E A N 75

2400 nm

o o
60 60

o o
45 45
EQUAL
o o
30 AREAS 30
A T L A N T I C P A C I F I C
o o
15 O C E A N 15 N
o P A C I F I C o
0 0

o
EQUAL I N D I A N
o
15 AREAS O C E A N
15 S

o O C E A N O C E A N o
30 30

o o
45 45

o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o
165 150 135 120 105 90 75 60 45 30 15 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 160
W E

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 AP3456 – 9-3 - Map Projections

Great Circles

104. Only the equator and the meridians are projected as straight lines; all other great circles appear as
curves concave to the equator. Some examples are shown in Fig 36.

9-3 Fig 36 Great Circle and Rhumb Lines

W E
o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o
165 150 135 120 105 90 75 60 45 30 15 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 160

A R T I C
A R C T I C O C E A N
o o
75 O C E A N 75

Gr
eat
Ci
o rc o
60 le 60

o Rhumb o
45 Line 45

A T L A N T I C
∆
o o
30 30
P A C I F I C
o o
N 15 O C E A N 15 N
o P A C I F I C o
0 0
I N D I A N
o O C E A N o
S 15 15 S

o O C E A N O C E A N o
30 30

o o
45 45

o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o
165 150 135 120 105 90 75 60 45 30 15 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 160
W E

105. Conversion Angle. In Fig 36, the angle (∆) between the straight line and the great circle is
known as conversion angle. The projected great circle is not an arc of a circle, and strictly speaking,
the angle ∆ is not the same at each end, unless the end points are at the same latitude. Nevertheless,
if the change of latitude is small they can be assumed to be equal and can be given the value
½ ch long × sin mean lat

106. Great Circle Tracks. The great circle route is, of course, a shorter distance than the straight rhumb
line route, but the difference is small enough to be ignored in equatorial regions (12° N to 12° S). In other
latitudes, when the distance exceeds about 1,000 nm it is best to examine the great circle by transferring
points from a gnomonic projection or by calculation, to discover if a significant economy can be made.

Measuring Distances

107. Distances must be measured using the scale at the given point, since scale expands with latitude.
Acceptable results are obtained by splitting the line to be measured into 100 to 200 nm sections and
using the latitude scale at the midpoint of each section for its measurement.

Uses

108. The main feature of the Mercator is that straight lines are rhumb lines. For this reason, the Mercator
will probably remain one of the most popular plotting and topographical charts in equatorial regions.

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 AP3456 – 9-3 - Map Projections

109. Near the equator the Mercator chart is the optimum projection. Scale may be considered constant
within 8° of the equator, and a straight line in any direction, although still a rhumb line, is almost a great
circle.

110. In middle and high latitudes, the Mercator projection is not the best available, because of the
difficulty of precise distance measurement, the extravagance of rhumb line flight paths, and the
problem of determining great circles. It is impossible to use the Mercator projection for polar flights.

Summary of Properties

111. The properties of the Mercator may be summarized as follows:

a. Scale is correct only along the equator; elsewhere it increases as the secant of the latitude.

b. Because the secant of 90° is infinity, the poles cannot be shown.

c. A straight line represents a rhumb line.

d. A great circle (apart from the equator and the meridians) is represented by a curved line
convex to the nearer pole. Great circles near the equator are satisfactorily represented by straight
lines.

e. The projection is conformal. It is not equal area and areas are greatly exaggerated in high
latitudes.

SKEW CYLINDRICALS

Technique of Construction

112. Skew cylindrical projections are the derivatives of the perspective projections which would be
obtained using a light source at the centre of the reduced Earth to cast shadows onto cylinders
wrapped around it, and tangential at great circles other than the equator. The simplest interpretations
of such projections is obtained by erecting a false graticule of meridians and parallels on the reduced
Earth; the great circle of tangency becomes the false equator, and false meridians are drawn as great
circles at right angles to the false equator. The false meridians intersect at false poles.

113. The false graticule is projected onto the cylinder which is then developed. Some points of
intersection of geographical latitude and longitude with the false graticule are computed, plotted on the
projection and joined by smooth curves. These are labelled in geographical coordinates and the false
graticule erased. The process is illustrated in Fig 37.

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 AP3456 – 9-3 - Map Projections

9-3 Fig 37 Construction of a Skew Cylindrical

NP

False
Pole A A

0 0
Equator

B False B
Pole

r
Eq lse
to
ua
r
Eq lse
to

Fa
ua
Fa

SP

Eq
ua
to
r
NP
an

0
i
id
er
M

False Equator

SP

False Graticule
Some True Meridians and Parallels

114. The type of projection required will determine the method of transformation of the false graticule
onto the flat sheet, but whatever type is required the relationship between points on the geographical
graticule and on the false graticule will be the same.

115. The false latitude is measured along the false meridian from the false equator to the point; the
false ch long is measured from some convenient datum false meridian (the false meridian through the
intersection of the equators is often chosen with the alternative of that joining the false and geographic
poles).

116. The skew cylindrical projections which are important in navigation are the Mercator projections of
the false graticule. Referred to this graticule they have exactly the same properties as the normal
Mercator, but when referred to the geographical graticule the picture changes and extra care is
needed. The projections considered here are:

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 AP3456 – 9-3 - Map Projections

a. The Oblique Mercator.

b. The Transverse Mercator.

The Oblique Mercator

117. A diagram of an oblique Mercator projection is shown in Fig 38. Considering the false graticule, at any
point, scale is the same in all directions (scale factor is the secant of the false latitude) and the rectangular
spherical graticule is transformed to a rectangular plane graticule. Hence the projection is orthomorphic.

9-3 Fig 38 Oblique Mercator Projection

118. Analogously with the normal Mercator, scale can be considered constant within a false latitude
band ± 8° about the false equator (the light red band in Fig 38). Since the false graticule does not
appear on the final chart it is more usual to talk of a distance band of 960 nm within which scale is
almost constant.

119. Because the projection is almost constant scale in this band, and is in any case conformal, it makes
a useful chart for navigation along established great circle routes. Another common use is the mapping of
countries of considerable length but of limited width, whose longitudinal axis does not run north/south or
east/west. However, the complicated appearance of the geographical graticule, together with the large
scale expansion away from the great circle of tangency, limits the use of this chart.

120. Great circles are curved lines concave to the great circle of tangency, unless they happen to
coincide with that great circle or are at right angles to it (false meridians). Rhumb lines are
complicated curves. Straight lines on the chart represent lines along which heading measured from
the false meridians is constant. Straight lines within about 500 nm of the false equator are roughly
great circles.

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 AP3456 – 9-3 - Map Projections

The Transverse Mercator

121. The Transverse Mercator is the special case of the oblique Mercator in which the great circle of
tangency is a meridian. The general appearance of the geographical graticule is less complicated
(Fig 39) and it is easier to use for general navigation. The chart is conformal and the scale expansion
varies (for a spherical Earth) with the secant of the false latitude, ie the angular distance east or west of
the selected meridian of tangency.

9-3 Fig 39 Transverse Mercator Projection

122. The projection is often used to map countries of considerable latitude extent but of little girth. If the
meridian of tangency is chosen to be the mean longitude of the country then in a band some 960 nm wide
disposed about this meridian, all the useful features of a normal Mercator about the equator appear. In
this band the scale deviation does not exceed 1%, great circles are almost straight lines and area
distortion is minimal; add these properties to conformality and a fairly regular geographical lattice and the
result is an almost ideal chart.

123. The latitude extent which can be projected with these almost ideal properties is not limited. Both
geographical poles and the 960 nm 1% scale deviation band about any meridian and its anti-meridian
can be projected onto one sheet of paper. Some of the charts in common use are discussed below.

124. Polar Charts. Transverse Mercator projections in the polar regions appear very similar to the polar
azimuthal charts since near the pole the parallels are nearly circular and the meridians almost straight
lines (see Fig 40). Comparison with Fig 39, however, identifies both the parallels and the meridians as

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 AP3456 – 9-3 - Map Projections

elliptic. Polar sheets on this projection are often rectangular, the greater length being provided along the
line of tangency; scale errors limit the extent of the sheet at right angles to this direction.

9-3 Fig 40 Polar Chart on Transverse Mercator Projection

125O 120O 110O 105O 100O 95O 90O 85O 80O 75O 70O 65O 60O 55O

55O
130O
50O

60O
O
135O 45

65O
140O 40O

70O
O
145O 35

O
150
O
75O 30

O
155 25O
O
80
160
O
20O

165O 15O
O
85 O
170O 10

175O 5O
O

80O

75O

70O
70O

75O

80O

85O

O
85

180
O
0

185
O 5O
O
O 10
170 85O
O
15
165O

160O 80O 20O

O
155 25O
O
O 75 30O
150

145O 35O
O
70

40O
140O O
65

45O
135O
O
60

130O O 50O
55

125O 120O 115O 110O 105O 100O 95O 90O 85O 80O 75O 70O 65O 60O 55O

125. Ordnance Survey Maps of UK. Topographic maps of the British Isles are available at scales of
1:250,000 and 1:50,000 based on the Ordnance Survey (OS) maps. The scales are adjusted so that
they are correct, not at the meridian of tangency (2° W), but at some distance on either side of it. The
scale at 2° W is 0.9996 of the stated scale; at the east/west extremities of the map cover the scale is
about 1.0004 of the stated scale. Had the scale been made correct at 2° W, then scale deviation of
the order of 8 parts in 10,000 would have occurred at the east/west extremities; this mean scale device
balances the overall scale deviation and hence halves its effective magnitude. The stated scale is
correct along two lines parallel to the meridian of tangency, one 180 km east of it, the other 180 km
west. The OS map projection is illustrated in Fig 41.

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 AP3456 – 9-3 - Map Projections

9-3 Fig 41 OS on Transverse Mercator Projection

55° N
Scale Correct

Scale
Expands

50° N
6°W 4°W 2°W 0°W
(Meridian of
Tangency)

126. Joint Operations Graphics. The 1:250,000 Joint Operations Graphic (JOG) is a series of
topographical charts (Fig 42) which provide almost worldwide coverage of the land areas from latitude
80° S to latitude 84° N. Each sheet of the series covers 1° in latitude and between 1.5° to 8° in
longitude (depending on latitude) and is constructed on its own individual transverse Mercator
projection of the International Ellipsoid with meridian of tangency at the centre of the sheet. The scale
deviation of the projected graticule of a sheet does not exceed 0.01%. Adjoining sheets fit exactly
along north and south edges and although, in fact, they do not fit exactly along east and west edges
the discrepancies are so small as to be unnoticeable. Charts of this series carry a reference grid, such
as the British National Grid or one of the zones of the UTM Grid appropriate to the country or region
covered. These reference grids may be based on different projections, ellipsoids or points of tangency
but are designed so that the scale deviation is usually less than 0.15% within the grid area. Although,
strictly, the projected graticule of a sheet and the projected grid are independent of each other, either
may be used for positioning and navigation purposes.

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 AP3456 – 9-3 - Map Projections

9-3 Fig 42 Joint Operations Graphic (JOG) Projection System

20° 15° 10° 5° W 0° 5° E 10° 15 ° 20 ° 25 ° 30° 35° 40° 45

60°

Central Meridians
55°

50°

45°

40°

127. Summary of Properties. The properties of the transverse Mercator are summarized below.

a. Scale is constant along the meridian of tangency but expands (for a spherical Earth) with the
secant of the false latitude.

b. Since the false meridians and parallels are projected by Mercator’s method the projection is
orthomorphic.

c. The meridian of tangency and all great circles at right angles to it (i.e. false meridians) are
straight lines. All other great circles are curves concave to the meridian of tangency.

d. Rhumb lines are curves.

e. Near the meridian of tangency scale is almost constant (1% error 480 nm removed from it),
great circles are almost straight lines, area distortion is minimal, and the graticule appearance is
regular. Charts do not, of course, fit along east and west edges if based on different meridians of
tangency, but provided the separation of these meridians is small (as with the JOG) the discrepancy
is not inconvenient.

128. Gridded Transverse Mercator Charts. Transverse Mercator charts are often provided with an
overprint of the false graticule, to be used with some form of grid navigation. By analogy with the normal
Mercator, the grid is of approximately square appearance within about 500 nm of the great circle of
tangency. Grid north is the direction of the false pole and a gyroscope device initially aligned with grid
north will maintain this datum direction if suitable torquing terms are applied to it. A word of warning is
necessary when convergence is considered. The geographical meridians are curved, even though on a
small part of a chart they appear to be straight lines; hence the angle between true north and grid north is
not constant along a given geographical meridian (as it is on a gridded conical chart). It is of importance,

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 AP3456 – 9-3 - Map Projections

for example, when converting true heading to grid heading for checking purposes, to apply convergence
for the particular position: various tables have been drawn up for this purpose and values are printed on
some charts. A gridded polar chart and a convergence correction chart are illustrated in Figs 43 and 44.
When using gridded transverse Mercator charts, it is possible, if false north can be accurately defined, to
steer false rhumb line track; such a system is the same as navigation on a normal Mercator if false
latitude and longitude are substituted for their geographical counterparts.

9-3 Fig 43 Grid on Polar Transverse Mercator

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O
125 120 110 105 100 95 90 85 80 75 70 65 60 55

O
O 55
130 O
50

60O
O
135O 45

O
65
140O 40
O

O
70
O
145
O
35

O
150
O
75O 30

O
155 25
O

O
80 O
160O 20

165O 15
O

O
85 O
170O 10
O O
175 5
O

75O

O
70

75O

80O

85O

O
85

80

70

180
O
0
O

O
185
O 5
O
10
170O 85O
O
15
165O
O
160O 80
O 20

O O
155 25
O
O 75 30
O
150

O
145
O 35
O
70

O 40O
140 O
65
O
45
135O
O
60

O
130 50O
55O
O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O
125 120 115 110 105 100 95 90 85 80 75 70 65 60 55

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 AP3456 – 9-3 - Map Projections

9-3 Fig 44 Convergence Correction Chart

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 AP3456 – 9-3 - Map Projections

CONICAL PROJECTIONS

Introduction

129. The cylindrical projection is best suited to the representation of a single great circle (such as the
equator) and the band of the Earth’s surface close to it, while the azimuthal projections depict very well
the area surrounding a point. The conic projections fill the gap by best projecting small circles and the
bands of surface close to them.

130. From a navigation point of view, the conformal conics are the most important members of the
group, and most of this chapter is devoted to them. However, some discussion of perspective conics
may be found helpful.

General Description

131. All the conic projections described in detail are normal to the equatorial plane; oblique conics are
sometimes drawn but they are not often found to be useful in navigation. The simplest arrangement is that
of a cone, tangent at a parallel of latitude (Fig 44a), onto which the meridians and parallels are projected.

132. The projection can be perspective or non-perspective. In the perspective case, the graticule is
a linear projection, usually from the centre of the sphere, as in Fig 45a. In the more general non-
perspective case, the graticule is positioned mathematically on a cone which may touch, or cut
through, the sphere as shown in Fig 45b.

9-3 Fig 45 Conical Projections

45a – Perspective Projection 45b – Non-perspective (Lambert’s) Projection

133. Appearance of Graticule. After projection, the cone is cut and unrolled (Fig 46a). This is known
as the development of the cone. The meridians appear as straight lines radiating from a point, which,
in all normal projections, represents the geographic pole. The parallels of latitude are arcs of circles,
concentric at this point. The developed cone is illustrated in Fig 46b.

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 AP3456 – 9-3 - Map Projections

9-3 Fig 46 Development of the Cone

46a 46b
90°E 60°E
30°E
A Lat 4
120°E

Lat 3
150°E
0
Lat 2

Lat 1 180° Lat 1

Lat 2
X 0
150°W
Lat 3

A B
Lat 4 120°W
90°E 30°W
60°E 0°

90°W

B
60°W
30°E
30°W 0°

134. Standard Parallels. A 'standard' parallel of latitude is one which is projected at reduced Earth
scale. It is possible to have more than one standard parallel and one- and two-standard parallel
projections are discussed. On a one-standard parallel projection, the standard parallel is also the
parallel of origin (λ0).

135. Scale Expansion. On all the conformal conics, and on all the perspective conics, the pattern of
scale change is that shown in Fig 47. Scale is correct along the standard parallels and increases away
from them; in the two-standard case it decreases between them.

9-3 Fig 47 Conformal Conic Scale

47a – One Standard Parallel 47b – Two Standard Parallels

Standard Parallel Standard Parallels

Scale Increases
Scale Increases

Scale Decreases

Scale Increases Scale Increases

Constant of the Cone

136. When the cone is developed, the reflex angle at the centre of the sector (x in Fig 46b) represents
360° of longitude. The ratio of x° to 360° is known as the 'constant of the cone' (or the convergence
factor) and is denoted by n. Its value is normally printed on a conic projection, and chart convergence
can be obtained from the formula:
n × ch long

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 AP3456 – 9-3 - Map Projections

CONFORMAL CONIC PROJECTIONS

Conformal One-Standard Conic Projection

137. A geometric conic is a perspective projection onto a cone at a parallel of latitude, which is the
standard parallel for a one-standard conic projection. The point of projection is the centre of the Earth.
The conformal version of the one-standard conic is derived from the geometric conic by adjusting the
radii of the parallels to make the scale at any point the same in all directions. The standard parallel
and the parallel of origin (λ0) are also coincident on this projection.

138. The projection is non-perspective on to a cone tangent at the latitude chosen as the standard
parallel. The meridians are drawn exactly as in the geometric case, but the parallels (see Fig 48)
are moved slightly nearer the standard parallel. The pole remains at the apex of the cone and
represents the oddity of the projection, for it is not conformal at that point. This is evident from the
angle between two meridians; at the pole this angle should be ch long but on the chart it is n × ch
long (the projection is everywhere else conformal, even at latitude 89º 59'). Scale factor is 1 on the
standard parallel and increases with distance from the standard parallel.

9-3 Fig 48 One Standard Conformal Conic

Geometric Conic Conformal Conic

Actual
Extent of
Projections
180W 180E

90W 90E

Lambert Conformal Conic Projection

139. The Lambert conformal is a non-perspective projection with two standard parallels. It is obtained
by simply declaring the scale to be correct (i.e. equal to reduced Earth scale) along two parallels which
are approximately equally spaced about λ0. The scale factor at these standard parallels is 1, varying at
other latitudes, as illustrated in Fig 49.

9-3 Fig 49 Lambert Conformal Scale Factor

1.4
Scale Factor

1.2

Latitude
1.0

0.8
C λ1 λ0 λ2 C'

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 AP3456 – 9-3 - Map Projections

140. Description. The projection can be regarded as the projection of a slightly larger reduced Earth onto
the original cone, which is so placed as to cut it at two parallels, λ1 and λ2, as in Fig 50. The meridians are
straight lines radiating from the pole and inclined to each other at n × ch long, where n is sin λ0. For all
practical purposes, λ0 is the mean of the two standard parallels, λ1 and λ2, and is, of course, the latitude of
minimum scale factor.

9-3 Fig 50 Approximate Projection Description

N Pole

λ2
λ0
λ1
Equator
λ0

S Pole

141. Advantage of Two Standard Parallels. The advantage of a projection with two standard
parallels is to give an increase of the area of the Earth within which the scale deviation of the projection
will not exceed a given amount, i.e. in the example at Fig 49, if a straight edge calibrated to the scale at
λ1 or λ2 is used, the error is within 20% at λ0, C and C′. Thus, by choosing a scale factor at λ0 for the
Lambert projection, all other scale factors can be determined. The scale factor at λ0 is sometimes
called the scale reduction factor (SRF).

142. Standard Parallel Separation. The shape of the scale factor graph fixes a relationship between
SRF and the distance apart of the standard parallels. The choice of one determines the other. The
actual connection depends upon latitude, but over a wide range (up to about 80º N), Table 2 below is a
useful guide.

Table 2 Relationship between Standard Parallel Separation and Scale Reduction Factor

Scale Reduction Scale Deviation at λ0 Standard Parallel Separation

Factor
0.99 1% 16°
0.98 2% 23°
0.97 3% 28°
0.96 4% 32°

143. Minimizing Scale Deviation on the Chart. Scale factor increases away from λ0 in both
directions, passing through 1 at the standards, λ1 and λ2. If the standard parallels are placed so as to
divide the latitude coverage of a chart in the ratio 1:4:1 or 1/6:4/6:1/6, then the best balance of scale
deviation is achieved. This is known as the 1/6 rule. Furthermore, if a maximum standard parallel
spacing of 14º is observed, then the scale deviation will be limited to <1%. Thus, a Lambert chart can
be considered as 'constant scale' if both:

a. The spacing of the standard parallels does not exceed 14º Ch Lat, and

b. The 1/6 rule is observed.

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 AP3456 – 9-3 - Map Projections

144. Great Circles. Near λ0, great circles are approximately straight lines; away from λ0 they are
curves concave to λ0. The angle (∆) between the great circle and the straight line is given by:

∆ = ½ ch long (sin mean lat − n)

Near λ0, the great circle is very well represented by a straight line and, on most parts of actual charts,
the divergence between the two is not noticeable.

145. Distance Measurement. When measuring distances on Lambert projections, the mid-latitude
scale in the area should be used, but over long tracks, which pass from areas of negative scale error
to positive scale error, a straight edge graduated at the stated scale can be used. The amount of
care which is required can be assessed from para 142. If the standards are within 16° of each other,
then a straight edge can be used everywhere within about 12° of λ0. If the separation is greater than
16°, then a constant-scale straight edge should only be used when measuring long distances or if the
flight is within the band of 1% scale deviation about a standard parallel.

146. Summary of Properties. The properties of the Lambert Conformal projection are as follows:

a. The projection is conformal with two standard parallels (where scale factor is 1).

b. Scale factor is at a minimum at the latitude whose sine is n. This latitude is about the mean
of the standards.

c. Scale factor change is roughly of the form of the secant of the ch lat from λ0.

d. The projection is not conformal at the poles and scale factor is very large near the poles.

e. Great circles are curves concave to λ0. Near λ0 they are approximately straight lines.

f. Sheets will join only if they are based on the same standard parallels and are at the same scale.

147. Uses. Lambert’s Conformal charts are in widespread use except for polar latitudes. Examples of
current charts are: 1:500,000 Global Navigation Charts (GNC), 1:2,000,000 Jet Navigation Charts
(JNC), 1:500,000 Tactical Pilotage Charts (TPC), 1:100,000 Operational Navigation Charts (ONC) and
1:500,000 Low Flying Charts (LFC). The moving map filmstrip used in the Tornado is based on
Lambert’s charts but modified to a form of equidistant cylindrical projection (Plate Carree) during
photography.

NAVIGATION PROJECTIONS - COMPARISON AND SUMMARY

Introduction

148. In this chapter, the navigation projections are compared, and their properties are summarized.

Great Circles and Straight Lines

149. In general, conformal projections do not portray great circles as straight lines, except the equator
and meridians in some cases. It is therefore necessary to provide some guidelines as to when it is
worthwhile to plot the great circle rather than the straight line.

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 AP3456 – 9-3 - Map Projections

150. Distance. From a distance-saving point of view, there is usually little to gain in flying true great
circle routes on the stereographic projection or on Lambert’s projection. The difference between the
straight line and the great circle distance for flights of less than 2,000 nm contained within ±25° of the
parallel of origin (λ0) is less than 0.5 % of the distance. Navigation charts based on these projections
are usually confined to a much smaller latitude spread, but since this is not the case with the Mercator
projection, special care is needed with it. Fig 51 illustrates the penalty, expressed as percentages of
great circle distances, in flying east-west rhumb line tracks at various latitudes.

9-3 Fig 51 Mercator Projection Distance Penalty

80

60
Latitude

40 10%

5%

20 1%

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Rhumb Line Distance(nm × 1,000)

151. Direction. The angle between the great circle direction and the straight line is given by:

∆ = ½ ch long (sin mean lat – n)

approximately on Mercator’s and on Lambert’s projection, and exactly on the stereographic projection.
Use can be made of ∆ to sketch in a series of straight lines which will correspond very well with the
great circle in most cases. The straight-line distance, AB in Fig 52, is measured in some constant unit
and perpendiculars are erected at the quarter, half and three-quarter length points. The line segments
AC, CD, DE, EB are then drawn using angles 0.75∆ and 0.5∆, and 0.25∆ as shown in the diagram to
obtain the intercepts C, D and E. The direction is concave to λ0.

9-3 Fig 52 Approximate Great Circle

D
C E
3/ 1/
4 2
A B
Rhumb Line

Scale Reduction Factor

152. Scale reduction factor (SRF) was used to develop the Lambert conformal projection from the one-
standard conformal conic. It is also the device used in the Ordnance Survey transverse Mercator

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 AP3456 – 9-3 - Map Projections

projection of the United Kingdom to reduce scale deviation. SRF can be used for any conformal
projection to produce the same effect.

153. If, for example, the scale factor everywhere on a Mercator projection is multiplied by 0.99, two
parallels, one at about 8° N and the other at about 8° S, will gain scale factors of 1. The projection will
be of the form illustrated in Fig 53, on to a cylinder cutting a larger reduced Earth in these two parallels,
and reduced Earth scale can now be used everywhere between about 11.5° N and 11.5° S with a
deviation of less than 1%, i.e. with almost constant scale.

9-3 Fig 53 Mercator with Two Standard Parallels

RE

SF
1.02

1.01

1.00 Lat
10°S 5°S 0° 5°N 10°N

0.99

154. The idea can be applied to the polar stereographic. A scale deviation of 1% occurs at about 11.5º
from the pole. To enlarge the area of almost constant scale it is necessary to multiply all scales by 0.99.
Scale factor becomes 0.99 at the pole and 1 at about latitude 78.5º. Constant scale measurement can be
used up to 16º (latitude 74º) from the pole where scale factor is now 1.01. This projection can now be
thought of as stereographic on to a plane cutting the Earth at latitude 78.5º (Fig 54).

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 AP3456 – 9-3 - Map Projections

9-3 Fig 54 Modified Stereographic

RE

SF

1.02

1.01

1.00 Lat
75 80 85 90 85

0.99

155. Using the Lambert conformal projection, a scale deviation of 1% can be achieved by placing the
standard parallels some 16º apart; an area bounded by parallels approximately 3º or 4º beyond these
then has the required maximum scale deviation.

165. The use of scale reduction factor allows conformal mapping of a hemisphere on to five projections
with scale deviation everywhere less than 1%. The projections are a Mercator at the equator, polar
stereographic and three Lambert conformal conics covering latitude bands shown in Fig 55.

9-3 Fig 55 Conformal Mapping of a Hemisphere

Stereographic Conformal Conic

180W 180E
180W 180E

180W 180E

74o

55o

34o Mercator

111/2o
180W 180E

Errors in Distance Measurement

157. On the majority of Lambert conformal charts available for navigation no sensible error is
introduced through using the constant scale for distance measurement, but care is needed on any
chart on which the standards are about 16º or more apart. This care is especially necessary when the
area of operation is at the centre or at the extremes of the projection.

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 AP3456 – 9-3 - Map Projections

158. Similarly, no appreciable error will result from using reduced Earth scale in equatorial regions on a
Mercator projection, or near the pole on a polar stereographic projection. When there is any doubt, on
any projection, the track should be divided into latitude bands of 100 nm to 200 nm and the mean
latitude scale at each band used.

PROJECTION SUMMARY

Choice of Chart

159. Choosing the best chart for a particular task may appear at first sight a difficult task, but it is often
reduced simply to a choice between only two or three charts and the decision may finally be made by
availability. The following summary suggests suitable charts for a number of purposes.

Planning Charts

160. Planning charts are used for display and for route and operational planning. They must, in
general, cover large areas with minimal distortion, or have some particular useful property, such as
showing great circles as straight lines, or radii of action at constant scale. The scales used for
planning charts are necessarily small, in the order of 1:10,000,000 to 1:20,000,000.

161. Without doubt, the best general-purpose display and planning projection is the stereographic. It is
conformal, it has the smallest scale expansion, it can display almost the whole world on one sheet, and
great circles can be drawn with a minimum of difficulty since they are lesser arcs of circles.

162. For smaller areas the Lambert conformal in middle latitudes, and the Mercator in low latitudes,
provide the best working projections.

163. Summary. The applicability of the various projections to planning tasks may be summarized as
follows:

Task Projection Most Suited

Large Area - Stereographic

Small Area
Middle - Lambert Conformal
Latitudes
Low Latitudes - Mercator
Polar Regions - Stereographic
Radii of Action - Azimuthal Equidistant
Great Circles - Gnomonic

Plotting Charts (General)

164. Plotting charts must be conformal. They should also be easy to use, which implies that the scale
for distance measurement should be uncomplicated and that the measurement of headings and
bearings should be made from a straight-line datum. The simplest form of navigation is constant
heading and for this the direction datum should be parallel over the whole chart.

Revised Feb 16 Page 48 of 52

 AP3456 – 9-3 - Map Projections

165. If the direction datum is True North, then the Mercator projection fulfils this requirement, but it
cannot be used in high latitudes and is not the best projection in medium latitudes since the rhumb line
is excessively longer than the great circle. The plotting of chords of the great circle from a gnomonic
satisfies the distance difficulty, but it also defeats the object by introducing many changes of direction.

166. The best all-round solution in middle latitudes is the Lambert conformal projection, on which scale
is almost constant. A grid can be overprinted, and the corrections to magnetic or other datum direction
to indicate grid north are no more difficult to apply than those to obtain True North. In polar regions,
the Polar Stereographic is the best chart.

167. Summary. The usefulness of the projections for plotting purposes is shown below:

12º S to 12º N - Mercator

12º to 74º - Lambert Conformal
74º to 90º - Polar Stereographic or Transverse Mercator

Plotting Charts (Special)

168. Special plotting charts are available when the area of operation is specified by a great circle and a
narrow band around it.

169. If the area of operation extends from polar to equatorial regions the best single projection is the
transverse Mercator.

170. If the area is along an inter-cardinal great circle then the oblique Mercator projection provides the
best solution. Such strip maps are produced for important high-density routes.

171. Summary. The best charts for special plotting uses may be summarized as:

Large ch lat, small ch long - Transverse Mercator

Inter-cardinal Great Circle - Oblique Mercator

Topographical Charts

172. Topographical charts for navigation must be conformal and have the same properties as other
plotting charts. Thus, the Mercator and Lambert projections are usually chosen.

173. However, an additional problem is introduced when large-scale topographical charts of world-wide
coverage are considered. Such charts, which are intended primarily for joint air/ground operations,
must have very small-scale errors and adjoining sheets must fit north/south and east/west as exactly
as possible. These requirements are best met by a sequence of transverse Mercator projections
based on close meridians.

174. Summary. The appropriate projections for topographical use are summarized as follows:

General - Lambert Conformal

- Mercator (Low Latitudes)
World-wide (Large Scale) - Transverse Mercator

Revised Feb 16 Page 49 of 52

 AP3456 – 9-3 - Map Projections

The Navigation Projections

175. The projections of importance in navigation are summarized in Figs 56 to 62.

9-3 Fig 56 Lambert Conformal Projection

2400 CONFORMAL
nm

0°
18

18
0°
0°

0°
10
Great

°S
20
Circle

°
30
°
40
°
Scale

50
°
Expands

60
°
70
°
80
°S
0° 0°
80
°N
70
°

Scale
60

20°W
°

Factor = 1
50
°
40
°
30
°
20
°
10
°N

Standard
0°

0°
Parallels
0°

18
18

0°
9-3 Fig 57 Mercator Projection

40° 20°W 0° 20°E 40° 60° 80° 100° 120° 140°

75° 75°

GREENLAND

ICELAND
D
LA N
EN
AY

ED

F IN
RW

SW
NO

60° 60°

1200nm EIRE
UNITED
KINGDOM
POLAND BELARUS
Y
N
A
M
ER

KAZAKHSTAN
G

UKRAINE

FRANCE MONGOLIA
45° 45°
IT
L

UZBEKISTAN
AL
Y

SPAIN TURK- JAPAN

TURKEY MENISTAN
AZORES Is
N
SYRIA TA
IS
CO

IRAQ IRAN AN
OC

G N
AF TA
OR

30° K IS 30°
M

PA
CANARY Is
RA

ALGERIA LIBYA
HA

EGYPT
SA

SAUDIA
NI
TA
W

ARABIA BURMA
RI

INDIA
AU

MALI
CAPE VERDE Is
M

NIGER THAI-
15° LAND 15°
N NIGERIA CHAD SUDAN
N
ETHIOPIA SRI LANKA
MALAYSIA
IA
AL
ON

SU

KENYA
O

SO

0° 0°
ER

M
AT
M

R
CA

PAPAUA
A

ZAIRE
INDONESIA NEW
TANZANIA
GUINEA

BRAZIL ANGOLA
E
U
Q
BI

15° ZAMBIA 15°

M
ZA

S S
O
M

NAMIBIA AUSTRALIA

40° 20°W 0° 20°E 40° 60° 80° 100° 120° 140°

Revised Feb 16 Page 50 of 52

 AP3456 – 9-3 - Map Projections

9-3 Fig 58 Polar Sterographic Projection

CONFORMAL
10° 10°

20° 20°

30° 30°

Great 40° 40°

Circles 50° 50° Scale
60° 60°
Expansion

2400nm

9-3 Fig 59 Transverse Mercator Projection

60N

80N

NP
20W 160E
80N

60N

30N

10W 10E 30E 50E 70E 90E 110E 130E 150E

Equator

30S

60S

80S

SP
20W 160E
80S

60S

30S

30W 50W 70W 90W 110W 130W 150W 170W 170E

Equator

30N

Revised Feb 16 Page 51 of 52

 AP3456 – 9-3 - Map Projections

9-3 Fig 60 Oblique Mercator Projection

CONFORMAL
N55

Great Circles

Scale Deviation
less than 1%

2400nm

9-3 Fig 61 Gnomonic Projection

180

70
170 30
60

50
160 40
90W 90E 40

30

150 20 50

10

0
140 130 120 110 100 90 80 70 60
0

9-3 Fig 62 Azimuthal Equidistant Projection

180

90W 90E

Revised Feb 16 Page 52 of 52

 AP3456 – 9-4 - The Triangle of Velocities – Application to Navigation

CHAPTER 4 - THE TRIANGLE OF VELOCITIES - APPLICATION TO NAVIGATION

Speed and Velocity

1. It is important to realize the difference between the meanings of the words 'speed' and 'velocity'. Speed
describes only the rate at which an object is moving. The statement that an aircraft has a speed of 400 kt
gives no indication of the direction in which the aircraft is travelling, and this direction may be changed
without any alteration of speed. Speed is thus a scalar quantity; it has magnitude but no direction.

2. Velocity describes speed in a specified direction, it is said to be a vector quantity for it has both
magnitude and direction. Thus, an aircraft flying at 400 kt on a heading of 045° (T) has a different
velocity from that of an aircraft flying at 400 kt on 090° (T), although their speeds are identical.

Vectors

3. Since a velocity is a speed in a given direction, it may be represented graphically by a straight line
whose length is proportional to speed, and whose direction is measured from an arbitrary datum line.
Such a straight line is called a vector.

4. The scale used in drawing vectors may be any that is convenient. The datum line for
measurement of direction is, by convention, True North, and usually points to the top of the sheet. To
indicate the direction and scale of the vector, it is usual to insert the True North symbol at some point in
the diagram, and to indicate scale by a graduated scale line. Fig 1 illustrates the vector for an aircraft
flying at 400 kt on a heading of 045° (T); the arrowhead indicates the sense of the vector, showing that
the direction is 045° and not 225°.

9-4 Fig 1 A Vector

TN
B

A
0 100 200 300 400

nm

5. The discussion, so far, has concerned an aircraft’s velocity relative to the air through which it
moves. However, there is another factor which plays an important part in air navigation - the
movement of the air itself.

6. Wind Velocity. Wind is air in natural motion, approximately horizontal. The direction and speed of
that motion defines wind velocity (w/v), and it too can be represented by a vector. It is expressed as a five
or six figure group; the first three figures refer to wind direction (the true direction from which it blows); the
last two or three figures indicate wind speed in knots. The figures representing direction are separated
from those of speed by an oblique stroke. Thus, a wind velocity of speed 45 knots blowing from the east
would be written as 090/45, and one of 145 knots from the same direction as 090/145.

Revised Jul 10 Page 1 of 9

 AP3456 – 9-4 - The Triangle of Velocities – Application to Navigation

Vector Addition

7. Fig 2 illustrates the basic navigation problem; the aircraft is moving at V1 kt through an air mass
which itself is moving at V2 kt (w/v). It is necessary to find the resultant of these two component
velocities to determine the aircraft’s path over the ground.

9-4 Fig 2 Factors Affecting the Path of an Aircraft

Movement
Through Air

V 2 kt

V 1 kt

Movement of
Air

8. If the component velocities act in the same direction (i.e., the aircraft flies directly upwind or
downwind), the resultant velocity is the algebraic sum of the aircraft speed and wind speed, along the
aircraft heading. However, when the component velocities do not act in the same line, the resultant
velocity is an intermediate speed in an intermediate direction. In such cases, it is possible to find the
resultant by constructing a vector diagram, or triangle of velocities.

Triangle of Velocities

9. If the vectors (see Fig 3) of the aircraft’s velocity (AB or EF) and wind velocity (BC or DE) are drawn
(using the same scale), such that their sense arrows follow each other, then the resultant velocity vector is
the third side. The sense of this vector is such that its arrow opposes the arrows of the component
velocities around the triangle. Thus, in Fig 3, the vector of the resultant velocity is AC or DF.

9-4 Fig 3 Triangle of Velocities

TN

B F

D
A E
0 100 200 300 400

nm

Revised Jul 10 Page 2 of 9

 AP3456 – 9-4 - The Triangle of Velocities – Application to Navigation

10. It can be seen that AC and DF are identical in magnitude and direction; it does not matter in which
order the initial component vectors are drawn as long as their sense arrows follow each other.

NAVIGATION COMPONENTS OF THE TRIANGLE OF VELOCITIES

General

11. Using the triangle of velocities to solve the basic navigation problem, the component vectors
represent the aircraft’s velocity (true heading and true airspeed) and wind velocity; the resultant vector
represents the aircraft’s true track and groundspeed (see Fig 4a).

12. In addition to these vectors, the other important quantity in navigation is the angle between the
aircraft’s velocity vector and the resultant; this is the drift angle (see Fig 4b).

9-4 Fig 4 Navigation Vectors

a Component Parts of the Triangle of Velocities b Arrow Convention

TN

AB = True Heading and

BC = Wind TN
True Airspeed (080°T 400 kt)
Velocity
B
(330/30) B
Drift Angle
C
C
A
AC = Resultant Track and A
Groundspeed = 084°T 410 kt

0 100 200 300 400 500 0 100 200 300 400 500

nm nm

13. Arrow Convention. The vectors are not normally labelled as in Fig 4a, but are identified merely
by the number of arrows on the vector. The convention, illustrated in Fig 4b, is:

a. The true heading and true airspeed vector carries one arrow, pointing in the direction of heading.

b. The track and groundspeed vector carries two arrows, pointing in the direction of track.

c. The wind velocity vector carries three arrows pointing in the direction in which the wind is
blowing.

14. In para 11, several new terms were introduced, eg true airspeed, track, and groundspeed. These
will now be examined in more detail.

Airspeed

15. The speed of an aircraft measured relative to the air mass through which it is moving is termed
true airspeed (TAS). It is emphasised that, because of wind velocity, this speed will differ from that
measured by an observer on the Earth. Airspeed is independent of wind and is the same regardless of
whether the aircraft is flying upwind or downwind.

16. An aircraft’s airspeed is usually measured by an airspeed indicator (ASI). The ASI reading is
termed indicated airspeed (IAS), but this does not equal true airspeed. The difference between these

Revised Jul 10 Page 3 of 9

 AP3456 – 9-4 - The Triangle of Velocities – Application to Navigation

quantities is caused by a number of inaccuracies which, broadly speaking, stem from two sources, the
ASI itself and the atmosphere.

17. If IAS is corrected for the inaccuracies of the ASI (instrument and pressure errors), the result is
called calibrated airspeed (CAS). At higher speeds (normally above about 300 kt), a correction to CAS
is necessary to take into account the compressibility of air; this correction varies with altitude and
speed. The speed after this correction is termed equivalent airspeed (EAS). ASIs are calibrated in
relation to the International Standard Atmosphere and at mean sea level. At all other altitudes, EAS
and CAS are less than TAS because the air is less dense than at sea level. CAS or EAS may be
corrected to TAS by using graphs, tables, digital computers or analogue computers (such as the Dead
Reckoning Computer Mk 4A).

Mach Number

18. An alternative method of quoting TAS is to express it as a fraction of the local speed of sound; this
fraction is known as the Mach Number (M) and is given by:

V
M=
C

Where V = True Airspeed

C = Speed of Sound (in the same air conditions)

Mach Numbers are expressed as decimals e.g.:

V = 440 kt and C = 580 kt, then M = 0.76; or

V = 725 kt and C = 580 kt, then M = 1.25.

19. There are aerodynamic problems which occur at a certain fraction (depending on the aircraft type)
of the speed of sound. Although this fraction is fixed, it may be represented by widely varying values of
CAS (depending on altitude) and varying values of TAS (depending on temperature). It is more
convenient, therefore, in high-speed flight to display the aircraft’s speed as a Mach Number rather than
as IAS or TAS. A Machmeter computes and displays this quantity.

20. The speed of sound varies as the square root of the absolute temperature. Thus, the calculation
of TAS from Mach Number is much simpler than, say, from CAS, for the only variable is temperature.

Groundspeed

21. Since air navigation is concerned with the movement of an aircraft over the Earth, it is necessary
to know the speed at which the aircraft is moving relative to the Earth; this is termed groundspeed,
and, like airspeed, it is measured in knots.

22. Groundspeed is usually determined by one of the following methods:

a. Calculating the effect of wind velocity on the aircraft, ie by solving the triangle of velocities.

b. Measuring the time taken to travel a known distance between two positions on the ground.

c. The use of Doppler equipment.

d. The use of inertial navigation systems.

Revised Jul 10 Page 4 of 9

 AP3456 – 9-4 - The Triangle of Velocities – Application to Navigation

Track

23. The direction of the path of an aircraft over the ground is called its track. If an aircraft flies directly
upwind or downwind, or in still air, its path over the ground lies in the same direction as its heading. In
all other cases, wind will cause the aircraft to move over the ground in a direction other than that which
is in line with its fore and aft axis, and to an observer on the ground it will appear to move crab-wise
rather than straight ahead. In such cases the aircraft’s heading and track are not the same.

24. In Fig 5, an aircraft at A is flying on a heading of 290° (T). As it maintains this heading, a northerly
wind carries the aircraft from the path it would have followed in the absence of the wind ie AC.
Sometime later the aircraft passes over B; AB then represents the track and the aircraft is said to have
'tracked' from A to B.

9-4 Fig 5 Heading and Track

Wind
C

Heading

Track A

25. The line joining two points between which it is required to fly is known as the required track.

26. In flying from one point to another, the path which the aircraft actually follows over the ground is called
its 'track made good'. When track made good coincides with required track, the aircraft is said to be 'on
track'; when track made good and required track are not the same the aircraft is said to be 'off track'.

27. Fig 6 illustrates the difference between required track and track made good. An aircraft attempting
to go from A to B finds itself some time later at C. AB is therefore the required track and AC the track
made good.

9-4 Fig 6 Required Track and Track Made Good

B
Required
Track

C
Track
Made Good
A
Heading

28. Any two points on the Earth’s surface may be joined by a rhumb line and by a great circle. It follows,
therefore, that the required track may be either a rhumb line track, which follows the rhumb line between
two points, or a great circle track, which follows the great circle between the points. By definition, the

Revised Jul 10 Page 5 of 9

 AP3456 – 9-4 - The Triangle of Velocities – Application to Navigation

rhumb line track maintains a constant direction relative to true North and is therefore, in many cases, the
easier to make good.

29. Track is measured in degrees and is expressed (like heading) as a three-figure group eg 045°.
Track may be measured relative to true North, magnetic North or grid North and is annotated (T), (M)
or (G) accordingly.

Drift

30. The angle between the heading and track of an aircraft is called drift. Drift is due to the effect of
the wind and is the lateral movement imparted to an aircraft by the wind. An aircraft flying in conditions
of no wind, or directly upwind or downwind, experiences no drift. In such cases, track and heading
coincide. Under all other conditions, track and heading differ by a certain amount, referred to as the
drift.

31. Drift may be measured manually by observing the direction of the apparent movement of objects
on the ground below the aircraft (Track) and comparing this direction with the fore and aft axis of the
aircraft (Heading) to obtain the angular difference (Drift). Many aircraft are fitted with automatic
systems that calculate drift continuously by electronic means eg Doppler or inertial systems.

32. Drift is expressed in degrees to port (P) or starboard (S) of the aircraft’s heading. An aircraft
experiencing port drift is said to drift to port, and its track lies to port of its heading. Thus, knowing the
heading of the aircraft, the track can be determined by proper application of drift to heading. If drift is to
port, track angle is less than heading; if to starboard, track angle is greater than heading. Automatic
systems can continuously apply drift to heading to give a direct indication of track.

33. The direct measurement of track, i.e. from knowledge of actual ground position, enables drift to be
determined, provided the heading is known. Thus, an aircraft whose track is measured from a map as
070° (T) while flying on a heading of 060° (T) is drifting 10° to starboard. This relationship is shown in Fig 7.

9-4 Fig 7 Drift

Wind

Track
070°
B
Heading
060°
Drift 10°S

APPLICATION OF THE TRIANGLE OF VELOCITIES IN NAVIGATION

General

34. Having discussed the triangle of velocities and its components, it is now possible to review its
application in the solution of navigation problems.

Revised Jul 10 Page 6 of 9

 AP3456 – 9-4 - The Triangle of Velocities – Application to Navigation

35. The triangle of velocities may be considered to have six parts; each of its three sides representing a
speed and a direction. A knowledge of any four of these parts enables the remaining two parts to be
found. In navigation, the types of problem solved by this method are:

a. Finding the length and direction of one side eg finding track and groundspeed, wind velocity
or, occasionally, heading and airspeed.

b. Finding the length of one side and the direction of another, eg true heading and groundspeed.

In practice, the triangle of velocities can be continuously resolved by automatic navigation systems.
However, graphical methods may still be used during planning and in flight, using the transparent
plotting disc of the DR Computer Mk 4A or Mk 5A. The following examples, employing basic pencil-on-
paper vector plotting, are therefore intended to provide a thorough understanding of the underlying
principles, rather than to illustrate a practical method of solving navigation problems.

Rules for Plotting

36. In plotting the vector triangle, there are a number of points to note. The same datum direction, and a
uniform unit of measurement, must be used for all vectors, otherwise the diagram will be distorted.
Furthermore, one must ensure that true airspeed is measured only along true heading and that similar
relationships for track and groundspeed, and wind direction and wind speed are maintained.

Finding the Length and Direction of One Side

37. To Find Track and Groundspeed.

Example: An aircraft flying at TAS 450 kt, on a heading of 090° (T), experiences a w/v of 025°/50 kt.
What is its track and groundspeed?

Solution (Fig 8):

9-4 Fig 8 Calculating Track and Groundspeed

TN

A (090°/450kt) B
(025/50)
C

0 100 200 300 400 500

nm

a. Draw AB, the heading and airspeed vector.

b. From B, lay off the wind vector BC.

c. Join AC and measure its direction and length. Track and groundspeed are found to be
096° (T) and 432 kt respectively.

Revised Jul 10 Page 7 of 9

 AP3456 – 9-4 - The Triangle of Velocities – Application to Navigation

38. To Find Wind Velocity.

Example: The groundspeed of an aircraft is 500 kt on a track of 260° (T); its true airspeed is 420 kt on
a heading of 245° (T). What is the wind velocity?

Solution (Fig 9):

9-4 Fig 9 Finding Wind Velocity

TN

A
(260°/500kt)

(245°/420kt)

B
0 100 200 300 400 500

nm

a. Plot AB, the heading and true airspeed vector.

b. From A, lay off AC, the track and groundspeed vector.

c. Join BC and measure its direction and length. Wind velocity found is 129°/145 kt.

39. To Find True Heading and True Airspeed.

Example: In order to maintain a schedule, it is necessary to fly a track of 270° (T) at a groundspeed of
550 kt. The wind velocity is 350°/60 kt. What true airspeed and what true heading must be flown to
achieve these conditions?

Solution (Fig 10):

9-4 Fig 10 Finding True Heading and Airspeed

TN

C (270°/550kt)
A
(350/60kt)
B

0 100 200 300 400 500

nm

a. Plot AB, the wind vector.

b. From A, lay off AC, the track and groundspeed vector.

c. Join BC to obtain the heading and airspeed vector. Heading and airspeed are 276° (T) and
563 kt respectively.

Revised Jul 10 Page 8 of 9

 AP3456 – 9-4 - The Triangle of Velocities – Application to Navigation

Finding the Length of One Side and the Direction of Another

40. To Find Heading and Groundspeed. The determination of the heading to make a given track,
and the resultant groundspeed, is probably the most common navigation problem:

Example: It is necessary to make good a track of 060° (T) whilst flying at a TAS of 450 kt. Wind
velocity is 140°/40 kt. What heading must be flown and what groundspeed will be achieved?

Solution (Fig 11):

9-4 Fig 11 Finding Heading and Groundspeed

Draw arc BC
TN (Radius 450 nm)
X
(060°)
C

(140/40kt)
A
0 100 200 300 400 500

nm

a. Draw line AX of indefinite length in a direction 060° (T) to represent required track.

b. From A, lay off AB, the wind vector.

c. With centre B, and radius true airspeed, describe an arc to cut AX at C. The direction of BC,
065° (T), is the heading required to make good a track of 060° (T); AC represents groundspeed,
which is measured as 441 kt.

Revised Jul 10 Page 9 of 9

 AP3456 – 9-5 - Determination and Application of Wind Velocity

CHAPTER 5 - DETERMINATION AND APPLICATION OF WIND VELOCITY

DETERMINATION

Introduction

1. Wind velocity plays a major part in navigation calculations. If wind velocity was constant, one
measurement would suffice for all calculations and workloads would be considerably reduced.
However, wind velocity is seldom constant; it varies in direction and speed with height, time, and place.
Consequently, a knowledge of the expected wind velocities is required in order to plan a flight, a
knowledge of the wind effect actually being experienced in flight is necessary to calculate position and
a knowledge of present wind velocity is needed to calculate alterations of heading. Because of its
continual variation, it is normally necessary to measure wind velocity frequently if accurate navigation is
to be accomplished.

Mean and Local Wind Velocities

2. Measured wind velocities may be divided into mean and local winds, the division depending upon
the interval over which the wind is determined. A mean wind velocity is one which has been found over
a fairly long-time period and usually over a large area; it represents the mean effect of all the different
wind velocities experienced by the aircraft during that time. However, should the wind velocity have
changed during the period of measurement, the mean wind velocity may be quite different from the
actual wind velocity affecting the aircraft at the end of the period. Consequently, although a mean wind
velocity is ideal for calculating position, it is not usually suitable for calculating alterations of heading,
because it may not represent the wind velocity that will affect the aircraft to its next turning point or
destination.

3. A wind velocity found instantaneously, or over a comparatively short period of time, is known as a
local wind velocity. It represents the wind velocity affecting the aircraft at that time and as such is
usually the best available wind velocity for use in calculating alterations of heading.

4. In practice, it is usually necessary to compromise between mean wind velocities found over long
periods of time and the more quickly calculated local wind velocity. Whereas the former are of limited
value for future application, the latter tend to be less accurate because the time interval in which they
are measured is small. The actual period of time that will provide a reasonable value of wind velocity is
a matter of judgement. For example, if the wind velocity was required in order to calculate a change of
heading, it would be inappropriate to use a time period during which there had been a significant
change in height or during which a weather front had been crossed. In normal circumstances, wind
velocities found over time periods between 18 minutes and 40 minutes are used.

5. Modern navigation systems provide an instantaneous readout of local W/V which can be used to
compare against the forecast W/V or to calculate required heading changes if necessary. Although
manual plotting techniques are rarely practised nowadays, where they are used, several methods of
determining W/V can be employed, and the following paragraphs may provide a useful background to
the basic understanding of navigation. It should be appreciated that the results obtained by each
method described in the following paragraphs will be different.

Revised Sep 12 Page 1 of 7

 AP3456 – 9-5 - Determination and Application of Wind Velocity

Track and Groundspeed Method

6. The track and groundspeed method is that solution of the vector triangle which determines the
length and direction of one side of the triangle (the wind vector), given the length and direction of the
other two sides (the heading and track vectors). The wind velocity so found may be a mean wind
velocity, or a local wind velocity, depending upon the time interval chosen.

7. The principle of the method is illustrated in Fig 1. An aircraft leaves point A at 1000 hours, on a
heading of 125º T and with a TAS of 420 kt. At 1024 hours, the aircraft’s ground position is found to be
at point B, which bears 115º T from A, at a distance of 180 nm. The aircraft’s ground speed can thus
be calculated as 450 kt and the drift as 10º P. Heading, TAS, drift and groundspeed can be set on to a
DR computer and wind velocity found as 231º/82 kt.

9-5 Fig 1 Track and Groundspeed Wind Velocity

True
North A 1000 Drift 10° P

B 1024
115° T
Wind
Vector
(for 24 mins) 125° T

0 60 120 180 240 300 360

nm

8. When using this method, no alterations of heading or airspeed can be tolerated between the fixes
used in determining the track and groundspeed. An alteration of heading between the two fixes will
result in the measurement of an erroneous track and groundspeed and consequently an incorrect wind
velocity. Similarly, an alteration of airspeed will cause errors because the resultant changes in drift and
groundspeed will be attributed to the wind effect.

9. The track and groundspeed method of finding wind velocity eliminates the plotting and
measurement of wind vectors, which is often a major source of error, and so its accuracy depends
primarily on the accuracy of, and measurement between, the fixes used to determine the track and
groundspeed. Other pertinent factors are the accuracy to which true heading is known, the accuracy of
timing and computation, and the pilot’s ability to maintain a constant heading and airspeed.

10. Automated Wind Velocities. None of the limitations mentioned in paras 8 and 9 apply to wind
velocities found from the continuous outputs of drift and groundspeed provided by automated
navigation equipments. These quantities may be applied to true heading and true airspeed to find the
local wind velocity. The advantages of this method are that the wind velocity currently affecting the
aircraft can be quickly, easily and continuously determined, consequently there is little restriction on
tactical freedom.

Revised Sep 12 Page 2 of 7

 AP3456 – 9-5 - Determination and Application of Wind Velocity

Track Plot Wind Method

11. When keeping a track plot, winds are normally found by the track and groundspeed method. If,
however, a fix is found from which neither groundspeed nor track can be calculated, the wind velocity
may be determined by back plotting vectors in the following manner. In Fig 2, a fix has been found
shortly after a change of heading. A DR position, using the old wind velocity is plotted for the time of
the fix. The reciprocal of the old wind velocity is laid off from this DR position, making the length of the
vector proportional to the time that has elapsed since the start of the track plot, to produce an air
position. The new wind velocity for the same period of time is given by joining this air position to the
fix. Alternatively, by joining the fix to the DR position for the same time, a correction vector for the old
wind velocity may be obtained.

9-5 Fig 2 Track Plot Wind Vectoring

Air Position
0942
New
W/V Old
0910 W/V

0942
DR Position
0927

Air Plot Wind Method

12. The air plot method does not rely on the measurement of track and groundspeed, instead the wind
vector, ie the displacement between a fix and its corresponding air position, is measured directly (Fig 3).
The wind vector measured is of course proportional to the period of time that the air plot has been running
and must be converted mathematically to nautical miles per hour (ie a wind velocity in knots).

Revised Sep 12 Page 3 of 7

 AP3456 – 9-5 - Determination and Application of Wind Velocity

9-5 Fig 3 Air Plot Wind Velocity

1000 Depart Base

Measure this 20 min Vector

and expand it to one hour

Fix 1020

Air Position 1020

13. Whereas the track and groundspeed method of finding wind velocity cannot be used if there is any
alteration of heading or airspeed between the fixes, this restriction does not apply to the air plot
method. Wind velocities can be measured, regardless of heading and airspeed flown, provided that an
accurate log of air positions is maintained for each change of heading or airspeed. The plot must be
restarted whenever a fix is obtained, and the navigation equipment updated.

14. As an example, in Fig 4, an aircraft flying at a true airspeed of 420 kt leaves point A at 1000 hours
and flies for 20 minutes on each of three headings, 290º T, 250º T, and 010º T. At 1100 hours the
aircraft’s position is fixed at point B, and from the log of heading and airspeed, an air position for the
same time can be established at point C. The vector CB is the wind effect for an hour, and it
represents the average of the wind velocities which have affected the aircraft over the hour; it can be
measured as 269º/105 kt.

9-5 Fig 4 Air Plot Wind Velocity Incorporating Changes of Heading

North
(True)
1100 1100
C B

1020

A
1040
1000

0 100 200 nm

15. The accuracy of the air position, which depends on the accuracy of the start fix and the knowledge
of headings and airspeed flown, together with the accuracy of the final fix, dictates the accuracy to
which the wind velocity can be determined.

16. An air plot wind is the mean wind velocity over the period since the air plot was started and thus its
validity for future calculations must be considered carefully. It is usually necessary for this reason to limit
the period over which air plot winds are found in order to obtain an approximation to the local wind.

Revised Sep 12 Page 4 of 7

 AP3456 – 9-5 - Determination and Application of Wind Velocity

17. Conversely, if air plots winds are found over very short intervals, the resultant vectors are often so
short that accurate measurement is difficult. Errors in measuring vectors, representing short periods of
wind effect, cause large errors in the wind speed found, e.g. an error of 1 nm in a vector representing a
6-minute period will result in a 10 knot inaccuracy. Usually the most satisfactory period for wind finding
is between 18 minutes and 40 minutes.

Visual Wind Assessment

18. When flying at low level, in sight of the surface, it may be possible to make an assessment of the
wind direction, and with experience also of the wind speed, by observing its effect on smoke plumes
from factories, power stations and other miscellaneous fires. It should be remembered that close to
the surface there may be local wind channelling and eddies, and the apparent wind direction may not
be a true representation of the mean wind over a broader area or at the aircraft’s height. Despite these
shortcomings, such clues can be helpful where there is little better information, or where it is required
to confirm a forecast wind velocity. Over open water, the wind causes a pattern of parallel lines or
streaks formed by foam or spray. These streaks, called wind lanes, are aligned with the wind direction
and are usually clearly visible from the air.

APPLICATION

Introduction

19. Generally speaking, wind velocities found by the methods described in the previous paragraphs
are used directly in the calculation of future headings, and DR groundspeed. It is, however, sometimes
necessary to apply corrections to the wind found before it is used in further navigation calculations.
The occasions requiring such corrections are dealt with in the following paragraphs.

Change of Meteorological Zones in Flight

20. Where the meteorological forecast for a particular flight is divided into a number of zones, it will be
necessary to take into account the change in wind to be expected on crossing the boundary between
zones. This is done by comparing the wind velocity found with that forecast, for the zone in which the
aircraft has been flying. The arithmetical difference in both direction and speed is then applied to the
wind forecast for the next zone.

Example. A met forecast for zones 1º E to 5º E and from 5º E to 10º E gives wind velocities of
250º/20 kt and 270º/30 kt respectively. Approaching 5º E from the west, the wind is found as
235º/15 kt. The difference between the met forecast and the wind found in the first zone is
therefore –15º and –5 kt. This correction factor is applied to the forecast wind for the second
zone, giving a wind to be used as 255º/25 kt.

21. This procedure is applicable to navigation in areas where few fixes are available, whereas in
rapid-fixing areas local wind velocities found regularly over relatively short periods would be used
without corrections.

Change of Height in Flight

22. The method of selecting a wind velocity for use after the aircraft has changed height is similar to
that outlined above. A correction factor, being the difference between the forecast and found winds at
the height flown, is applied to the forecast wind velocity for the new height to be flown.

23. In the event of the aircraft making a long climb, it may be necessary to alter heading while
ascending, and therefore to select a wind velocity for that part of the climb from the DR position at the
time of altering heading to the limit of the ascent. Wind velocities found whilst climbing are mean wind

Revised Sep 12 Page 5 of 7

 AP3456 – 9-5 - Determination and Application of Wind Velocity

velocities (apart from those found by automated equipments) and the height at which they are
considered to be operative is ascertained by the application of simple rules which depend upon the rate
of climb of the aircraft.

24. If the rate of climb is constant throughout the period in which the wind velocity is found, the wind
velocity is said to apply to the mean height for the period. If the rate of climb is decreasing during the
period in which the wind velocity is found, the wind applies at two-thirds of the height band ascended
during the period.

Example. A wind velocity of 240º/30 kt is found whilst an aircraft is climbing from 7,000 ft to
16,000 ft, and during that time the rate of climb decreases. Therefore 240º/30 kt is the wind
velocity applicable to a height at two-thirds of the ascent from 7,000 ft to 16,000 ft, ie 13,000 ft.

25. Two-thirds is an arbitrary fraction designed to take some account of the fact that the aircraft, with
a decreasing rate of climb, spends more time in the higher layers of air and is therefore affected to a
greater degree by wind velocities at the higher levels.

26. Having established, in the above example, that the wind velocity at 13,000 ft is 240º/30 kt, it is
necessary to select a wind velocity for the remainder of the climb, say to 22,000 ft. Since the rate of
climb continues to decrease with height, the two-thirds rule is again applied, and a wind velocity is
therefore required for 20,000 ft, ie two-thirds of the ascent from 16,000 ft to 22,000 ft. The procedure
for selecting this wind is as described in paras 24 and 28.

Wind Velocity for Flight Planning a Climb or Descent

27. The wind velocity to be used when flight planning a climb or descent is the mean of the wind effects
which will be experienced by the aircraft as it ascends or descends through the various layers of air. The
selection of this wind velocity, in practice, depends upon the change of wind speed and direction with
height, and upon the rate of climb or descent of the aircraft. Where the wind velocity changes regularly
with height and the rate of climb or descent is constant, the wind velocity at the mid-level would be used;
where the rate of climb reduces with altitude the level chosen would need to reflect the longer time spent
at the higher altitudes and the two-thirds rule will normally suffice, although this may need to be amended
for certain aircraft types and payload. Where there is an intermediate fix (or fixes), in the climb or
descent, an appropriate wind velocity for each section can be used.

28. Example. Consider an aircraft which is to climb from 2,000 ft to 27,000 ft at a constant rate of
climb. The forecast wind velocities are as follows:

2,000 ft 220º/15 kt
5,000 ft 230º/25 kt
10,000 ft 240º/30 kt
15,000 ft 260º/40 kt
20,000 ft 290º/50 kt
30,000 ft 350º/70 kt

29. These wind velocities vary regularly with height, and since the rate of climb is constant, the wind
for the mean height of the climb would be used, ie that effective at 12,500 ft - 250º/35 kt.

30. If the aircraft was to climb from 2,000 ft to 27,000 ft at a reducing rate of climb, the two-thirds rule would
be applied to determine the appropriate height, ie 18,500 ft in this case, giving a wind velocity of 280º/47 kt to
be used. In practice, the 20,000 ft wind velocity would probably suffice to avoid interpolation.

31. A further adjustment may be necessary in the situation where the wind velocity does not vary
uniformly with height, but exhibits a marked change at some level, perhaps due to a jet stream. In any

Revised Sep 12 Page 6 of 7

 AP3456 – 9-5 - Determination and Application of Wind Velocity

event the wind velocity that is used will inevitably be an approximation, and even the simple case of a
constant rate of climb or descent may be disrupted by Air Traffic Control restrictions.

Revised Sep 12 Page 7 of 7

 AP3456 – 9-6 - Establishment and Use of Position Lines

CHAPTER 6 - ESTABLISHMENT AND USE OF POSITION LINES

Terminology

1. A position determined without reference to any former position is called a fix. This is a generic
term and is often qualified to indicate the fixing method, e.g. GPS fix, radar fix, visual fix etc.

2. Instantaneous fixes can be obtained from electronic navigation systems or the visual identification
of the aircraft position vertically beneath the aircraft. Electronic rapid fixing facilities are not infallible,
and position lines can be used to enhance confidence in them. While position lines are not generally
plotted on charts nowadays, some operators may still use such traditional navigation techniques.

3. It is possible to fly over an identifiable feature, e.g. a motorway, without knowing the precise point
of crossing; all that can be said is that at that particular time the aircraft was somewhere on the line of
the motorway. This is known as a position line (P/L) and two or more such lines can provide a fix.

POSITION LINE TYPES

General

4. Position lines can be straight or curved, depending on the information they convey. Bearings are
straight position lines representing the angular relationship between the aircraft and a known position, or
the orientation of a line feature. Circular position lines represent the aircraft’s range from a position, the
radius of the curve being equal to the range. Both forms of position line and their sub-classifications are
discussed below.

Bearings

5. Relative Bearings. A bearing may be taken relative to the fore and aft axis of the aircraft,
normally by using a radio compass tuned to a radio beacon or by visual or radar observation of a
feature. To obtain the true bearing of the beacon or feature, the true heading of the aircraft must be
added to the relative bearing (either directly or by offsetting the azimuth scale of the measuring
instrument). The reciprocal of this true bearing plotted from the beacon or feature gives the position
line for the time of observation. It is essential that the true heading applied to the relative bearing is
obtained at the precise time of the observation.

Example. At 1015 hours, while on a heading of 310° T, a prominent headland is observed on a

bearing of 080° relative (see Fig 1).

Revised Sep 12 Page 1 of 7

 AP3456 – 9-6 - Establishment and Use of Position Lines

9-6 Fig 1 A Relative Bearing

Ai
rc Relative
ra True Bearing
ft Bearing
31 He 030° (T)
0° adi 080° (R)
(T ng
)

Position Line

1015

∴True bearing of headland from aircraft = 080° + 310° = 030° T

Plot reciprocal: 030° T + 180° = 210° T.

At 1015 hours, the aircraft was therefore at some point along that position line.

6. Transit Bearings. A line drawn on a chart through two features observed to be in line, i.e. in
transit, must pass through the aircraft’s position at the time of sighting. This line, a true bearing, is
therefore a position line.

Example. A lighthouse and a promontory of land are sighted in transit at 1410 hours (see Fig 2a).
The position line is drawn as in Fig 2b, though the dotted portion need not be plotted. Greater
accuracy is obtained when the distance between the objects in transit is large in relation to the
distance between the aircraft and the nearer object.

9-6 Fig 2 A Transit Bearing

2a

2b

Fl (3) 20 sec

1410

7. Line Features. Stretches of coastline, road, railway or river, though lacking prominent features
suitable for pinpoints, may be used as position lines provided that they are marked on the charts in use.

Revised Sep 12 Page 2 of 7

 AP3456 – 9-6 - Establishment and Use of Position Lines

Example. An aircraft crosses a straight stretch of railway at 1115 hours. The railway thus
becomes the position line as shown in Fig 3.

9-6 Fig 3 Use of Line Features

e
Lin
ion
si t
1115

Po
DR T
rack

8. Position Lines from Ground D/F Stations. A position line may be obtained by a direction-
finding ground station taking a bearing on an aircraft’s radio transmission. The bearing is passed to
the aircraft by radio, usually in the form of either the true bearing of the aircraft from the station, or as
the magnetic track that the aircraft must make good to reach the station. The form is decided by the
initial call: "request true bearing" or "request QDM" (magnetic heading to facility (zero wind)). In order
to use the latter information, the magnetic variation, measured at the station, must be applied, so
obtaining the true track to the station; the reciprocal is then plotted. The other information which can
be provided by the ground D/F station is the magnetic heading to fly to reach that station; this is termed
a 'steer'. Using a local wind velocity, the ground operator assesses the drift and applies this to the
QDM measured, to calculate the steer for the aircraft. Ground D/F facilities are provided on VHF and
UHF within the UK, but the service may be available on other bands elsewhere.

9. TACAN and VOR Bearings. TACAN and VOR beacons both transmit a signal which, when
interpreted by the aircraft equipment, gives the magnetic bearing of the aircraft from the beacon. The
position line is obtained by taking the reciprocal of the reading of the indicator needle.

Circular Position Lines

10. Radar Range Position Lines. The range from a ground TACAN or DME beacon can be obtained
using transmitter/responder equipment. The range displayed is a slant value (Fig 4), which should be
converted to plan range before plotting. Fig 5 shows a typical slant range to plan range conversion graph.
The circular position line is drawn with the plan range as radius and with the beacon as the centre. Range
position lines may also be obtained by ground mapping radars, in some of which the range is
automatically converted to plan range. However more simple equipments, such as cloud warning radars,
give slant range only which should be corrected in the same way as TACAN and DME ranges.

Revised Sep 12 Page 3 of 7

 AP3456 – 9-6 - Establishment and Use of Position Lines

9-6 Fig 4 Slant Range

Sla
nt R
Height ang
e Fix
Point
Plan Range

9-6 Fig 5 Slant to Plan Range Conversion

20
Plan Range (nm)

15

Curve 1 - Ground Level

10 Curve 2 - 10,000 feet
Curve 3 - 20,000 feet
Curve 4 - 30,000 feet
5
Curve 5 - 40,000 feetl

3 5
1 2 4
0 5 10 15 20
Slant Range (nm)

USE OF SINGLE POSITION LINES

Introduction

11. A single position line can be used to provide navigation data in one or more of the following ways:

a. As a check on groundspeed.

b. As a check on ETA.

c. As a check on track made good.

d. As a means of homing to an objective.

Groundspeed Check

12. For a groundspeed check, a position line is required which lies as nearly as possible
perpendicular to the aircraft’s track (see Fig 6).

Revised Sep 12 Page 4 of 7

 AP3456 – 9-6 - Establishment and Use of Position Lines

9-6 Fig 6 Position Line used forGroundspeed Check

20° 20°

1400

1440

13. The distance between the last fix and the position line is measured along the DR track, and so,
knowing the time that has elapsed, the groundspeed can be calculated. If the position line is within ±20°
of the perpendicular to track, then errors in DR track (represented by the broken track lines in Fig 6) will
produce little difference in the distance measured and therefore no significant error in the groundspeed
calculated.

ETA Check

14. A position line near the perpendicular to track may provide a check of ETA at the next turning
point by enabling the distance to run to be measured accurately.

Track Check

15. To check track made good, a position line is required which is parallel or nearly parallel (±10°) to
DR track (see Fig 7).

9-6 Fig 7 Position Line used for Track Check

C
TMG

A
Planned Track

16. In Fig 7, an arc equal in radius to the ground distance flown since the last fix (position A),
calculated using the latest groundspeed, is described from that fix to cut the position line at C. AC then
represents the track made good. Errors in the groundspeed used will cause an error in the position of
C along the position line, but this error will have little effect if the limits of para 15 are observed.

Revised Sep 12 Page 5 of 7

 AP3456 – 9-6 - Establishment and Use of Position Lines

Homing Check

17. Homing to a destination along a position line, whose origin is the destination, is a simple matter,
since the direction of the position line is the same as that of the required track. The aircraft is turned
on to a heading which will make good this track and tracking can be checked against further position
lines obtained from the destination.

Accuracy of Position Lines

18. When a position line is obtained, it is assumed, for the purposes of navigation, that the aircraft’s
position is on that line at that particular time. However, in practice, the aircraft is very seldom exactly
on that line at the time it was obtained. All position lines are subject to errors, the magnitude of which
depends upon the type of position line, i.e. whether it is a visual bearing or an electronically derived
bearing, and the conditions under which it is obtained.

19. If a large number of position lines of the same type could be taken from an aircraft in the same
known position, and operating under identical conditions, the position lines when plotted would be
found to lie in a band about the aircraft’s true position. They would be found to be concentrated in the
area about the aircraft’s position and would become more widely dispersed with distance away from
the aircraft.

20. This dispersion of results is due to a variety of reasons, eg slight errors in timing and observation,
approximations in calculations. It is possible to carry out a statistical analysis on a set of accuracy
figures for position lines of any type, and from this, to define the width of the band about the true
position which would enclose a certain proportion, say 50%, 70% or 90% of all the position lines
considered (see Fig 8).

9-6 Fig 8 Statistical Distribution of Observed Position Lines

90% 50% 76%

Bands
True of Error
Position
Line

21. The bands are known as bands of error in navigation terminology, and the 50% and 76% bands
are those normally considered. Extensive trials have been carried out on the accuracy of position lines
and as a result it has been possible to produce a table which defines, for convenience, half the width of
bands of errors for various types of position lines (see Table 1).

Revised Sep 12 Page 6 of 7

 AP3456 – 9-6 - Establishment and Use of Position Lines

Table 1 Position Line Bands of Error

Band of Error
Type of Position Line
(Half - Widths)
50% 76%
Transit Bearing 0.5° 0.9°
TACAN Bearing 2° 3.5°
TACAN/DME Range 0.2 nm 0.5 nm
VOR 3° 5°
ADF 1.5° 2.5°
Cloud Warning Radars: a. Range 2 nm 3 nm
b. Bearing 3° 5°

22. Taking the 50% band as an example, this band encloses 50% of all possible position lines, and
there is, therefore, only an even chance of being somewhere inside the band of error. The 76% band
is wider since it must contain a larger number of possible position lines and if this band is plotted there
is a 76% chance of being somewhere inside it. To cover every possible case the 100% band of error
would need to have infinite width, since gross errors would inevitably occur in a few cases in the
calculating and plotting of a large number of position lines. It is clearly impracticable to work at very
high levels of probability and, indeed, a position line that falls a considerable distance from its expected
position should be treated with circumspection and its accuracy should be verified by other means if
possible.

Revised Sep 12 Page 7 of 7

 AP3456 – 9-7 - Plotting Position Lines

CHAPTER 7 - PLOTTING POSITION LINES

Introduction

1. Position lines are not generally plotted onto charts nowadays but where they are used, this
chapter will provide the necessary information to allow the user to employ them correctly. The line of
sight between two points lies along the shortest path between them. The corresponding radio wave
also follows the same path. Consequently, visual and radio bearings are great circles, and this
complicates plotting for none of the common plotting charts portray all great circles as straight lines.

2. The divergence (Δ) between the straight line joining two points on the chart, and the
corresponding great circle varies according to:

a. The projection.

b. The bearing and distance between the two points.

c. The area of operation.

3. The Projection. The path represented by a straight line on a chart depends upon the projection
employed in the chart’s construction. On some projections, the straight line approximates to a great
circle, while on others it is very different. Consequently, the magnitude of the angular divergence
between the straight line and the great circle is a function of the projection being used. Loosely
speaking, ignoring both the effect of the relative orientation of the two points and the area of
operation, the divergence is greater on the Mercator projection than on the other common
projections: the polar stereographic, the Lambert’s conformal, the oblique and transverse (skew)
Mercators. On the Mercator projection, the straight line represents the rhumb line.

4. The Relative Orientation of the Two Points. A straight line can represent more than one path
on a projection. For example, on the Mercators, Lamberts and polar stereographic projections, the
meridians, which are great circles, appear as straight lines. On the skew Mercators, with the exception
of the meridian through the vertex (oblique Mercator) and the central meridian, anti-meridian and
meridians at 90º (transverse Mercator), the meridians appear as curves (although the curvature is
small in the best areas of cover). With some exceptions, it is fair to say that the greater the departure
from the point or line of origin of the chart, the more the straight line departs from representing a great
circle; the longer the straight line the greater this discrepancy.

5. Area of Operation. The various chart projections have been devised to provide the most
accurate representation of the Earth within limited areas. It is possible to represent the hemisphere
accurately using five projections. If this plan were rigidly adhered to, the divergence (Δ) between the
great circle and the straight line over distances of 500 nm and less would be very small. However,
conditions may result in projections being used outside of the optimum areas and for this reason it is
necessary to study the methods of plotting visual and radio position lines.

The Angular Divergence (Δ) Between the Straight Line and Great Circle

6. A general expression for the magnitude of Δ is given by:

Δ = ½ ch long (sin mean lat − n)

Revised Sep 12 Page 1 of 11

 AP3456 – 9-7 - Plotting Position Lines

Ch long and mean lat refer to the change of longitude and latitude between the DR position and the
bearing source; n is the constant of the cone which is treated in Volume 9, Chapter 3. For the
purposes of this chapter it is sufficient to know that:

a. On the Mercator and skew Mercator projections, n = 0.

b. On the Lambert’s conformal projection n may lie between 1 and 0, the precise value being a
function of the parallel of origin. The GNC and JNC series of charts which are based on this
projection, covering the latitude bands (approximately) of 0º to 40º and 32º to 76º, have values of
n of 0.3118 and 0.785 respectively.

c. On the polar stereographic projection, n = 1.

7. General Conclusions. Assuming a small change of longitude along the bearing, the following
deductions for each projection, based on the information above, can be made:

a. Mercator. At low latitudes, since the sine of a small angle is small and n = 0, Δ is small.

b. Lambert’s Conformal. n is of the same order as the sine of the latitude for temperate
latitudes, thus Δ is generally small in these areas. However, at the limits of a Lambert’s projection
there can be a considerable difference in the sine of the mean latitude and n, depending on the
standard parallels selected and therefore the parallel of origin, where n = sin lat and divergence is
nil.

c. Polar Stereographic. In high latitudes, the sine of the mean latitude approaches 1, thus on a
polar stereographic projection where n = 1, Δ is small.

PLOTTING PRACTICE WHEN BEARINGS ARE MEASURED AT A GROUND STATION

Mercator Projection

8. On a Mercator chart the straight line represents the rhumb line, while the great circle appears as a
curve concave to the equator and, particularly outside of the Mercator’s optimum latitude band of 12.5º S
to 12.5º N, this difference must be considered when plotting bearings. The angle between the great circle
and the rhumb line bearing between two points is known as conversion angle (CA, see Fig 1).

9-7 Fig 1 Great Circle and Rhumb Line on a Mercator Chart

MERCATOR CHART
Great
Circle

CA

CA

Line

Revised Sep 12 Page 2 of 11

 AP3456 – 9-7 - Plotting Position Lines

9. Although it is the great circle bearing which is measured by the direction-finding equipment, it is
the rhumb line bearing which is initially plotted since this is a straight line. This bearing is obtained by
applying CA to the great circle bearing such that, in the northern hemisphere, the rhumb line lies
nearer 180º T. In the southern hemisphere the CA is applied in the opposite sense, so that the rhumb
line lies nearer 000º T (see Fig 2). For example, if in the northern hemisphere a true bearing of the
aircraft is measured as 070º T and the conversion angle is 2º, the rhumb line bearing is 072º T.

9-7 Fig 2 Conversion of a Great Circle Bearing to the Corresponding Rhumb Line

Aircraft a North Latitude Aircraft

West of East of
Station Station
CA CA
Rhumb Line Rhumb Line

Aircraft b South Latitude Aircraft

West of East of
Station Station
Rhumb Line Rhumb Line
CA CA

10. From Fig 3 it can be seen that, to plot the portion of the great circle bearing in the vicinity of the
DR position, in this case, the rhumb line bearing should now be turned towards 180º T (in the northern
hemisphere) at the DR meridian, through an angle equal to CA. In practice the value of the conversion
angle would have to be quite large before there was any appreciable difference between the rhumb line
and the great circle in the vicinity of the DR meridian, and the rotation of the rhumb line to lie along the
great circle at the DR meridian can usually be ignored.

9-7 Fig 3 Plotting the Great Circle Position Line

Bearing Measured
DR Meridian

Circle
Great

CA b Line
Rhum

11. Calculation of Conversion Angle. Conversion angle can be deduced from a graph (Fig 4), a
nomogram (Fig 5), or from the formula which, since n = 0, reduces to CA = ½ ch long × sin mean lat.
For practical purposes ½ × sin mean lat, which is called the conversion angle factor, can be reduced to
six values to cover the hemisphere as shown in Table 1. CA is then the product of ch long and the
conversion angle factor.

Revised Sep 12 Page 3 of 11

 AP3456 – 9-7 - Plotting Position Lines

9-7 Fig 4 Conversion Angle Graph

MERCATOR
9
NOTE
o
20 Ch Long Corresponds to the
Following Departure Values at :
o
20o N : 1140 nms
8 50o N : 780 nms
70 N : 415 nms

o
20
ng
Lo
6

Ch
5

4
o
0
g1
3 L on
Ch

2 o

ng 5
C h Lo
1 o
ng 2
Ch Lo

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Latitude

9-7 Fig 5 Conversion Angle Nomogram

Change A 12 13 14 15 20 25 30 35
of
Longitude B 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Conversion C 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 15 20
Angles 5
D 1 2 3 4 6

Mean 35 40 45 55 60 65
Latitude

Revised Sep 12 Page 4 of 11

 AP3456 – 9-7 - Plotting Position Lines

Table 1 Conversion Angle Factor – Mercator

Mean Lat Conversion Angle Factor

0
0.0
6
0.1
18
0.2
30
0.3
45
0.4
65
0.5
90

Lambert’s Conformal Projection

12. Depending on the relative magnitude of the sine of the mean latitude and n, Δ may be positive or
negative. The area of operation on a particular Lambert’s projection will determine on which side of the
straight line the great circle lies. If the mean latitude is greater than that of the parallel of origin, then
the great circle will be closer to the pole than the straight line, and vice versa (see Fig 6). It should be
remembered that the straight line on a Lambert’s projection is not a rhumb line.

9-7 Fig 6 The Great Circle and the Straight Line on a Lambert’s Conformal Projection

Great Circle

Parallel of
Origin

Great Circle

Great Circle

13. Theoretically, the problems of plotting a great circle on a Lambert’s projection are essentially the
same as those for the Mercator. The great circle is converted to the straight-line equivalent by applying
Δ, and this line is then rotated at the DR meridian through an angle Δ to give the tangent to the great
circle. The application of Δ, in both cases, is such as to make the bearings nearer 180º if the mean
latitude is greater than the parallel of origin, and nearer 000º if less than this parallel.

14. Graphs of mean latitude against Δ are shown at Figs 7 and 8 for values of n of 0.31137 and
0.78535 respectively. For a radio position line obtained over a range of 250 nm, Δ varies from (approx)

Revised Sep 12 Page 5 of 11

 AP3456 – 9-7 - Plotting Position Lines

−0.6º to +1.5º in Fig 7 (at latitudes 0º and 50º), and from 1º to +1º in Fig 8 (at latitudes 20º and
70º). These are the maximum values in the circumstances as it is assumed that the aircraft and
station are at the same latitude. If they were at any other position the ch long would be smaller over
the given distance. Thus, in the majority of circumstances the great circle can be plotted directly as a
straight line with only minimal error.

9-7 Fig 7 Graph of Δ Against Mean Latitude (n = 0.31137)

7 NOTE
o
20 Ch Long Corresponds to the
Following Departure Values at :
o
20 N : 1140 nms
6 o o
50 N : 780 nms. (250 nms is a Ch Long of 6.4 )
o
70 N : 415 nms

0 o
SP1 SP2

g2
Standard Parallel

Standard Parallel
Parallel of Origin

on
4

L
Ch
3
o
0
g1
2 L on
Ch
o
g5
1 h Lon
C
o
2
C h L on g
0 10 30 40 50 60 70
20
Latitude

-1

-2

n = 0.31137
-3
LAMBERT'S CONFORMAL PROJECTION

Revised Sep 12 Page 6 of 11

 AP3456 – 9-7 - Plotting Position Lines

9-7 Fig 8 Graph of Δ Against Mean Latitude (n = 0.78535)

NOTE
o
20 Ch Long Corresponds to the
Following
o
Departure Values at : o
20 N : 1140 nms. (250 nms is a Ch Long of 4.4 )
o
50o N : 780 nms o
70 N : 415 nms. (250 nms is a Ch Long of 12 )

10 Latitude 50
20 30 40 60 70 80
o
ng 2
Ch L o
-1
o

on g5
C hL
o
-2
10
ng
Lo
Ch
-3

Standard Parallel
Standard Parallel

Parallel of Origin

-4
02 o
ng

-5
Lo
Ch

n = 0.78535
-6
LAMBERT'S CONFORMAL PROJECTION

Polar Stereographic Projection

15. On the polar stereographic projection, the great circle lies nearer the equator than does the
straight line (see Fig 9), i.e. Δ is negative.

16. Although the procedure for plotting the great circle bearing is similar to that outlined for the
Mercator and Lambert’s projections, in practice, the value of Δ is so small that for all practical purposes
in Polar Regions the great circle and straight line can be regarded as coincident.

9-7 Fig 9 The Great Circle and Straight Line on a Polar Stereographic Projection

Great Circle

NP

Great Circle

Revised Sep 12 Page 7 of 11

 AP3456 – 9-7 - Plotting Position Lines

17. A graph of Δ against mean latitude is plotted for various values of ch long at Fig 10. In the lower
latitudes, at the extremes of the projection’s useful cover, Δ can become significant and in this situation
the conversion of the great circle to the equivalent straight line becomes necessary.

9-7 Fig 10 Graph of Δ for the Polar Stereographic Projection

NOTE
o
Ch Long 20 Corresponds to the
Following Departure Values at :
o
50o N : 780 nms
70 N : 415 nms

POLAR STEREOGRAPHIC PROJECTION

n = 1.0

-3

-2

Ch
Lo
ng
20 o
-1
Ch
Lon
g 10 o
Ch Lo
ng 5 o
Ch Long 2 o

50 60 70 80
Latitude

Skew (Oblique and Transverse) Mercator Projections

18. Divergence on skew Mercator charts causes the great circle to be concave to the false
equator/central meridian. For a 250 nm long line, divergence is unlikely to exceed 0.5º on the oblique
Mercator and 1.2º on the transverse Mercator. For both charts, if the bearing is measured at the
ground station, the bearing is plotted from the meridian through the ground station.

PLOTTING PRACTICE WHEN BEARINGS ARE MEASURED AT THE AIRCRAFT

Introduction

19. The bearing measured at a ground D/F station will be the same for all aircraft transmitting from
positions on the same great circle; consequently, that great circle is the position line. The converse is
not true; aircraft flying the same heading and lying on the same great circle through the station will not
measure the same relative bearing from the ground beacon’s transmission (Fig 11). Thus, where the
bearing is measured at the aircraft, the great circle is not the position line. However, in most
circumstances the difference is not significant. This outcome is the result of meridian convergence on
the Earth and is not a function of any particular map projection.

Revised Sep 12 Page 8 of 11

 AP3456 – 9-7 - Plotting Position Lines

9-7 Fig 11 Relative Bearings

Gr
ea
tC
Ground irc
le
Station

Plotting Relative Bearings on the Mercator Projection

20. Having measured the true bearing of the great circle between the aircraft and the station
(i.e. relative bearing + true heading), the corresponding rhumb line can be obtained by applying
conversion angle to the great circle such that, in the northern hemisphere, the rhumb line lies closer to
180º. The reciprocal is then plotted from the station. It should be emphasized that CA is applied to the
true bearing of the great circle and not to the relative bearing. Rotation of the rhumb line at the DR
meridian to account for meridian convergence is usually ignored in practice, bearing in mind the range
of MF beacons and the latitude band in which the Mercator projection is used.

Plotting Relative Bearings on the Lambert’s Conformal Projection

21. The effect of meridian convergence is very apparent on the Lambert’s conformal projection. From
Fig 12 it can be seen that the bearing of the great circle at A differs from that at B, the difference being
Earth convergence.

9-7 Fig 12 The Effect of Convergence

120

140

22. In attempting to plot the great circle bearing measured at the aircraft (eg relative bearings such as
ADF or radar azimuth), it would be wrong merely to plot the reciprocal from the source. If this were
done the bearing plotted would not cut the DR meridian at the measured angle (see Fig 13) but at the
measured angle ± convergence.

Revised Sep 12 Page 9 of 11

 AP3456 – 9-7 - Plotting Position Lines

9-7 Fig 13 Reciprocal Bearing (not allowing for Convergence)

120 measured
at aircraft

Reciprocal bearing
gives incorrect position line
300

This problem is overcome by plotting the reciprocal from the source with reference to a line parallel to
the DR meridian (Fig 14).

9-7 Fig 14 Reciprocal Bearing (corrected for Convergence)

120 measured
at aircraft

Draw reference line

parallel to aircraft’s
DR meridian

Plot 300

As with the Mercator chart, over the distances travelled by UHF, VHF, and MF radio waves, rotation of
the position line at the DR meridian is normally unnecessary.

Plotting Relative Bearings on the Oblique Mercator Projection

23. The procedure for plotting on the oblique Mercator is the same as that used on the Lambert’s
conformal, ie the DR meridian is paralleled through the beacon (see Fig 14).

Plotting Relative Bearings on Polar Charts

24. The polar stereographic and polar transverse Mercator charts are invariably used with a grid
overlay and used with grid navigation techniques. The plotting procedure for a relative bearing
obtained while using a grid technique is very simple. Relative bearing + grid heading gives the required
grid bearing and the reciprocal is then plotted from the origin. This procedure applies equally to
Lambert’s charts if a grid technique is being used.

Revised Sep 12 Page 10 of 11

 AP3456 – 9-7 - Plotting Position Lines

SUMMARY

General

25. The methods used to plot position lines are a compromise between precision and expeditious
plotting; the speedier and simpler approximation is normally to be preferred. Although it is not possible
to state an invariable rule, consideration should usually be given to converting the great circle bearing
to the straight line equivalent, whereas the need to rotate the position line at the DR meridian is
normally ignored. The characteristics of the various common projections are summarized below.

26. The Mercator. The divergence between the straight line and the great circle varies directly as the
sine of the mean latitude along the great circle. Since this projection is often used over a wide latitude
band, significant values of Δ may be encountered. The need to calculate the straight line equivalent
therefore often arises on the Mercator chart.

27. The Skew Mercator. Provided the skew Mercator is restricted to the optimum band of cover,
i.e. ± 8º of false latitude, the values of Δ are small. If the chart is not gridded, then relative bearings
must be plotted with reference to the DR meridian and not the meridian through the ground station.

28. The Lambert’s Conformal Projection. The standard parallels on these charts can be widely
spaced. Consequently, at the limits of cover, Δ can be significant. Thus, although the great circle and
the straight line can be considered coincident over the greater part of the projection, this should not be
assumed near the limits of cover. When plotting relative bearings, an allowance for convergence must
be made, most simply by paralleling the DR meridian through the ground station.

29. The Stereographic Projection. Values of Δ on the stereographic projection are very small and,
over the distances that bearings are taken, the straight line and great circle may be considered
coincident.

30. VOR and TACAN Bearings. Although VOR and TACAN bearings are intercepted at the aircraft,
the bearing information is encoded at the ground station. On all charts, TACAN and VOR radials
should be plotted as originating from the appropriate ground station and orientated with reference to
magnetic North at the beacon. Where necessary, divergence should be applied.

Revised Sep 12 Page 11 of 11

 AP3456 – 9-8 - Dead Reckoning Computer, Marks 4A and 5A

CHAPTER 8 - DEAD RECKONING COMPUTER, MARKS 4A AND 5A

Introduction

1. The Dead Reckoning Computer (Mks 4A and 5A) is designed for solving the vector triangle
problems of air navigation. The Mk 5A is a reduced size version of the 4A, produced for helicopter
use. Both Mks include an airspeed computer and a circular slide rule.

Description

2. The face and reverse of the Mk 4A computer are illustrated in Figs 1 and 2. The computer
consists of a metal frame carrying, on one side, a transparent plotting disc in a graduated compass
rose, and on the other, a circular slide rule which is also used for airspeed computation. A reversible
sliding card printed with concentric speed arcs, radial drift lines, and a rectangular grid, moves under
the plotting disc. One side of the sliding card is graduated from 50 to 800 speed units, while the other
bears a range from 80 to 320 speed units together with a square grid graduated from 0 to 80. The
units can represent whatever is required (e.g. kt, mph, kph), provided that the chosen unit is used
consistently. Similarly, one side of the Mk 5A computer is graduated from 30 to 200 speed units and
carries a square grid graduated from 0 to 100, while the other side is blank (but older versions may
bear graduations from 20 to 120 and markings for helicopter jump navigation once used with the
Wessex 1). The examples in this Chapter use the Mk 4A version.

9-8 Fig 1 DR Computer, Mk 4A – Face 9-8 Fig 2 DR Computer, Mk 4A - Reverse

TRU E C O URS E
10 10 VA
EA
ST
20 20 R .W
R. ES
VA 30 T D R I F
LE
FT 30 100 110 120 T
IF
T E 13 0 40I GH T
R
DR
40 80
14
70 0
60
15
0
16
50

0
1 70
40
30

S
190 200 210
20
10
N
3 50

22 0
23
0
34

0
0

24
33

0 25
32 26 0
0
10
W 280 0 3
290 30
TH
EL N
ON TO
DO GH
N NA B RI
M E P L AT MADE BY N&
E M FG .C O .LT D OF L O ND O

Revised Jul 10 Page 1 of 15

 AP3456 – 9-8 - Dead Reckoning Computer, Marks 4A and 5A

VECTOR TRIANGLE SOLUTION

Principle

3. The DR Computer reproduces, within the rotatable compass rose, that part of the triangle of
velocities which is of prime concern, i.e. it shows the wind vector applied between the heading/true
airspeed and the track/groundspeed vectors.

4. The principle is illustrated in Fig 3, in which ABC is the vector triangle. The compass rose (or
bearing plate) is orientated to register the direction of the heading vector AB, i.e. 270° T, against a
lubber line (marked TRUE COURSE on the computer). In doing this, the compass rose is orientated
with respect to the other vectors. Thus, the wind vector BC is laid off down wind from B. The wind
is therefore from D, i.e. 159° T. The direction of the track is shown as degrees to port or starboard
of heading, e.g. in Fig 3 the drift is shown as 10° starboard which, when applied to heading, gives a
track of 280° T. In Fig 3, if AB (airspeed) is 180 kt and BC (windspeed) 36 kt, then AC
(groundspeed) is 196 kt.

9-8 Fig 3 Principle of DR Computer Mk 4A

Tra ck &
Wind G ro un d
speed
Velocity
10° S
LUBBER 270° B A
LINE Heading & TAS

220 200 180 160 140

D
159°

5. It is unnecessary to have the whole of the vector triangle shown on the DR Computer. Therefore,
only the essential part of the triangle, that containing the wind vector, is shown. The computer may be
used over a range of speeds by adjusting the sliding card so that the curve corresponding to the true
airspeed lies under the centre of the compass rose.

6. Thus, the transparent disc acts as a plotting dial on which only the wind vector is drawn, the
heading vector being represented by the centre line on the sliding card and the track vector by the
appropriate radial (drift) line. The centre of the disc is shown by a small circle which normally marks
the end of the heading vector.

Operation

7. Wind Speed and Direction. To draw the wind vector when the speed and direction of the wind are
given, the wind direction is set against the lubber line and the wind vector is drawn from the centre along
the centre line in a direction away from the lubber line. The length of the line relative to the card scale
represents the wind speed. The end of the vector so plotted is called the wind point. Conversely, if the
wind point has been found by other means, the wind speed and direction may be measured by rotating

Revised Jul 10 Page 2 of 15

 AP3456 – 9-8 - Dead Reckoning Computer, Marks 4A and 5A

the plotting dial until the wind point lies on the centre line, on the opposite side of the centre circle to the
lubber line. The wind direction is now read against the lubber line, while the distance of the wind point
from the centre measured against the speed scale of the card gives the wind speed.

Note. The wind vector is always drawn away from the heading pointer because wind direction is
conventionally quoted as the direction from which the wind is blowing. Headings and tracks are specified
as the direction towards which the aircraft is going. It should be noted also that the scales on the two
sides of the card are different so that a wind drawn using one scale must not be used with the other.

8. Airspeed and Groundspeed. Airspeed is always set, or read, on the centre line of the card
under the centre of the plotting dial. Groundspeed is indicated by the speed circle under the wind
point.

9. Variation and Drift. Although the plotting dial is normally orientated with respect to true north, a
variation scale marked on either side of the lubber line can be used to convert true directions to
magnetic and vice versa. This scale may also be used to obtain track by applying drift to heading, and
vice versa.

Examples of Use

10. The examples which follow illustrate the versatility of the DR Computer in solving problems
graphically, although only the first two are common in everyday practice. It should be remembered
that, as noted in para 7, the wind always blows outwards from the centre of the computer. Animated
diagrams are also provided to help explain the various calculations.

11. To Find Track and Groundspeed (Fig 4). The problem is to find track and groundspeed, given:

Heading - 185º T

TAS - 420 kt

W/V - 105°/39 kt

It is first necessary to ensure that the appropriate side of the sliding card is uppermost. The following
steps are then carried out:

a. Set the W/V. The plotting dial is rotated until 105° on the compass rose is against the lubber
line and a line is drawn from the centre of the plotting dial, away from the direction set, equal in
length to 39 units on the scale (Fig 4a). Once familiarity with the use of the instrument has been
gained, it will be found necessary only to plot the wind point, ie the end of the wind vector, rather
than the complete line.

b. Set Heading and TAS. The plotting dial is rotated until 185° is against the lubber line, and
the card is adjusted until the 420 speed arc lies under the centre of the plotting dial (Fig 4b).

c. Read Off the Solution Under the Wind Point. From Fig 4b, it will be seen that the wind
point is on the 5° S drift line. Track can therefore be calculated as 185° T + 5° = 190° T, or it
can be read off on the compass rose against the 5° mark on the drift scale. The
groundspeed is given by the speed arc under the wind point, i.e. 415 kt.

Revised Jul 10 Page 3 of 15

 AP3456 – 9-8 - Dead Reckoning Computer, Marks 4A and 5A

9-8 Fig 4 Finding Track and Groundspeed

a Setting the W/V b Reading the Solution

TRU E COU RS E TR U E C OURSE

10 10 10
ST 20 VA 10
.
R
EA 20 R.W
ES
EA
ST
20 20 VA
R.W
VA TD R. ES
30
30 VA TD
FT
100 110 12 0
RI 30
LE
E
FT
RI
LE
FT 30 S 190 20 RI
FT
I FT
80
1 30 40 G
HT FT 1 70 0 21 0
RI
40 GHT
DR
40 14 D
RI
40 16
0
70 0 0 22
15 0

15
60

23
0
14
0

0
16
50

24
0
13
0

0
1 70
40

25 0
1 20
30

2 60
0
S

10 0 11
19 0 200 2 10
20

W 280 290
10

E
N

80
2 20
3 50

30 0
70
23
0

31
34

60
0

0
24
30

32
50
0
3

0
0 25 33
32 0 40 0
10 26 0 3 40
W 28 0 3 30
0 29 0 30 20 10 N
3 50
TH
EL N TH
ON TO EL N
DO GH ON TO
NN B RI DO IGH
AME M A DE B Y ON & NN & BR
PLATE M
F G.CO. LTD L OND AME
PLAT E
M A DE B Y
DON
MF G.CO.LTD O F LON
OF

12. To Find Heading and Groundspeed (Fig 5). The problem is to find the heading and
groundspeed, given:

Track Required - 300º T

TAS - 320 kt
W/V - 195º/45 kt

It is first necessary to ensure that the appropriate side of the sliding card is uppermost. The following
steps are then carried out:

a. Set the W/V. This is carried out in the manner described in para 11a.

b. Set TAS. TAS is set by adjusting the card until the 320 speed arc lies under the centre of
the plotting dial.

c. The plotting dial is rotated until the required track is registered against the lubber line
(Fig 5a). The drift indicated by the wind point (7½° S) is noted; this represents the drift that would
be experienced if a heading of 300° T were steered.

d. The required track is now set against the drift scale mark equivalent to the drift found in
para 12c, i.e. 7½° S.

e. It is possible that the wind point will now indicate a slightly different drift value (Fig 5b). If this
is the case, the plotting dial is adjusted until the required track is against this new value of drift on
the drift scale; (8° S in this example).

f. The required heading (292° T) is read on the plotting dial against the lubber line, and the
groundspeed (329 kt) is indicated by the speed arc lying under the wind point (Fig 5b).

Revised Jul 10 Page 4 of 15

 AP3456 – 9-8 - Dead Reckoning Computer, Marks 4A and 5A

9-8 Fig 5 Finding Heading and Groundspeed

a Setting Track and Reading Drift b Setting Track against Drift Scale
and Reading Solution

T R U E C O U R SE TR U E C O U R SE
10 10 VA 10 10
EA
ST 20 20 R. W
AS
T
20 20 VAR
.W
R. ES E ES
VA TD R. TD
30 VA 30
T 30 RI
30 RI
29 0 300 3 10 32 FT
2 80 290 300 310
EF FT FT
TL RI LE RI
280 GH T
IF 0 40 IF
W 32 40 GH
DR
40 33 40
T DR T
W 0 0 0
34 26 33
2 60 0 0 0
25

34
35
0
25

0
0

24

35
0

N
24

0
23
0

N
10
20 0 210 220 23

1 90 200 210 220

10
20

20
30

30
40

40
190

50

50
60
S

0
17

60
0

70
17

0
16
0 80 70
16 15
0
80
0
15
E
0 100 40 1 E
110 120 13 0 14 10 0 110 120 130
TH TH
E N E
LON TO LON ON
DON GH DON HT
NAM BRI BRI G
E PLAT M AD E BY ON & NAM M AD E BY ON &
E MFG.CO.LTD OF LOND E PLA
TE MFG.C O.LTD OF LOND

13. Finding W/V by the Track and Groundspeed Method (Fig 6). The problem is to find the W/V
given the following data:

Heading - 120º T

TAS - 230 kt

Track Made Good - 112º T

Groundspeed - 242 kt

It is first necessary to ensure that the appropriate side of the sliding card is uppermost. The following
steps are then carried out:

a. The heading and TAS are set as described in para 11b.

b. Set the Track Made Good and the Groundspeed. Firstly, the drift is calculated as the
difference between heading and track, in this example 120° − 112° = 8° Port (P). A pencil mark is
now made on the plotting dial (Fig 6a) where the drift line (8° P) intersects the speed arc
representing the groundspeed (242 kt).

c. A line drawn from the centre of the dial to this point represents the wind vector. In order to
measure it, the dial is rotated until the vector is aligned exactly with the centre line and running
from the dial centre away from the lubber line (Fig 6b). The wind direction can now be read off
against the lubber line (227º T), and the wind speed can be determined by measuring the length
of the vector against the speed arcs (34 kt).

Revised Jul 10 Page 5 of 15

 AP3456 – 9-8 - Dead Reckoning Computer, Marks 4A and 5A

9-8 Fig 6 Finding W/V by Track and Groundspeed Method

a Plotting Drift and G/S and b Reading the W/V

Drawing the Wind Vector

310 310
TRUE COUR SE TR UE COURSE
10 10 VA 10 10 VA
ST
205 520 ST
205 20
R.W R.W
EA 300 ES EA 300 5 ES
R. T R. T
10 VA 30 DR 10 10 VA 30 DRIF 10
FT 30 30
11 0 120 1 30 IF FT 230 240
LE
14 0
T LE 220 290 T
21 0
RI RI
RI
FT
10 0 290 40 GH
RI
FT 250 40 GHT
40 40 0
T
D 15 D
20 26
E 0
0 0
16
80
280
0 19 280
W

S
17
270 270
70

28
0

0
17
60

S
260 260

29
16 0

0
19 0
50

250 250

3 00
13 0 140 15 0
20 0 210 2 20 23
40

240 240

310 320 330

230 230
30

220 220
20

1 20
210 210
10

340
0

110
5 200 5 5 200 5
24

10 10 10 10
N

35
15 15 15 15
0

0
190 190

10
0

25
35

N
26
0 180 E 180
34 0 10
0
33
W 80 20
0 170 28 0 70 170
29 0 300 3 10 32 60 50 40
30
TH 160 TH 160
EL N EL N
ON TO ON TO
DO GH DO GH
NN BRI NN BRI
AME M AD E B Y N& AME M A DE B Y N&
PLATE NDO P LATE MFG150 LTD O F LONDO
. CO. LTD O F L O
MFG150 .CO.

140 140

14. Correcting a W/V by Finding the Error in a DR Position (Fig 7). It is possible to find a new wind
velocity by applying a correction vector to the wind velocity in use, given a simultaneous DR position and
fix. As an example, suppose that the wind velocity that has been used is 345º/30 kt, and that, after 20
minutes of flight, the aircraft’s position is fixed at a position which bears 220º T/5 nm from a DR position.
The procedure is as follows:

a. The card is adjusted until the square-ruled section is under the dial. The wind direction is set
against the lubber line and the wind vector in use is drawn on the dial using a convenient scale,
e.g. one large square = 10 nm (Fig 7a).

b. The error per hour is calculated (an error of 5 nm in 20 minutes is equivalent to 15 nm per hour).
The dial is rotated until the bearing of the fix from the DR position is against the lubber line. A
correction vector is then drawn from the end of the wind vector, parallel to the grid lines and towards the
lubber line. The correction vector is of a length equal to the hourly error at the chosen scale (Fig 7b).

c. The line from the centre dot to the end of the correction vector represents the new wind
vector. It can be measured by rotating the dial until the vector is aligned with the centre line and
then reading the direction from the lubber line and measuring the speed against the chosen scale
of the square ruled section of the card (Fig 7c). In the example, the new wind is 003º/40 kt.

Revised Jul 10 Page 6 of 15

 AP3456 – 9-8 - Dead Reckoning Computer, Marks 4A and 5A

9-8 Fig 7 Correcting a W/V

a Drawing the Wind Vector b Drawing the Correction Vector

T RU E C O U R S E T R U E C OU R S E
10 10 VA 10 10
AS
T
20 20 R
20 VAR
R .E
.W
ES
.E
AS
T
20 .W
E
VA 30 T DRIF R ST
EF
T 30 340 350 T
VA
30
30 D RIF
N 210 220 230 2 4
T
EF
TL 330 RI
40 GHT
L T
R
IF
20 0
T
10 40IGHT
DR
40 320 RIF
D 40
0
0
25
0 20 19 0
31 26
0 S 0
30

30

W
17
0

40
29

28
16
28 0

0
50

29 0
120 130 140 15
W

60

300 310 320

250 260

70
80
240

3 30
11 0
230

10 0

34
10
20

11

0
0
2

35
E
0

12

0
21

0
N
0 13 80
20 14 0
0 10
90 70
S 1 160 17 0
150 60
50 30
20
40
TH TH
EL ON EL
ON HT N
DO RIG ON TO
N B D ON GH
NAM
E PL A M A DE B Y
ON & NA M B RI
T E M FG. C O.LT D L ON D E M AD E BY N&
OF PLAT E M
F G.C O.LTD OF L O ND O

c Constructing a New Wind Vector and Reading the Solution

TR UE CO U R SE
10 10 VA
AS
T
20 20 R .W
R .E ES
VA 30 T D RIF
FT 30 N 10
350
E TR
TL 20 I
IF
3 40 30 40 G HT
DR
40
0
33 40
0
32
50
0
31

60
00
0 3

70
W 28 0 29

80
100 1E
260

10
25 0

1 20
0
24

13
0
0
23

14
0
0
22 15
0
2 10 1 60
200 190 S 170
TH
EL N
ON TO
DO
NN R IG H
AME M AD E BY
O N&B
P L ATE
M FG. CO. LT D OF LO ND

15. Interception (Fig 8). Interception problems concerning a slow-moving target, such as a ship,
can be solved satisfactorily on the DR computer. It is easier to deal with the problems in two steps.
The first step is to find the relative wind velocity, while the second is to determine the heading to make
good the relative track and the groundspeed along it, i.e. the speed of closing along the line of
constant bearing. As an example, consider the following data:

W/V - 060º /15 kt

TAS - 140 kt

Ship’s track - 000º T

Ship’s speed - 25 kt

Ship’s position from aircraft - 80 nm on a bearing of 330º T.

Revised Jul 10 Page 7 of 15

 AP3456 – 9-8 - Dead Reckoning Computer, Marks 4A and 5A

a. To Find Relative W/V.

(1) Adjust the card until the square-ruled part is under the dial.

(2) Set the W/V on the dial using any suitable scale (Fig 8a).

(3) Turn the dial until the ship’s track (000º T) is registered against the lubber line.

(4) From the end of the wind vector, draw a line equal to the ship’s speed to scale (25 kt)
parallel with, but away from, the lubber line (Fig 8b). This is the vector of the ship’s track and
speed reversed.

(5) Join the centre of the plotting dial to the end of this second vector to obtain the vector of the
relative W/V (Fig 8c). It measures 022º/35 kt.

b. To Find Heading to Intercept and Speed of Closing.

(1) Proceed as in para 11, to find the heading to steer and G/S to make good a track of
330º in a W/V of 022º/35 kt with a TAS of 140 kt.

(2) The heading is found to be 341º T.

(3) Although a G/S of 117 kt is found, the figure actually represents the speed of closing
along the relative track, or line of constant bearing. Thus, the ship will be intercepted after
41 minutes of flight.

Note. If the relative W/V is found using the same basic scale as represented by the concentric arcs,
there is no need to measure the relative W/V. The second step can then be taken immediately the
first two vectors of the first step are drawn.

Revised Jul 10 Page 8 of 15

 AP3456 – 9-8 - Dead Reckoning Computer, Marks 4A and 5A

9-8 Fig 8 Interception

a Setting the W/V b Setting Ship’s Speed

T R U E CO U R S E TR UE C O UR SE
10 10 VA 10 10 VA
EA
ST
20 20 R .W
ES EA
ST
20 20 R.W
ES
R. TD R. T
VA 30 VA 30 DR
LE
FT 30 50 60 70
RI
FT
RI LE
FT 30 35 0 N 10 IF
T
RI
IF
T
40 80 40 G HT IF
T
3 40 20 40 GHT
DR
40 E DR
40 0 30
30 33
10 0 40
20 0 32

0
11

50
10

31
0

0
12

60
N

30
0

90
1 30
0

70
320 330 340 3 5

W 280 2
1 40 150 1 60 1 7

80
E
260

100
250
3 10

11 0
0
0

12
S
30

24

0
0

0
19

13
29

23
0

0
0 20 0 14
28 0 22 0
21 0 15
W
0 2 20
0 21 16 0
0
230 240 250 26 00
190 2 S 170
TH TH
EL N EL N
ON
DO HTO ON
DO GH
TO
NN R IG N B RI
AM E &B N AM
PL AT E
MA DEBY
D ON E P LA M AD E BY
ON &
M FG .C O.LT D OF L ON T E M F G.C O.LTD OF LO N D

c Drawing and Reading the Relative W/V

T R U E C OU R S E
10 10 VA
EA
S T
20 20 R.W
E
R . S
VA 30 T D RIF
FT 30 20 30
T
LE 10 40
T
R
IF
N 40IGH T
40 50
R
D
0
35 60
0
34
70
0
33

80
0
32

E
28 0 290 30 0 31 0

1 00 110 12 0 13 0
W

14
60

0
2

15
50

0
2

16
0 0
24 0
17
0
23 S
22 0 19 0 200 210
TH
EL N
ON TO
DO IG H
N NA
ME & BR
D ON
M ADE BY
PL AT E M
F G.CO.LTD O F LO N

16. To Calculate Convergence (Fig 9). Convergence may be determined using the following
procedure:

a. Set the compass rose with North against the lubber line.

b. Set the zero point of the squared portion of the slide under the centre of the plotting disc.

c. Mark ch long upwards from the zero point, on the squared section, using any convenient scale
(Fig 9a).

Revised Jul 10 Page 9 of 15

 AP3456 – 9-8 - Dead Reckoning Computer, Marks 4A and 5A

d. Rotate the compass rose to set Mean Lat against the lubber line (Fig 9b).

e. Measure convergence horizontally on the squared grid (Fig 9b).

Example: Ch long 4º, Mean Lat 30º

Convergence = 2º

9-8 Fig 9 Calculating Convergence

a Marking Ch Long b Setting Mean Latitude and

Reading Convergence

TR UE CO URSE T R U E C OU R S E
10 10 10 10 VA
EA
ST
20 20 VA
R. W
EA
ST
20 20 R .W
ES E
R. AR
. S
VA 30 T DR IF V 30 T D RIF
FT 30 N 10 F T 30 30 40
LE 350 20
T
R LE 20 50
T
RI
3 40 10
T IG T
IF 40 H IF 40 GH T
40 40
R T R
D
0 30 D 60
33 N
3 20 Ch long 40
35
0
g
70

4° lon

0
0

50

80
34
31

Ch
0

0
60

E
30

33
4°

100
90

0
70

29 0 300 310 3 2
W 280 2

110 120 130 1 4

80

Convergence
E
100
260
25 0

2 80
11 0

0
12

15
0

W
24

0
13

16
0

0
23

26
0

0
0 14 0 17
22 15
0 25 0
0 40 S
21 16 0
0 2 1 90
20 0 0
190 S 170 20 0 210 22 0 2 3
TH TH
EL N E LO N
ON TO ND TO
DO RI GH GH
NN &B
O NN BR I
AM E MA D E B Y
ON A ME M AD E BY
ON &
PL AT E M
F G .CO.LT D OF L O ND P LATE
MF G .CO .LTD OF LO ND

AIRSPEED COMPUTER

Description

17. The airspeed computer works on the slide rule principle and has scales for the following
applications:

a. Computation of TAS from CAS, corrected outside air temperature (OAT) and pressure
altitude, with an ancillary scale to allow compressibility corrections to be made to TAS above
300 kt. (Note: CAS is annotated as RAS on inner scale.)

b. Inter-conversion of TAS and Mach Number.

c. Proportion problems.

Use for Airspeed Computations

18. The procedure for calculating TAS from inputs of CAS, corrected OAT, and pressure altitude is as
follows:

Revised Jul 10 Page 10 of 15

 AP3456 – 9-8 - Dead Reckoning Computer, Marks 4A and 5A

a. The inner disc is rotated so that the value of corrected OAT is set against the value of
altitude, in thousands of feet, in the window (Fig 10a).

b. The value of computed TAS can now be read on the outer scale against the value of CAS on
the inner scale (Fig 10a).

c. If the computed TAS is above 300 kt, an additional correction must be made for
compressibility error. The correction scale appears in the window, below the altitude window, and
the correction is made by rotating the inner disc anti-clockwise so that the reading of the
correction scale, against its index, is increased by the value of:

Computed TAS
− 3 divisions
100

d. The corrected TAS is now read off on the outer scale against the original CAS on the inner scale.

Note. To obtain the most accurate results from the computer, pressure altitude and corrected OAT
should be used for all airspeed computations. Even so, when computing TAS for altitudes, particularly
above 30,000 ft, noticeable, but navigationally insignificant, errors are produced when compared with
results using the mathematical formula.

19. Example. As an example, consider the calculation of TAS from the following data:

Pressure Altitude - 48,000 feet

Corrected OAT - – 56º C
CAS - 210 kt

The procedure is as follows:

a. Set −56° against 48 in the altitude window (Fig 10a).

b. Against 210 on the inner scale, read the computed TAS on the outer scale - 500 kt (Fig 10a).

c. As the computed TAS exceeds 300 kt, a compressibility correction must be made. The
current value of the correction scale is 25½. This must be adjusted by:

Comp TAS 500

−3= − 3 = 2 divisions
100 100

d. The correction scale is therefore made to read 27½ against its index (Fig 10b).

e. The corrected value of TAS is now read on the outer scale against the value of CAS (210) on
the inner scale (Fig 10b). The result is 476 kt.

Revised Jul 10 Page 11 of 15

 AP3456 – 9-8 - Dead Reckoning Computer, Marks 4A and 5A

9-8 Fig 10 Calculating TAS

a Setting Altitude against OAT b Applying Compressibility Correction

and Reading the Solution

Read TAS (Outer Scale) Read TAS (Outer Scale)

against CAS (Inner Scale) against CAS (Inner Scale)

Set Corrected OAT

against Altitude

Adjust by
2 divisions

Adjust by
2 divisions

Mach Number/True Airspeed Conversion

20. The Mach number scale appears in the altitude window at the upper end of the altitude scale.
The scale can be used for converting Mach number to TAS and vice versa (Fig 11).

9-8 Fig 11 Mach No/TAS Conversion

Set Corrected OAT

against M Index Arrow

Read TAS (Outer Scale)

against Mach Number (Inner Scale)

Revised Jul 10 Page 12 of 15

 AP3456 – 9-8 - Dead Reckoning Computer, Marks 4A and 5A

21. Inter-conversion of Mach Number and TAS. Mach number and TAS may be inter-converted in
one of two ways:

a. Set corrected outside air temperature against the Mach index arrow (marked M).

b. Set indicated outside air temperature against the intersection of Mach number and 'K' factor.
('K' factor is empirically determined for each aircraft type).

In either case, TAS is read on the outer scale against Mach number on the inner scale.

22. Example. It is required to determine the TAS corresponding to M 0.85 in a corrected OAT of − 50° T.

Using the method in para 21a (see Fig 11):

a. Set −50° C against the 'M' index arrow.

b. Read TAS (495) kt on the outer scale against 0.85 on the inner scale.

CIRCULAR SLIDE RULE

Introduction

23. The reverse sides of the Mks 4A and 5A DR Computer carry a circular slide rule. Although the
pocket electronic calculator has superseded the slide rule for carrying out arithmetic, the circular slide
rule is nevertheless useful for the solution of the normal speed, distance and time, and fuel
consumption problems which regularly occur in navigation. It should be remembered that, as with all
slide rules, decimal points are ignored during calculation and only inserted at the end. It is therefore
important to have an appreciation of the order of the result expected.

24. Reflecting the normal usage of the circular slide rule, the outer scale is marked 'MILES', and the
scale on the rotating disc (the inner scale) is marked 'MINUTES'. The inner scale has a large black
arrow indicating one hour.

Calculating Distance and Time

25. The problem most often encountered, which is solved readily by the circular slide rule, is that of
determining the time taken to cover a given distance, or conversely the distance covered in a given
time. To solve these problems, the given groundspeed is set, in knots on the outer scale, against the
black (hour) arrow of the inner scale. Distance is then read on the outer scale, against time in minutes
on the inner scale.

26. Example (Fig 12). Given a groundspeed of 470 kt, how long will it take to fly 100 nm, and how
far will the aircraft fly in 8 minutes? By setting 47 on the outer scale against the hour arrow it will be
seen that a time of 12.8 minutes on the inner scale will be read against the 10 mark on the outer scale,
ie 100 nm takes 12.8 minutes; against 8 on the inner (minutes) scale, a distance of 62.5 nm will be
read on the outer scale.

Revised Jul 10 Page 13 of 15

 AP3456 – 9-8 - Dead Reckoning Computer, Marks 4A and 5A

9-8 Fig 12 Distance/Time Calculation

Read Time required (Inner Scale)

against Distance (Outer Scale)

Read Distance travelled (Outer Scale)

against Time (Inner Scale)

Set Groundspeed
against Hour Arrow

Calculating Groundspeed

27. If the distance flown in a given time is known, the circular slide rule can be used to find the
groundspeed. The procedure is to set the distance flown on the outer scale against the time taken on
the inner scale. The groundspeed is then read on the outer scale against the black (hour) arrow of the
inner scale, e.g. if 40 nm are flown in 7 minutes, a groundspeed of 343 kt is read against the black
arrow (Fig 13).

9-8 Fig 13 Calculating G/S

Fuel Consumption

28. Given the fuel consumption rate (e.g. in kg/min) and the leg time over which that consumption
rate applies, the circular slide rule can conveniently be used to determine the total fuel used. The
fuel consumption rate is set on the outer scale against the appropriate time on the inner scale.
The total fuel used can then be read on the outer scale against the leg time on the inner scale.
Thus, in the example, Fig 14, a fuel consumption rate of 22 kg/min is set against the 1 minute
mark (remembering that there are no decimal points and 1 is identical to 10). Over a leg time of
18 minutes, it will be seen that 396 kg of fuel is used.

Revised Jul 10 Page 14 of 15

 AP3456 – 9-8 - Dead Reckoning Computer, Marks 4A and 5A

9-8 Fig 14 Fuel Consumption

Read Fuel Used (Outer Scale)

against Time (Inner Scale)

Set Consumption Rate (Outer Scale)

against appropriate Time (Inner Scale)

Unit Conversions

29. Unit conversions only require the multiplication and division of numbers, so any such calculation
could be carried out on a slide rule. However, this is not normally the quickest or most accurate method;
electronic calculators or graphical methods are generally preferred. The circular slide rule can readily
be used to convert between nautical miles, statute miles, and kilometres. The outer scale has indices
marked for each unit and, by setting the known value on the inner scale against its respective index, the
corresponding values in the other units can be read against the relevant index. Thus, for example,
setting 18 against the 'Naut' index gives values of 20.7 statute miles and 33.3 kilometres (Fig 15).

9-8 Fig 15 Unit Conversion

Set known value (Inner Scale)

against respective Index (Outer Scale)

Read corresponding Values (Inner Scale)

against other Indexes (Outer Scale)

Revised Jul 10 Page 15 of 15

 AP3456 – 9-9 - Sunrise, Sunset and Twilight

CHAPTER 9 - SUNRISE, SUNSET AND TWILIGHT

Introduction

1. The intensity of sunlight received at any point on Earth depends on the Sun’s altitude1, the
maximum daily intensity being received at local noon when the Sun is at its zenith. Direct sunlight
begins at sunrise and ceases at sunset when the Sun’s upper rim is on the horizon. Due to the
reflective properties of the atmosphere, a period of diffused light, known as twilight, precedes sunrise
and follows sunset. This chapter should be read in conjunction with the UK Air Almanac which
contains data regarding Sunrise and Sunset times, Moonrise and Moonset times and the duration of
Twilight. The UK Air Almanac is available on the Aeronautical Information Documents Unit (AIDU)
website (www.aidu.mod.uk/Milflip) and also as a free PDF download from HM Nautical Almanac Office
at http://astro.ukho.gov.uk/ (www). The Almanac contains tables and graphs, along with instructions
for use, to allow the user to determine the required data.

Theoretical Risings and Settings of the Sun

2. Theoretical rising and setting occurs when the Sun’s centre is on the observer’s celestial horizon.2
Due to atmospheric refraction, an observer sees objects below his celestial horizon (Fig 1).

9-9 Fig 1 Sensible and Visible Horizons

Z Sensible Horizon
Refraction
Depression

Vis
ible
H oriz
on
Semi-
diameter

SUNRISE AND SUNSET

Depression

3. Sunrise and sunset are respectively defined as the point when the upper rim of the Sun just
appears above (sunrise) or disappears below (sunset) the observer’s visible horizon. At these times,
the Sun’s centre is 50' of arc below the celestial horizon. Atmospheric refraction accounts for 34' and
the Sun’s semi-diameter for the other 16'. The predicted times of sunrise and sunset tabulated in the
Air Almanac3 are calculated using this depression of 50' which approximates to 0.8°. The tabulated
times of sunrise and sunset given in the Air Almanac are in local mean time (LMT).

Variation in Times of Sunrise and Sunset with Latitude

4. When the Sun’s declination4 (north or south of the celestial equator) is of the SAME name as the
observer’s latitude (north or south of the earth’s equator), sunrise occurs earlier and sunset later as the
observer’s latitude increases. In high latitudes, when declination is greater than co-latitude (Fig 2), the
Sun is continuously above the horizon. Conversely, when the Sun’s declination and the observer’s

Revised Sep 12 Page 1 of 6

 AP3456 – 9-9 - Sunrise, Sunset and Twilight

latitude are CONTRARY named, sunrise occurs later and sunset earlier as the observer’s latitude
increases.

9-9 Fig 2 Co-latitude

N
Co-latitude (90-latitude)

Observers latitude
23.5°
Eq
ua
tor Sun’s declination

Variation in Times of Sunrise and Sunset with Height

5. The plane of the observer’s visible horizon changes with change in height; sunrise becomes
earlier and sunset later with an increase in height (Fig 3). θ is given by the formula:

θ = 1. 06 observer' s height in feet

9-9 Fig 3 Effect of Height on Sunrise and Sunset

Observer at 20,000 ft
θ
Horizon at Surface
' Observer Sunrise
00
0 ,0 at Surface at
t2 Surface
na
ir zo
Ho
Sunrise
at
20,000'

θ = 1.06 √ observer’s height in feet

Tabulation of Sunrise and Sunset

6. Three ways of presenting the time of sunrise and sunset are given in the Air Almanac:

a. Sunrise and Sunset Tables.

b. Semi-duration of Sunlight Graphs.

c. Rising, Setting and Depression Graphs.

Full descriptions of the Table and the Graphs are given in the Air Almanac; brief descriptions are
included in paragraphs 7 to 9.

Revised Sep 12 Page 2 of 6

 AP3456 – 9-9 - Sunrise, Sunset and Twilight

7. Sunrise and Sunset Tables. These tables give the times of sunrise and sunset for an observer at
the surface on the Greenwich Meridian between latitudes 60° S and 72° N. The Coordinated Universal
Time (UTC) of sunrise and sunset are tabulated at three-day intervals. UTC is referred to as UT in the Air
Almanac. The tabulated UT of the occurrence may be taken as the local time of the occurrence at
meridians other than Greenwich. The normal entering arguments are tabular date and observer’s
latitude. The following symbols indicate that the Sun is continuously above or below the horizon:

Sun continuously above horizon

Sun continuously below horizon.

8. Semi-duration of Sunlight Graphs. The times of sunrise and sunset at sea level for latitudes
between 65° N and 90° N may be determined using the Semi-duration Graphs. The LMT of the Sun’s
transit and the semi-duration of sunlight are obtained from the graphs. The times of sunrise and
sunset are found from the relationships:

LMT of sunrise = LMT of Transit – semi-duration

LMT of sunset = LMT of Transit + semi-duration.

9. Rising, Setting and Depression Graphs. Rising, Setting and Depression Graphs are provided
for each 2° of latitude from 72° to 50° and every 5° from 50° to 0°. An associated table gives the
following information:

a. Daily LMT of Sun’s meridian passage.

b. Daily declination of Sun at 1200 UT.

c. Sun’s depression at rising or setting for heights between 0 feet and 60,000 feet.

The semi-duration of sunlight, expressed as an hour angle, is obtained by entering the graph for the
appropriate latitude with Sun’s declination and the depression value corresponding to aircraft height. The
LMT of sunrise and sunset are calculated by applying the semi-duration to the LMT of meridian passage.
In high latitudes, a small latitude change may correspond to a large change in hour angle, and a
subsidiary graph is provided for interpolation. Without interpolation, the maximum error is 12 min up to
42°, increasing to 15 min by 52°.

TWILIGHT

Types of Twilight

10. The period of diffused light before sunrise and after sunset is known as twilight. The amount of
illumination varies with the Sun’s depression and also with atmospheric conditions. Three twilights,
each occurring at a particular depression value, are recognized:

a. Civil Twilight. Civil twilight occurs when the Sun’s centre is 6° below the sensible horizon.
Light conditions are such that everyday tasks are just possible without artificial light.

b. Nautical Twilight. At nautical twilight, the Sun’s centre is 12° below the sensible horizon.
General outlines are still discernible, and all the brighter stars are visible.

Revised Sep 12 Page 3 of 6

 AP3456 – 9-9 - Sunrise, Sunset and Twilight

c. Astronomical Twilight. At astronomical twilight, the Sun’s centre is 18° below the sensible
horizon. All the stars are visible. Astronomical twilight is regarded as synonymous with complete
darkness.

Dimensions of the Twilight Zone

11. The difference between the depression angle of the Sun at sunrise and sunset (0.8°) and that for the
beginning or end of civil twilight is 5.2°, which is the dimension of the twilight zone around the earth. This,
in turn, can be converted into a distance of 312 nm because 1' of arc on the surface of the Earth is equal
to 1 nm.

Factors Affecting Duration and Time of Twilight

12. The duration and time of twilight for a stationary observer depend upon the following:

a. Observer’s Latitude.

b. Sun’s Declination.

c. Height of Observer above Sea Level.

Variation of Twilight with Latitude

13. Fig 4 shows two observers, Z and Z1, their respective horizons, VH and V1H1, and associated
twilight belts. The Sun, declination d°, crosses observer Z1’s twilight zone from A to B, the duration of
twilight being A1B1, while for observer Z, the Sun crosses from C to D, giving duration C1D1. Duration
A1B1 is greater than C1D1, and therefore the duration of twilight increases with increased latitude. In
high latitudes, ie when same-name declination is greater than co-latitude, the Sun is continuously
above the horizon. Similarly, the Sun may remain less than 6° below the horizon giving twilight
conditions throughout the night. This condition is indicated by the symbol //// in the Air Almanac.

9-9 Fig 4 Variation in Duration of Twilight with Latitude

P
H

H1

Z
D C
B A
Sun’s Declination (d°)
Eq
D1 B1

V1
Width
312 nm
V

Revised Sep 12 Page 4 of 6

 AP3456 – 9-9 - Sunrise, Sunset and Twilight

Variation of Twilight with Height

14. The Sun rises earlier and sets later with an increase in height. Morning twilight therefore occurs
earlier and evening twilight later as height increases. The amount of pollution in the atmosphere
decreases with height resulting in a decrease in the amount of light reflected and scattered by particles in
the air. The degree of illumination associated with a depression of 6° at sea level occurs at a depression
of less than 6° at height. Fig 5 shows the decrease in the duration of twilight with height.

9-9 Fig 5 Decrease in Duration of Twilight with Height

40
Altitude (1000 feet)

30

End
ing or
20

wilight
Beginn
Civil T
10

0
0° 1° 2° 3° 4° 5° 6° 7° 8°
Degrees Below Horizon
(Defined at Sea Level)

Tabulation of Duration of Twilight

15. The duration of twilight is presented in the Air Almanac, together with the times of sunrise and
sunset. One table and two graphical solutions are provided. Full explanations are given in the Air
Almanac, but brief descriptions are included below.

16. Civil Twilight Tables. The times of morning civil twilight and evening civil twilight are tabulated in
the Air Almanac at three-day intervals for latitudes between 60° S and 72° N. The times given are the
UT of the occurrences at sea level on the Greenwich Meridian, but the UT of the occurrences may be
regarded as the LMT of the occurrences at other meridians.

17. Duration of Twilight Graph. The duration of Twilight graph gives the time interval between
morning civil twilight and sunrise (or sunset to evening civil twilight). In the region "No Twilight nor
Sunlight" the Sun is continuously more than 6° below the horizon. Adjacent to this "No Twilight nor
Sunlight" region, is a region where the Sun’s depression is less than 6° for part of the day, although the
semi-duration of sunlight graphs show the Sun to be continuously below the horizon. In this region, the
duration of twilight is the sum of the intervals between morning civil twilight and meridian passage, and
meridian passage and evening civil twilight. The total duration of twilight is, therefore, double that
given by the graph.

18. Rising, Setting and Depression Graphs. The numerical values of the depressions
corresponding to specific brightness at various height are difficult to quantify. However, a particular
brightness at a particular height is always associated with a specific depression value.

Revised Sep 12 Page 5 of 6

 AP3456 – 9-9 - Sunrise, Sunset and Twilight

SUNLIGHT AND TWILIGHT IN HIGH LATITUDES

General

19. In high latitudes, the Sun may be above or below the horizon all day. Twilight conditions, where
they exist, last longer than at low latitudes. In extreme cases, morning and evening twilights are
continuous, the Sun remaining below the visible horizon all day.

20. The Sun’s apparent path over the Earth is from East to West. An aircraft travelling westwards
travels "with the Sun". If the westerly component of ground speed equals 15° of longitude per hour, the
light conditions experienced remain constant. An aircraft travelling at less than 15° of westerly
longitude per hour experiences a slower change of light conditions than a stationary observer on the
Earth. On easterly tracks the Sun’s westward velocity and the aircraft’s easterly velocity combine,
accelerating the normal daily change of light conditions. In the space of a few hours an aircraft might
pass from daylight through evening twilight, night and morning twilight back into daylight.

21. In high latitudes, the times of sunrise, sunset, and twilight for various points along the route may
be established from tables and graphs in the Air Almanac.

End note:

1 Altitude - The angular distance between the direction to an object and the horizon. Altitude ranges
from 0 degrees for an object on the horizon to 90 degrees for an object directly overhead.

2 Celestial Horizon - The celestial horizon is a great circle on the celestial sphere whose plane lies at
90° to the zenith/nadir axis of an observer and passes through the centre of both the Earth and the
celestial sphere.

3 Air Almanac - The UK Air Almanac is available as a free PDF download from HM Nautical Almanac
Office at http://astro.ukho.gov.uk/ (www).

4 Declination - The angular distance of a celestial body north or south of the celestial equator.
Declination is analogous to latitude in the terrestrial coordinate system.

Revised Sep 12 Page 6 of 6

 AP3456 – 9-10 - The Moon

CHAPTER 10 - THE MOON

GENERAL

Introduction

1. The Moon is the Earth’s only natural satellite. Because of its short period of revolution about the Earth,
the Moon’s position on the celestial sphere1 is constantly changing. Like the planets, the Moon is not self-
luminous, but shines by reflecting sunlight. The intensity of moonlight varies with the Moon’s phase.

THE MOON’S ORBIT

General

2. The Moon revolves around the Earth in an elliptical orbit in accordance with Kepler’s first law2, modified
by perturbations caused by the sun. The orbit is inclined at 5° to the ecliptic, the points of intersection
between the orbit and the ecliptic being known as the Ascending and Descending Nodes (Fig 1). The
Moon’s Nodes precess westwards along the ecliptic, completing one revolution in 18.6 years.

9-10 Fig 1 Motion of the Moon Relative to Ecliptic

a b

Descending
Node

t
bit bi
Earth Or Earth Or
’s n’s
on o
Mo Mo
Ecliptic Ecliptic

Ascending Moon’s Orbit

Node Inclined at 5° Nodes
to Ecliptic Precess
Westerly

The Moon’s Phases

3. Seen from Earth, the phase3 or shape of the Moon depends on the Moon’s position relative to the
Sun and on the angle at which the Moon’s illuminated hemisphere is presented to the Earth. The eight
phases of the Moon, in Fig 2, are drawn as they appear to an observer on Earth, ie looking outwards
from the centre of the diagram.

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 AP3456 – 9-10 - The Moon

9-10 Fig 2 Phases of the Moon

Easterly Quadrature
First Quarter

Gibbous Phase Crescent Phase

Opposition Conjunction
X Sun’s
Full Moon New Moon Rays

Gibbous Phase Crescent Phase

Westerly Quadrature
Last Quarter

4. The interval between successive New Moons is approximately 29.5 days. The Moon’s age is
measured in days from the New Moon. At New Moon the Moon’s age is 0 days and at First Quarter
about 7 days. Full Moon occurs about 15 days and Last Quarter about 22 days. The Moon’s age is
given in the Air Almanac4.

5. At New Moon, the Moon and the Sun are over the observer’s meridian at the same time, ie local
noon. When the Moon is above the horizon in the periods immediately preceding and following New
Moon, the illuminated portion of the Moon presented to the observer is too small to be seen against
the sunlight. The Moon crosses the observer’s meridian at 1800 Local Mean Time (LMT) at the First
Quarter, 2400 LMT at Full Moon, and 0600 LMT at Last Quarter.

MOONRISE AND MOONSET

Visible Rising and Setting

6. The Moon’s visible risings and settings occur when the Moon’s upper rim is just on the visible
horizon. The Moon’s average altitude at visible rising and setting is +7' of arc:

HO upper rim = 00º 00'

Atmospheric Refraction = – 34'
Semi Diameter = – 16'
Horizontal Parallax = + 57' (average)
HO Moon’s Centre = + 7'

Because of the varying distances between the Moon and the Earth the value of horizontal parallax
varies between 54' and 61'. In practice, the times of visible rising and setting given in the Air Almanac
are calculated using an altitude of (–50' + HP), where HP is the actual value of horizontal parallax at
the time of the occurrence.

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 AP3456 – 9-10 - The Moon

Retrograde Motion of the Moon

7. Calculation of the times of moonrise and moonset at longitudes other than Greenwich is
complicated by the Moon’s movement around its orbit. The Moon moves around its orbit in the same
direction as the Earth’s rotation, completing one orbit in approximately 29.5 days. The average daily
movement along the orbit is approximately 12°, or 48 minutes of time. In Fig 3, Z1 and Z2 are the
positions of successive moonsets, the Moon’s declination being assumed constant. During the time it
takes the Earth to rotate through 360°, the Moon moves 12° along its orbit. Moonset on the second
day occurs at Z2 and not Z1. The observer moves 372° between moonsets, i.e. the elapsed time
between moonsets is 24 hours 48 minutes.

9-10 Fig 3 Retrograde Motion of the Moon

Z2 Z1
Horizon 2 Moonset
12° 12° (Approx) 2nd Day

0 372°
Horizo Moonset
n1
1st Day

Effect of Declination Changes on Times of Moonrise and Moonset

8. The daily change in declination5 can be sufficiently great to have a considerable effect on the
times of moonrise and moonset. When the Moon’s declination is increasing, the daily time lag of 48
minutes in the time of moonrise reduces for SAME name declinations and increases for CONTRARY
name declinations. Conversely, when the Moon’s declination is decreasing, the daily time lag is
increased for SAME name declinations and decreases for CONTRARY name declinations (Fig 4).

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 AP3456 – 9-10 - The Moon

9-10 Fig 4 Effect of Declination Changes on Time of Moonrise

48 Minutes Time Lag

Increased P Decreased

H
2nd Day
1st Day Moon’s Path
MR2
Dec Inc Nth
MR1
Eq
1st Day
Moon’s Path
MR1 2nd Day Dec Inc Sth

MR2
V

9. The effect of the declination changes on the time of moonset is reversed. When declination is
increasing, the time lag, increases for SAME name declinations, and decreases for CONTRARY name
declinations (Fig 5).

9-10 Fig 5 Effect of Declination Changes on Time of Moonset

48 Minutes Time Lag

Increased P Reduced

MS2 2nd Day

Moon’s Path
1st Day
MS1 Dec Inc Nth
Eq
1st Day
Moon’s Path
MS1 2nd Day
Dec Inc Sth
MS2

Effect of Latitude on Times of Moonrise and Moonset

10. For any given daily change of declination, the effect on the times of moonrise and moonset
increases with latitude. In Fig 6, the Moon’s declination has the SAME name and is increasing. The
time of moonset on both days is shown. The increase in time lag experienced by observer Z1 is larger
than the increase experienced by observer Z2.

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 AP3456 – 9-10 - The Moon

9-10 Fig 6 Effect of Latitude

Large Increase Small Increase

in Time Lag at in Time Lag at
High Latitudes
Low Latitudes
P

V2 Z1

Z2
V1
2nd Day
Moon’s
MS2 MS2 1st Day
Path
MS1 MS1
Eq

H1

H2

Effect of Longitude on Times of Moonrise and Moonset

11. Due to the above effects, the LMT of moonrise and moonset at the Greenwich Meridian cannot be
considered the LMT of the occurrences at other meridians. The difference between the times of the
occurrences at Greenwich and the times of the occurrences at the 180° E/W meridian are calculated
and tabulated in the Air Almanac. Since the rate of change of declination is almost constant, the
difference between the time of an occurrence at Greenwich and the time at any other meridian may be
found by simple proportion. A simple proportion table is provided to facilitate interpolation for
intermediate longitudes. The corrected difference is applied to the LMT of the occurrence at
Greenwich to give the LMT of the occurrence at the desired longitude.

Effect of Height on Times of Moonrise and Moonset

12. The effect of height on the times of moonrise and moonset is complicated by the Moon’s rapid
movement and is therefore ignored.

Variations in the Daily Time Lag and their Effect on Moonrise and Moonset

13. The 48 minute difference between the time of successive moonrise and moonset is modified by
the effects of latitude and declination, but the overall interval between successive phenomena is
usually greater than 24 hours. When the observer’s latitude exceeds the complement of the obliquity
of the Moon’s orbit, the daily declination change may not only cancel out the 48-minute time lag, but
reduce the time between successive risings or settings to less than 24 hours.

14. When the interval between successive phenomena is less than 24 hours, the Moon may rise and
set twice in one day. Both times are given in the Air Almanac. Each month, around the last quarter,
there is one day without a moonrise, and another, around the first quarter, without a moonset. On
these occasions, the time of the following moonrise or moonset at Greenwich will be later than 2400,

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 AP3456 – 9-10 - The Moon

e.g. 2420. This time, e.g. 2420, is given to facilitate the calculation of the times of the phenomena at
other longitudes.

Tabulation of Times of Moonrise and Moonset

15. Daily Tables. The LMT of moonrise and moonset at latitudes between 60° S and 72° N on the
Greenwich Meridian are tabulated in the Air Almanac. The LMT of the occurrences at longitudes other
than Greenwich are established using the tabulated differences and the interpolation table discussed in
para 11. When calculating the LMT of moonrise and moonset for a particular day, the time calculated
may be in the previous or the following day; the time of the occurrence at Greenwich is for the required
day, but the addition or subtraction of the difference correction may move the LMT of the occurrence into
the previous or the following day. The LMT of the occurrence is then found by adding or subtracting 24
hours plus twice the tabulated difference. Twice the difference is applied because the difference
correction to 360° of longitude is required, and the difference tabulated is for 180° of longitude.

16. Semi-Duration of Moonlight Graphs. The Semi-Duration of Moonlight Graphs give the LMT of
the Moon’s meridian passage and the semi-duration of moonlight for latitudes above 65° N. The times
of meridian passage and the semi-durations change rapidly, and care must be taken to read the
graphs accurately.

17. Use of Moonlight Graphs. A rough idea of the times of moonrise and moonset may be obtained
from a superficial examination of the graphs. The vertical from the appropriate date cuts the top scale
at the LMT of meridian passage. The intersection of the vertical with the appropriate latitude line gives
the semi-duration of moonlight. The semi-duration is added to and subtracted from the LMT of
meridian passage to give the times of moonset and moonrise respectively. The times obtained are the
LMT of the occurrences on the Greenwich Meridian. The times at meridians other than Greenwich
may be obtained by either of the following methods:

a. The LMT of moonrise and moonset on the Greenwich Meridian is calculated for the required
date and either the following date or the preceding date. The difference in the times represents
the effect of a 360° change of longitude. The time of moonrise or moonset at the desired
meridian is then established by proportioning the 360° difference.

b. The dates on the graph correspond to 00 hrs LMT at the Greenwich Meridian. The times of
meridian passage, moonrise and moonset are estimated directly from the graphs. The times
extracted are converted to the UT at the desired longitude. The graph is re-entered at the point
on the daily scale corresponding to the UT of meridian passage at the desired longitude, and a
new value of LMT meridian passage obtained. Similarly, the UT of moonrise and moonset are
used to establish further semi-duration values. The LMT of moonrise and moonset are obtained
by applying the new semi-duration values to the new time of meridian passage.

1 Celestial Sphere - The celestial sphere is an imaginary sphere of infinite radius, concentric with the
Earth, on which all celestial bodies are imagined to be projected.

2 Kepler’s Laws - Kepler defined the following laws of planetary motion:

a. The orbit of each planet is an ellipse, with the Sun at one of the foci.

b. The line joining the planet to the Sun sweeps across equal areas in equal times.

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 AP3456 – 9-10 - The Moon

c. The square of the sidereal period of a planet is proportional to the cube of its mean distance
from the Sun.

P′
(Aphelion)
Major axis S
A P
A′ Foci

(Perihelion)
El
lipt ts
i cal or of plane
bi t

3 Moon – Phases

Crescent Phase - The phase of the moon at which only a small, crescent-shaped portion of the
near side of the Moon is illuminated by sunlight. Crescent phase occurs just before and after new
moon.
Full Phase - The phase of the moon at which the bright side of the Moon is the face turned
toward the Earth.
New Phase - The phase of the moon in which none or almost none of the near side of the Moon
is illuminated by sunlight, so the near side appears dark.
Quarter phase - The phase of the moon in which half of the near side of the Moon is illuminated
by the Sun.
Waning Crescent - The Moon's crescent phase that occurs just before new moon.
Waxing Crescent - The Moon's crescent phase that occurs just after new moon.

4 Air Almanac - The UK Air Almanac is available as a free PDF download from HM Nautical Almanac
Office at http://astro.ukho.gov.uk/ (www).

5 Declination - The angular distance of a celestial body north or south of the celestial equator.
Declination is analogous to latitude in the terrestrial coordinate system.

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 AP3456 – 9-11 - Time

CHAPTER 11 - TIME

Introduction

1. From the earliest days, time has been measured by observing the recurrence of astronomical
phenomena. The Earth’s rotation on its axis produces the apparent rotation of the celestial sphere1,
allowing time to be measured from the relative positions of an astronomical reference point and a specific
celestial meridian.

2. Nowadays, the fundamental properties of the atom are utilized to provide an independent basis
for time measurement. The atomic time-scale provides a precise measurement of time intervals,
the summation of these time intervals providing an accurate measure of the passage of time.
Atomic time is not related to "time of day", but the starting point of any period of atomic time may be
specified in terms of an astronomical instant.

THE DAY AND THE YEAR

General

3. The Earth’s rotation on its axis, and its revolution around the Sun, result in the natural time
intervals of the day and the year.

The Day

4. The day is the duration of one rotation of the Earth on its axis and is the interval between two
successive transits of a celestial reference point over a particular meridian.

Apparent Solar Day

5. The visible Sun is known as the apparent or true Sun, and the apparent solar day is the interval
between two successive transits of the apparent Sun over a particular meridian. The Earth’s variable
speed along the ecliptic (Kepler’s 2nd Law) causes variations in the length of the apparent solar day.

Mean Solar Day

6. A day of constantly changing length is inconvenient, and therefore the mean solar day of constant
length is used, the length being based on the average of all apparent solar days over a period of years.
Mean solar time is measured relative to the mean or astronomical mean Sun, a fictitious body
assumed to travel around the equinoctial at a constant rate. The mean solar day is divided into 24
hours, each hour of 60 minutes, and each minute of 60 seconds of mean solar time or mean time.

7. The astronomical mean Sun must have a constant angular velocity in the plane of the equinoctial;
a constant angular velocity in the plane of the ecliptic is unsatisfactory because the rate of change of
hour angle fluctuates due to meridian convergence.

Equation of Time

8. Mean time increases at a constant rate while apparent time increases at a variable rate. The
difference between mean and apparent time is known as the Equation of Time (E). E is not an

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 AP3456 – 9-11 - Time

equation in the normal sense, but merely a time difference. E is positive when apparent noon
precedes mean noon and negative when apparent noon follows mean noon. By convention, E
is the amount which is added algebraically to mean time to obtain apparent time.

THE YEAR

Introduction

9. One year is the period of one revolution of the Earth about the Sun relative to an astronomical
reference. The type of year takes its name from the reference used.

Sidereal Year

10. The sidereal year is the period between two successive conjunctions of the Earth, Sun, and a
fixed point in space (Fig 1).

9-11 Fig 1 Sidereal Year

Earth

Sidereal Year
Sun

Fixed Star

Tropical Year

11. The tropical year (Fig 2) is the period between two successive vernal equinoxes2, i.e. the time
taken for one orbit around the Sun relative to the First Point of Aries ()3. The tropical year
contains one complete cycle of seasons. Its length is 365 days 5 hours 48 minutes 45.98 seconds,
which is shorter than the sidereal year because of the westward precession of the equinoxes.

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 AP3456 – 9-11 - Time

9-11 Fig 2 Tropical Year

Earth

Tropical Year

Sun

Precession of  = 50.26" per Annum 

(Exaggerated in illustration) 

Civil Year

12. The civil year is based on the tropical year, but the calendar is adjusted to give each year an exact
number of days.

Gregorian Calendar

13. The Gregorian calendar assumes the length of a normal year to be 365 days, with every fourth
year being a leap year containing 366 days. After four years, the civil year and the tropical year differ
by 45 minutes, ie the calendar and the seasons are out of step by 45 minutes.

4 Civil Years = 4 × 365 days + 1 day

= 1,461 days
4 Tropical Years = 1,460 days 23 hours 15 minutes.

After 400 years, the difference has increased to 3 days 3 hours. To correct for this, nearly every year whose
number is a multiple of 100 (i.e. at the turn of each century) is treated as an ordinary year of 365 days, even
though it can be divided by 4. Only when the century number (i.e. the first two figures of the year) is divisible
by four, is it a leap year. This adjustment loses three days every 400 years and is known as the Gregorian
Correction. At the end of 4,000 years the total error will be 1 day 4 hours 55 minutes.

Time and Hour Angle

14. The Earth rotates once in 24 hours relative to the mean Sun. 360° of hour angle is equivalent to
24 hours of mean solar time or mean time. Hour angle is therefore interchangeable with mean time:

360º ≡ 24 hours
15º ≡ 1 hour
15' ≡ 1 minute
15'' ≡ 1 second.

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 AP3456 – 9-11 - Time

Local Mean Time

15. Local Mean Time (LMT) is defined as the arc of the equinoctial intercepted between the
observer’s anti-meridian and the meridian of the mean Sun measured westwards, i.e. the elapsed time
since the mean Sun’s transit of the observer’s celestial anti-meridian:

LMT = local hour angle mean Sun (LHAMS) ± 12 hours.

The anti-meridian is used so that the local date changes during the hours of darkness. The mean Sun
crosses an observer’s meridian at 1200 LMT, ie local noon.

16. Since LMT depends upon LHAMS, LMT varies with longitude; LMT at one longitude is converted
to LMT at another longitude by applying the ch long converted to time. Ch long East, in hours and
minutes, is added to LMT at the original longitude to obtain LMT at the desired longitude:

+ E ch long
LMT2 = LMT1
− W ch long

a. Example 1. LMT and local date (LD) are 03.10.00 on 2 August at Longitude 12° W. Find
LMT and LD at longitude 33° E.

LMT at 12° W = 03.10.00 on 2 Aug

Ch long 45° E ≡ +03 (see para 20)
LMT at 33° E = 06.10.00 on 2 Aug.

Note. The date must be included in all time problems. Where the sum of the original time and ch
long exceeds 24 hours, the date is increased by one day. Conversely, where the sum is less, i.e.
a negative value, the date is decreased by one day.

b. Example 2. LMT and LD are 09.40.00 at longitude 46° E on 2 August. Find LMT and LD in
longitude 110° W.

LMT at 46° E = 09.40.00 on 2 Aug

Ch long 156° W ≡ − 10.24.00
∴ LMT at 110° W = − 00.44.00 on 2 Aug
= 23.16.00 on 1 Aug.

Coordinated Universal Time (UTC)

17. UTC is used as the world standard of reference time. For all practical purposes it can be
regarded as LMT at the Greenwich Meridian. UTC can therefore be converted to LMT at any other
meridian by applying longitude, converted to time:

+ long E
LMT = UTC
− long W

The relationship between UTC and LMT is illustrated in Figs 3a and 3b. G represents the Greenwich
Meridian; Z the observer’s meridian and S is the Sun’s meridian.

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 AP3456 – 9-11 - Time

9-11 Fig 3 Relationship Between UTC and LMT

a Longitude East b Longitude West

UTC

UTC
LMT

LMT
P P

S S
n g WL
E Lo Z on g
Z
G G

a. Example 3. Find LMT at longitude 26° E when UTC is 10.30.00 on 2 August.

UTC = 10.30.00 on 2 Aug

26° E ≡ + 01.44.00
LMT = 12.14.00 on 2 Aug

b. Example 4. Find the LMT at longitude 120° E, when UTC is 19.32.00 and Greenwich Date
(GD) is 2 August.

UTC = 19.32.00 on 2 Aug

120° E ≡ + 08.00.00
LMT = 27.32.00 on 2 Aug
= 03.32.00 on 3 Aug

18. UTC and LMT are both unsuitable for regulating time in particular areas; UTC is in step with the
phenomena of day and night only at the Greenwich Meridian, and all longitude changes, however
small, result in changes in LMT. Zone time and standard time overcome the problems, being
approximately in step with night and day, and having the additional advantage that time remains
uniform in particular areas.

Zone Time

19. The Earth is divided, purely by longitude, into 25 zones, all of which are 15° of longitude
(or 1 hour) wide, except for the two semi-zones adjacent to the International Date Line (approximately
180° E/W - see para 25). The central meridians of the zones are removed from the Greenwich
meridian by multiples of 15° and the extremities of the zones are bounded by meridians 7.5° removed
from the central meridian. The zones are each allocated an identifying letter as shown in Fig 4.

20. The zone time is the LMT of its central meridian, and therefore zone time differs from UTC by
multiples of one hour. Furthermore, zone time is related to sun time ± 30 minutes.

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 AP3456 – 9-11 - Time

21. The number of hours difference between zone time and UTC can be calculated by dividing the
longitude by 15 and approximating the result to the nearest whole number, e.g.:

A ship at 48° W shows a zone time of 1800 hours on 2 August ie 1800 hours P. What is the
UTC?

Dividing 48 by 15 gives 3.2, which is 3 to the nearest whole number. Therefore, UTC is 3 hours
different from zone time. As the longitude is West the 3 hours must be added to zone time to find
UTC. UTC is thus 2100 hours on August 2.

Standard Time

22. Each national authority throughout the world has decreed that a particular LMT shall be kept
throughout its country; this time is known as standard time. In those countries with a significant east-west
extent, such as the USA and Australia, further subdivision is necessary. Although the standard times, in
general, approximate to zone time, the boundaries tend to follow natural features such as rivers or
mountain ranges, or national or state borders, and are not tied to specific longitudinal changes.

23. Standard times mostly differ from UTC by whole numbers of hours and the Air Almanac contains
three lists showing the differences between UTC and the standard times kept throughout the world.
List I shows those places fast on UTC (mainly East of Greenwich), list II those places keeping UTC,
and list III those places slow on UTC (West of Greenwich).

24. Many countries keep summer, or daylight-saving time, which is one hour fast on standard time, for
all or part of the year. Such variations are noted in the Air Almanac.

International Date Line

25. The LMT of places east of Greenwich are ahead of UTC, and places west of Greenwich behind
UTC, LMT on the Greenwich anti-meridian is therefore either 12 hours ahead or 12 hours behind UTC.
There is a 24-hour time difference between neighbouring places separated by the Greenwich anti-
meridian, ie local date changes on crossing the Greenwich anti-meridian.

26. The Greenwich anti-meridian is called the International Date Line. This date line deviates from the anti-
meridian in places, to avoid date changes occurring in the middle of populated regions. The International
Date Line is illustrated in Fig 4. On crossing the date line, one day is added on westerly tracks and
subtracted on easterly tracks. Since zone time and standard time are based on Greenwich, there is also a
change of one day in zone date and standard date when crossing the International Date Line.

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 AP3456 – 9-11 - Time

9-11 Fig 4 Time Zones

Any Zone may be described by its Zone letter. The Zone

number indicates the number of hours by which Zone Time
must be increased or decreased to obtain Greenwich Mean Time.

82o
37o
172o 30' W

22o
157 o 30' W

142 o 30' W

127 o 30' W

112o 30' W

112o 30' E

127o 30' E

142o 30' E

157o 30' E

172o 30' E
7o
97o 30' W

82o 30' W

67o 30' W

52o 30' W

37o 30' W

22o 30' W

52o 30' E

67o 30' E

97o 30' E
7o 30' W

30' E
30' E

30' E

30' E

TIME REFERENCES

Atomic Time

27. The atomic time standard is based on the fundamental properties of the caesium atom and forms
the basis of the world standard of time, (UTC). Previously, the LMT at the Greenwich meridian was used
as the standard and this is known as Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). Whereas UTC increases at a
constant rate, GMT, which is a measure of the Earth’s rotation on its axis, increases at a variable rate due
to tidal friction and other periodic changes. The variations in GMT are small, varying between − 0.5
seconds and + 2.5 seconds a year, but UTC must be corrected for the variations before it equals GMT.

28. All primary time signals give UTC, and a coded correction is included to enable UTC to be
converted to GMT to an accuracy of 0.1 second. By international agreement, UTC is allowed to depart
from GMT by 0.7 seconds. When the correction reaches 0.7 seconds, a positive or negative leap
second is applied to UTC. For all normal air navigation purposes UTC and GMT can be regarded as
identical since the maximum error involved is 0.7 seconds.

Radio Time Signals

28. Numerous national and commercial broadcast stations throughout the world transmit frequent
time signals whose accuracy is sufficient for all navigation purposes. Primary and secondary
transmission sources are recognized and, whereas all stations transmit UTC, the primary
transmissions include the coded correction that can be applied to UTC to obtain GMT accurate to 0.1
second. Some of the more important time signals are included in the Flight Information Handbook
together with their transmission frequency and time.

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 AP3456 – 9-11 - Time

1 Celestial Sphere - The celestial sphere is an imaginary sphere of infinite radius, concentric with the
Earth, on which all celestial bodies are imagined to be projected.

2 Vernal Equinox - The point in the sky where the Sun appears to cross the celestial equator moving
from south to north. This happens approximately on March 21.

3 Aries - First Point of Aries () (vernal (spring) equinox) Over the course of a year the
Sun, moving along its annual path, crosses the equator from south to north and again from north to
south. These crossings occur on or near 21 March and 23 September and are known as the vernal
(spring) and autumn equinoxes respectively. The vernal equinox is also known as the First Point of
Aries ().

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 AP3456 – 9-12 - Glossary of Astronomical Terms

CHAPTER 12 – GLOSSARY OF ASTRONOMICAL TERMS

Air Almanac - The UK Air Almanac is available as a free PDF download from HM Nautical Almanac
Office at http://astro.ukho.gov.uk/ (www).

Altitude - The angular distance between the direction to an object and the horizon. Altitude ranges from 0
degrees for an object on the horizon to 90 degrees for an object directly overhead.

Angular Momentum - The momentum of a body associated with its rotation or revolution. For a body in a
circular orbit, angular momentum is the product of orbital distance, orbital speed, and mass. When two
bodies collide or interact, angular momentum is conserved.

Aphelion - The point in the orbit of a solar system body where it is farthest from the Sun.

Apogee - The apogee is the point in the orbit of the Moon, planet or other artifical satellite farthest from
the Earth.

Apparent Brightness - The observed brightness of a celestial body.

Apparent Magnitude - The observed magnitude of a celestial body.

Apparent Solar Day - The amount of time that passes between successive appearances of the Sun on
the meridian. The apparent solar day varies in length throughout the year.

Apparent Solar Time - Time kept according to the actual position of the Sun in the sky. Apparent solar
noon occurs when the Sun crosses an observer’s meridian.

Aries - First Point of Aries () (vernal (spring) equinox) Over the course of a year the Sun,
moving along its annual path, crosses the equator from south to north and again from north to south.
These crossings occur on or near 21 March and 23 September and are known as the vernal (spring)
and autumn equinoxes respectively. The vernal equinox is also known as the First Point of Aries ().

Ascending Node - The point in the Moon’s orbit where it crosses the ecliptic from south to north.

Autumnal Equinox - The point in the sky where the Sun appears to cross the celestial equator moving
from north to south. This happens on approximately September 22.

Azimuth - The angular distance between the north point on the horizon eastward around the horizon to
the point on the horizon nearest to the direction to a celestial body.

Celestial Equator - The circle where the Earth’s equator, if extended outward into space, would intersect
the celestial sphere.

Celestial Horizon - The celestial horizon is a great circle on the celestial sphere whose plane lies at 90°
to the zenith/nadir axis of an observer and passes through the centre of both the Earth and the celestial
sphere.

Celestial Sphere - The celestial sphere is an imaginary sphere of infinite radius, concentric with the Earth,
on which all celestial bodies are imagined to be projected.

Original Sep 12 Page 1 of 6

 AP3456 – 9-12 - Glossary of Astronomical Terms

Co-latitude – Co-latitude is 90º - latitude.

N
Co-latitude (90-latitude)

Observers latitude
23.5°
Eq
ua
tor

Coriolis Effect - The acceleration which a body experiences when it moves across the surface of a
rotating body. The acceleration results in a westward deflection of projectiles and currents of air or water
when they move toward the Earth’s equator and an eastward deflection when they move away from the
equator.

Declination - The angular distance of a celestial body north or south of the celestial equator. Declination
is analogous to latitude in the terrestrial coordinate system.

Descending Node - The point in the Moon’s orbit where it crosses the ecliptic from north to south.

Diurnal – Daily.

Diurnal Circle - The circular path that a celestial body traces out as it appears to move across the sky
during an entire day. Diurnal circles are centered on the north and south celestial poles.

Earth Orbit - The Earth completes one orbit round the Sun in approximately 365.25 days. The orbital
plane is called the ecliptic. The Earth’s N-S axis is inclined at 66.5º to the ecliptic. The plane of the
ecliptic makes an angle of 23.5º with the plane of the Earth’s equator; this angle is known as the obliquity
of the ecliptic.

N The Obliquity of the Ecliptic N

66.5°
Plane of Ecliptic 23.5°
Eq Eq
ua Sun ua
tor tor

S S

Earth Rotation - The Earth rotates from west to east on its axis as it orbits the Sun. The Sun’s apparent
daily path over the Earth is along a parallel of latitude, the particular latitude depending on the position of
the Sun along its apparent annual path. Since the Earth rotates from west to east, the apparent daily
movement of the Sun and all other astronomical bodies is east to west.

Earth Seasons - The tilting of the Earth’s axis causes the annual cycle of seasons. The projection of the
Sun’s apparent annual path on the Earth is a great circle inclined at 23.5º to the equator. About 23

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December, the North Pole is inclined directly away from the Sun, which is overhead the 23.5º South
parallel. Known as the winter solstice, this is winter in the northern hemisphere and summer in the
southern hemisphere.

Eccentricity - A measure of the extent to which an orbit departs from circularity. Eccentricity ranges from
0.0 for a circle to 1.0 for a parabola.

Eclipse - The obscuration of the light from the Sun when the observer enters the Moon’s shadow or the
Moon when it enters the Earth's shadow. Also, the obscuration of a star when it passes behind its binary
companion.

Eclipse Year - The interval of time (346.6 days) from one passage of the Sun through a node of the
Moon’s orbit to the next passage through the same node.

Ecliptic - The plane of the Earth’s orbit about the Sun. As a result of the Earth’s motion, the Sun appears
to move among the stars, following a path that is also called the ecliptic.

Ellipse - A closed, elongated curve describing the shape of the orbit that one body follows about another.

Equator - The line around the surface of a rotating body that is midway between the rotational poles. The
equator divides the body into northern and southern hemispheres.

Equatorial System - A coordinate system, using right ascension and declination as coordinates, used to
describe the angular location of bodies in the sky.

Equinoctial - The equinoctial is the primary great circle of the celestial sphere, and is formed by the
projection of the Earth’s equator onto the celestial sphere.

Gravity - The force of attraction between two bodies generated by their masses.

Great Circle - A circle that bisects a sphere. The celestial equator and ecliptic are examples of great
circles.

Horizon –

Celestial Horizon - The celestial horizon is a great circle on the celestial sphere whose plane lies at 90°
to the zenith/nadir axis of an observer and passes through the centre of both the Earth and the celestial
sphere.

Visible or Apparent Horizon - The line at which the Earth and sky appear to meet is called the visible or
apparent horizon. Although, on land, this is usually an irregular line, at sea, the visible horizon appears
very regular. Its position relative to the celestial sphere depends primarily upon the refractive index of the
air and the height of the observer’s eye above the surface.

Geoidal/Sensible Horizon - If the plane of the horizon forms a tangent to the Earth it is called the geoidal
horizon and if it passes through the eye of the observer (A) it is the sensible horizon.

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Zenith

A
Sensible Horizon
Geoidal Horizon
B B
Celestial Horizon
O

Geometrical B' B' Horizon

Visible C' C' Horizon

Nadir

Inclination - The tilt of the rotation axis or orbital plane of a body.

Kepler’s Laws - Kepler defined the following laws of planetary motion:

a. The orbit of each planet is an ellipse, with the Sun at one of the foci.

b. The line joining the planet to the Sun sweeps across equal areas in equal times.

c. The square of the sidereal period of a planet is proportional to the cube of its mean distance
from the Sun.

P′
(Aphelion)
Major axis S
A P
A′ Foci

(Perihelion)
El
lipt ts
i cal or of plane
bi t

Latitude - The angular distance of a point north or south of the equator of a body as measured by a
hypothetical observer at the center of a body.

Local Hour Angle - The angle, measured westward around the celestial equator, between the meridian
and the point on the equator nearest a particular celestial object.

Longitude - The angular distance around the equator of a body from a zero point to the place on the
equator nearest a particular point as measured by a hypothetical observer at the center of a body.

Major Axis - The axis of an ellipse that passes through both foci. The major axis is the longest straight
line that can be drawn inside an ellipse.

Mean Solar Time - Time kept according to the average length of the solar day.

Meridian - The great circle passing through an observer’s zenith and the north and south celestial poles.

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Moon – Phases

Crescent Phase - The phase of the moon at which only a small, crescent-shaped portion of the near side
of the Moon is illuminated by sunlight. Crescent phase occurs just before and after new moon.

Full Phase - The phase of the moon at which the bright side of the Moon is the face turned toward the
Earth.

New Phase - The phase of the moon in which none or almost none of the near side of the Moon is
illuminated by sunlight, so the near side appears dark.

Quarter phase - The phase of the moon in which half of the near side of the Moon is illuminated by the
Sun.

Waning Crescent - The Moon's crescent phase that occurs just before new moon.

Waxing Crescent - The Moon's crescent phase that occurs just after new moon.

Minute of Arc - A unit of angular measurement equal to 1/60 of a degree.

Nadir - The nadir is the point on the celestial sphere diametrically opposite the zenith.

Nodes - The points in the orbit of the Moon where the Moon crosses the ecliptic plane.

North Celestial Pole - The point above the Earth’s north pole where the Earth’s polar axis, if extended
outward into space, would intersect the celestial sphere. The diurnal circles of stars in the northern
hemisphere are centered on the north celestial pole.

Orbit - The elliptical or circular path followed by a body that is bound to another body by their mutual
gravitational attraction.

Perigee - The point in the orbit of the Moon, planet or other artifical satellite nearest to the Earth.

Perihelion - The point in the orbit of a body when it is closest to the Sun.

Period - The time it takes for a regularly repeated process to repeat itself.

Perturbation - A deviation of the orbit of a solar system body from a perfect ellipse due to the gravitational
attraction of one of the planets.

Precession - The slow, periodic conical motion of the rotation axis of the Earth or another rotating body.

Prime Meridian - The circle on the Earth’s surface that runs from pole to pole through Greenwich,
England. The zero point of longitude occurs where the prime meridian intersects the Earth’s equator

Right Ascension - Angular distance of a body along the celestial equator from the vernal equinox
eastward to the point on the equator nearest the body. Right ascension is analogous to longitude in the
terrestrial coordinate system.

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Sidereal Day - The length of time (23 hours, 56 minutes, 4.091 seconds) between successive
appearances of a star on the meridian.

Sidereal Month - The length of time required for the Moon to return to the same apparent position among
the stars.

Sidereal Period - The time it takes for a planet or satellite to complete one full orbit about the Sun or its
parent planet.

South Celestial Pole - The point above the Earth’s South Pole where the Earth's polar axis, if extended
outward into space, would intersect the celestial sphere. The diurnal circles of stars in the southern
hemisphere are centered on the south celestial pole.

Summer Solstice - The point on the ecliptic where the Sun’s declination is most northerly. The time when
the Sun is at the summer solstice, around June 21, marks the beginning of summer.

Synodic Month - The length of time (29.53 days) between successive occurrences of the same phase of
the Moon.

Synodic Period - The length of time it takes a solar system body to return to the same configuration
(opposition to opposition, for example) with respect to the Earth and the Sun.

Tropical Year - The interval of time, equal to 365.242 solar days, between successive appearances of the
Sun at the vernal equinox.

Vernal Equinox - The point in the sky where the Sun appears to cross the celestial equator moving from
south to north. This happens approximately on March 21.

Winter Solstice - The point on the ecliptic where the Sun has the most southerly declination. The time
when the Sun is at the winter solstice, around December 22, marks the beginning of winter.

Year - The length of time required for the Earth to orbit the Sun.

Zenith - The point on the celestial sphere directly above an observer.

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 AP3456 – 9-13 - Aeronautical Documents

CHAPTER 13 - AERONAUTICAL DOCUMENTS

Introduction

1. The aim of this chapter is to summarize those aeronautical documents which have a direct
application to the safe conduct of air navigation and which are available and relevant to the Services as
a whole. The chapter does not include any discussion of documents that are promulgated by
Commands or lower authorities.

2. Aeronautical information is published in a series of documents and charts known under the
generic title of Flight Information Publications (FLIPs). Revised editions of most FLIPs take effect on
certain pre-determined dates which accord with those agreed internationally under the Aeronautical
Information Regulation and Control (AIRAC) system. The information published in FLIPs may be
augmented or updated by Supplements to the UK Military Aeronautical Information Publication (UK Mil
AIP) and Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs). Classified information is not published in either FLIPs or
NOTAMs. FLIPs are available via the No 1 Aeronautical Information Documents Unit (No 1 AIDU)
website; https://www.aidu.mod.uk/MilfLIP/. The Military Flight Information Publications (MilFLIP)
provides authorised customers with secure internet access to the complete AIDU catalogue. For
MilFLIP access see para 19.

MOD AERONAUTICAL CHARTS

The Ministry of Defence Catalogue of Geographic Products (GSGS 5893)

3. The MOD Catalogue of Geographic Products (GSGS 5893) provides details of the principal series
of topographical maps, air charts and digital geographic products that are required by the Army, the
Royal Air Force and the Royal Navy. The catalogue is available in electronic format only, and is
updated regularly.

4. For each series of maps or air charts, a coverage diagram depicts the geographical limits of both
the series and of the individual sheets. A portion of a sheet is usually included as an example. Each
map or chart series is further described under the following headings:

a. Type. This section gives the purpose of the series, e.g. "Topographical (Air), coloured,
overprints".

b. Format. In addition to naming the map projection used, this section includes other details
such as the standard parallels and the scale factor of the chart.

c. Size. This section states the physical size of individual charts.

d. Characteristics. This section gives details of the aeronautical information represented on

the chart, and the base map used.

5. Moving Map Displays for aircraft are listed and detailed (including areas of coverage) within this
catalogue.

Chart Amendment Document (CHAD)

6. Chart Amendment Document. The Chart Amendment Document (CHAD) is available on line via
the AIDU website to inform all MOD flying units and other holders of the GSGS 5893 of:

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 AP3456 – 9-13 - Aeronautical Documents

a. Significant additions and corrections to be considered when using the current edition of
published charts within the geographical areas defined in the CHAD.

b. Notices of special interest to MOD aeronautical chart users.

Chart Updating Manual (CHUM)

7. Chart Updating Manual. The Chart Updating Manual (CHUM) is available on line via the AIDU
website and amends certain US and RAF charts (Low Flying Charts and the FLIP En Route Charts are
excluded from the CHAD/CHUM coverage.

Chart Amendments - Low Flying (CALF)

8. The Chart Amendment–Low Flying (CALF) provides an amendment service for the Low Flying
Charts (LFC) and M5219-Air paper charts. Incorporated in the CALF is the Low Flying Supplement,
containing the operating hours of scheduled airspace within the coverage of the Low Flying Charts.
The CALF is available as a paper booklet or download from the AIDU website.

THE UNITED KINGDOM AERONAUTICAL INFORMATION SERVICE

9. The United Kingdom Aeronautical Information Service (UK AIS) is part of National Air Traffic
Services (NATS) Ltd and is located close to London Heathrow Airport. UK AIS is responsible for the
collection and dissemination of information necessary for the safety, regularity and efficiency of air
navigation throughout UK airspace. Details of UK AIS services and products can be obtained from the
AIS website at http://www.nats-uk.ead-it.com/public/index.php.html .

The AIRAC System

10. The Aeronautical Information Regulation and Control (AIRAC) system gives a framework for
planned changes to aeronautical facilities, procedures and regulations. A series of pre-determined
dates (known as AIRAC dates) is published in advance. Changes will normally be planned to take
effect on these AIRAC dates. Thus, with reasonable notice (normally 28 days), all operators can be
made aware of any forthcoming change and its effective date.

The UK Integrated Aeronautical Information Package

11. The UK AIS produces aeronautical information in several publication formats, under the generic
title of 'The UK Integrated Aeronautical Information Package (UKIAIP)'. Details of the UKIAIP can be
obtained from the AIS website. The UKIAIP consists of:

a. The UK Aeronautical Information Publication (UK AIP). The UK AIP contains information
essential to air navigation and operations within UK airspace. The UK AIP can be accessed via the AIS
website.

b. UK AIP Supplements. UK AIP Supplements detail temporary changes to the UK AIP,

usually of long duration, and contain comprehensive text and/or graphics.

c. Aeronautical Information Circulars (AICs). AICs are notices relating to safety, navigation,
technical, administrative or legal matters.

d. NOTAMs. NOTAMs are notices relating to the condition or change to any facility, service or
procedure notified within the UK AIP.

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e. Pre-flight Information Bulletins (PIBs). PIBs are summaries of the current status of
aeronautical facilities and services and are available on the AIS website. They are produced for
pre-selected areas, with almost world-wide coverage, and contain edited versions of selected
NOTAMs. PIBs are issued as general bulletins containing route, aerodrome and general
information, and also as navigation warning bulletins.

Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs)

12. A NOTAM is a notice containing information concerning the establishment, condition or change in
any aeronautical facility, service, procedure or hazard, the timely knowledge of which is essential to
personnel concerned with flight operations. Trigger MOTAMs are used to inform users of operationally
significant information due to be incorporated in an AIP amendment or SUP. NOTAMs are available
from the AIS website.

13. The existence of a NOTAM advising of an activity within an area does not grant the sponsor sole
use of the airspace concerned, but simply advises other airspace users of the activity.

14. A NOTAM will deal with one subject only and is originated by the unit where the change occurs.
NOTAMs should be restricted to information of a temporary nature and of short duration but may also
be used when operationally significant permanent changes, or temporary changes of long duration, are
made at short notice.

15. The NOTAM Code. Details of the NOTAM Code, its format and use are contained in the UK Mil
AIP and in the Flight Information Handbook (FIH).

16. The UK NOTAM Service. The UK International NOTAM Office is a combined military and civil
organisation within NATS and is part of the UK AIS. AIS Heathrow distributes NOTAMs to military
units in accordance with distributions lists laid down by MOD. Low Flying Operations Squadron
(Ops LF) based at RAF Wittering issue NOTAMs concerning the UK low flying system.

17. NOTAM Display Boards. NOTAMs are displayed in all RAF briefing rooms to facilitate easy
reference to NOTAM information.

SNOWTAMs

18. A SNOWTAM is a specific type of NOTAM, used for notifying the presence or removal of hazardous
conditions due to snow, slush, ice or standing water on the movement areas of aerodromes. The
SNOWTAM proforma is explained in the UK Mil AIP and in the FIH.

MILITARY AERONAUTICAL INFORMATION SERVICES

No 1 Aeronautical Information Documents Unit (No 1 AIDU)

19. No 1 Aeronautical Information Documents Unit (No 1 AIDU) is responsible for the publication and
distribution of all permanent unclassified information concerning any aeronautical facility, service, procedure
or hazard, that might be required by UK military personnel directly involved with the operation and safety of
aircraft. Most of this information is now provided in both hard copy and digital format. No 1 AIDU has a
policy to migrate from the provision of paper-based products to an electronic format where customers will
download and print products locally. The AIDU website can be accessed via the web address in para 2. To
access MilFLIP, a username and password is required which can be obtained by logging on to the AIDU

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 AP3456 – 9-13 - Aeronautical Documents

website and selecting MilFLIP, where a request for a new account can be processed. This will allow
the user to apply for access and for AIDU to verify the request. Deployed or diverted crews can obtain
emergency access via AIDU Customer Services on telephone +44 (0) 8833 8587 or Mil 95233 8587.

20. AIDU FLIP publications may be considered in three groups:

a. Planning Documents and Services.

b. En Route Publications.

c. Terminal Area Documents.

Although produced primarily for the Armed Forces, most of these publications are available for
purchase by civilian operators.

Planning Documents and Services

21. The Integrated Aeronautical Information Package. Planning information is published in the
Integrated Aeronautical Information Package, which comprises:

a. The UK Military Aeronautical Information Publication (UK Mil AIP).

b. The UK Military Low Flying Handbook.

c. International Planning Information.

UK Military Aeronautical Information Publication (UK Mil AIP)

22. The UK Military Aeronautical Information Publication (UK Mil AIP). The UK Mil AIP Consists of
two volumes which are updated every 28 days by No 1 AIDU to meet the AIRAC schedule. The General
and En-route volume (Volume 1) provides guidance to military aircrew on:

a. General Rules and Procedure.

b. ATS Airspace.

c. Radio Navigation Aids.

d. Warnings.

e. Military Training and Exercise Areas.

The UK Aerodromes volume (Volume 2) provides comprehensive information on UK military airfields

including operating times, facilities, airfield surface and obstruction information, communications and
runway lighting details, noise abatement and special procedures. It also contains graphics for SIDs and
STARs, instrument approaches, airfield diagrams and ramp charts. The UK Mil AIP is produced every 28
days on CD ROM and is also available to download from the No 1 AIDU website.

23. Amendments to the UK Mil AIP. Amendments to the UK Mil AIP are issued once every 28 days,
in the form of replacement sheets, to coincide with the AIRAC dates. The amendment is used to
introduce permanent, operationally significant changes into the AIP on the indicated AIRAC date.
These are issued in advance but do not become effective until the relevant AIRAC date.

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24. UK Mil AIP Supplements. UK Mil AIP Supplements contain operational items of a temporary
nature only. They are printed on yellow paper and normally issued every 28 days. The period of
validity of the information will usually be given in the Supplement itself.

United Kingdom Low Flying Handbook (LFH)

25. United Kingdom Low Flying Handbook. This document is available for download from the
AIDU website. It lists specific information regarding the Low Flying System and regulations, along with
avoids, warnings and High Intensity Radio Transmission Areas (HIRTA).

a. Section 1 The UK Low Flying System. Section 1 contains a description of the low flying
system along with general restrictions and procedures.

b. Section 2 The UK Day Low Flying System. Section 2 describes the day low flying system
restrictions, Tactical Training Areas (TTA), TTA booking procedures and TTA timing restrictions.

c. Section 3 The UK Night Low Flying System. Section 3 contains the night low flying
restrictions together with specific details for rotary wing operations.

d. Section 4 The Highlands Restricted Area. Section 4 gives details of the Highlands
Restricted Area which is established to ensure the necessary traffic separation to enable Terrain
Following Radar (TFR) training to be conducted in IMC.

e. Section 5 Not Used.

f. Section 6 Centralised Aviation Data Service (CADS). Section 6 contains details of

the CADS system, the aim of which is to reduce the risk of mid-air collision.

26. UK Low Flying Charts (LFC). The 1:500,000 LFCs and the M5219-A 1:250,000 series charts
contain extensive Ordnance Survey topographical, obstruction and power line information in addition to
portraying the Low Flying Areas and avoidances. The North and South Flag Officer Sea Training
(FOST) 1:500,000 charts are designed for VFR low flying in the Plymouth Danger Areas.

27. International Planning Information. The International Planning Document that contained
information on foreign airspace structure and national air traffic procedures is no longer available in
print. This document has been replaced by a Library/Enquiry Service operated by the Aeronautical
Information Bureau of No 1 AIDU. Enquiries can be made via telephone on DFTS 95233 8713 or
civil 020 8833 8713. Some foreign AIPs are available via the AIDU website.

En-Route Publications

28. No 1 AIDU produces aeronautical information for use by aircrew in flight, in a series of
conveniently sized publications. The coverage of RAF en route FLIPs is from the Eastern seaboard of
the USA, through Europe, Africa, the Middle East and Southern Asia. British military users operating
outside this area of coverage should use the appropriate FLIPs produced by the US Department of
Defense, Canadian Forces or Royal Australian Air Force.

29. The En-Route Supplement (ERS). The ERS is produced in four volumes, based on specified
geographical areas (British Isles and North Atlantic (BINA), Northern Europe (NOREU), European and
Mediterranean (EUMED), South Atlantic, Africa, Asia and Far East (SAAAFE)). Each ERS contains
comprehensive details of aeronautical information and facilities within its specific area, including:

a. All active British military aerodromes, regardless of size.

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b. Selected civil and other military aerodromes with a hard surface runway length of at least
5,000 ft, and some communications facilities.

c. Other aerodromes at the discretion of No 1 AIDU.

d. Relevant communications and navigational facilities.

30. The Flight Information Handbook (FIH). The FIH is designed to provide a digest of information
useful to aircrew during flight planning, and when airborne. It includes en route procedures, general
planning information, emergency and safety procedures, codes and conversion tables.

31. En Route Charts (ERCs). ERCs are available in both paper format and as downloads from the
AIDU website. A sub-set of the charts is also available in digital format. ERCs provide details of ATS
routes, designated airspace, airspace reservations, radio navigation facilities and en route
communications. Due to chart congestion, sufficient information is given for transit flight only. ERCs
should, therefore, always be used in conjunction with ERS, Planning Documents and Terminal
Publications. ERCs are drawn to plotting chart standards, based on the Oblique Mercator projection or
the Lamberts Conformal projection. The latitude and longitude graticule on ERCs is based on
WGS 84. Topographical data, other than major water features, is not shown. A Maximum Elevation
Figure (MEF) is printed for each one-degree quadrangle, where scale permits, for en route safety. The
UK Mil AIP contains chart coverage diagrams together with an En-route Chart Legend, which is also
available as a separate document. The following types of ERC are published:

a. Low Altitude. These charts portray aeronautical information within the vertical limits of each
Flight Information Region (FIR), as stated on the chart panel.

b. High Altitude. Aeronautical information is shown only for the Upper Airspace. Where no
Upper Flight Information Region (UIR) is defined, the lower limit of aeronautical information shown
on the chart is FL 245. The true vertical limit of each FIR and UIR is shown on the chart panel.

c. High/Low Altitude (H/L). These charts show aeronautical information for combined upper
and lower airspace.

d. Area Navigation (Rnav). Area navigation information is shown on charts which cover routes
in the European area.

Terminal Area Documents

32. Terminal Charts. Terminal charts include Standard Instrument Departures (SIDs), Standard
Arrival Routes (STARs), Terminal Approaches, Airfield Diagrams and Ramp Charts. A Terminal
Charts Information and Legend leaflet is available in the UK Mil AIP Volume 1 or as a separate
document. Terminal charts are available in various formats:

a. Loose-leaf Format. All TCs are available in loose-leaf format. The full list of current TCs is
published in the Terminal Charts Specification and Legend. They are available for download from
the AIDU website.

b. Fast-Jet Terminal Chart Book. A set of procedures (mostly TACAN and ILS) for airfields likely to
be used by fast-jet aircraft is contained in the Fast-Jet Terminal Chart book which is produced every 56
days. Amendments are published in the Terminal Charts Amendment Bulletin (TCAB).

c. Aerodrome Booklets. These booklets contain TCs for airfields within a geographical area
or route and are based on operational requirements.

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d. Terminal Charts UK North & South. Volumes of terminal chart procedures to cover the UK
are published in two volumes, North and South, separated by 52° 30’ N latitude. They have
comprehensive coverage of all UK military airfields and include SIDs, STARs and airfield and
ramp charts and are produced every 56 days. Significant amendments are published in the
TCAB.

33. Terminal Chart (TC) Specifications. The majority of TCs made available through No 1 AIDU
are produced by them, but some are purchased from the European Aeronautical Group (EAG) to cover
gaps in the AIDU catalogue.

a. No 1 AIDU produce TCs known as No1 AIDU (RAF) New Specification charts. These charts
use International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO) and UK AIP symbols and abbreviations.
Exceptionally, abbreviations unique to AIDU are used. The symbols and abbreviations used on No1
AIDU (RAF) New Specification TCs can be found in the No1 AIDU Terminal Charts, Specification
and Legend book. Some of the TCs listed in the Terminal Charts Catalogue (TCC) are the editorial
responsibility of the EAG. AIDU is responsible for all military airfields and EAG, in general, for major
international airfields.

b. The EAG produce TCs known as NAVTECH EAG charts. Symbols and abbreviations used
on NAVTECH EAG TCs can be found in the NAVTECH Aerodromes Charts Specification and
Legend book.

34. Minor Aerodromes UK. The Minor Aerodromes UK booklet contains information for selected
aerodromes (Military, government and civil) in the UK that either do not have a published instrument
let-down procedure, or do not meet the minimum criteria for inclusion in other FLIPs.

35. Helicopter Landing Sites (HLS). Three HLS booklets are published, each containing detailed
graphics and associated information for selected sites. They are supported by the TCAB. These
booklets are titled:

a. Helicopter Landing Sites UK contains details of military and some civilian sites in the UK,
together with helicopter routes in selected control zones and training areas.

b. Helicopter Landing Sites Hospitals UK contains details of hospital helicopter landing sites in
the UK and certain control zones.

c. Helicopter Landing Sites and Visual Approach/Departure Charts – Europe contains military
and some civilian sites in Belgium, Cyprus, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, Norway, The
Netherlands and Ireland along with associated visual approach and departure charts.

No 1 AIDU Amendment Services

36. FLIPs are amended by routine issue, and by an assortment of amendment bulletins, which form
an integral part of all FLIPs. These amendments are produced and distributed in hard copy, and are also
available via the AIDU website. The aeronautical information in FLIPs is also augmented and updated by
NOTAM. The following amendment documents are issued:

a. En-route Bulletin. The En-route Bulletin is issued every 28 days contains amendments for
ERC, ERS and the FIH. The ERB also contains ERC area of coverage.

b. Terminal Charts Catalogue (TCC). All available Terminal Charts are listed in the TCC which is
issued every 28 days.

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c. Terminal Charts Amendment Bulletin (TCAB). Non-permanent, textual amendments to the

charts are published in the TCAB which is issued every 28 days.

d. Terminal Documents Amendment Supplement (TDAS). The TDAS is published monthly

on AIRAC dates. It supplements the Emergency and Unplanned Diversion Books (Vols 1-2), TC
UK N & S and Fast-jet N & S. Only significant changes are published.

37. Accuracy of FLIP Information. All users of documents produced by No 1 AIDU, on finding an
error or omission, have a responsibility for notifying No 1 AIDU without delay via AIDU Customer
Services on telephone +44 (0) 8833 8587 or Mil 95233 8587.

38. Accuracy of Aeronautical Charts. Where errors are identified in aeronautical information on
topographical charts (eg boundaries of controlled airspace) then, again, No 1 AIDU is to be informed.
However, in the event that the error concerns the geographical base map (e.g. mapping details, including
obstructions), then the point of contact is the Geo Support department at the Defence Geographic Centre,
Feltham via +44 208 818 2726 or Mil (9)4641 4726.

No 1 AIDU Digital Products

39. The Digital Aeronautical Flight Information File (DAFIF). DAFIF is the military standard for
digital aeronautical data produced in support of Mission Planning, Flight Management Systems and Flight
Simulation. It is administered by the National Geospatial Intelligence Agency and distributed to the MoD via
No 1 AIDU.

40. En-Route Charts (ERCs). ERCs provide graphical detail of airways routes, designated airspace,
airspace reservations, radio navigation facilities and en-route communications. They are available in
1:500,000, 1:1,000,000, 1:2,000,000 and 1:5,000,000 scales.

41. Low Flying Charts (LFCs). LFCs provide extensive topographical, obstruction, MEFs and powerline
information in addition to providing all low flying information up to 2,000 ft, all other airspace up to 10,000 ft
and generalised airspace up to FL 195. Available charts are the LFC UK (Day and Night), 1:5,000,000, and
the North and South FOST 1:5,000,000.

42. M5219 (Air) (aka Helicopter Charts). M5219 (Air) charts provide extensive topographical,
obstruction, MEFs and powerline information in addition to providing all low flying information up to 2,000 ft,
also depicting aeronautical information up to FL 100. They are available in 1:250,000 scale.

43. Map Availability Catalogue (MAC). The MAC is available for download from the AIDU website only
for each supported digital map system and type defining all mapping currently available to the AIDU
customer.

Revised Nov 17 Page 8 of 8

 AP3456 – 9-14 - Navigation Planning

CHAPTER 14 - NAVIGATION PLANNING

Introduction

1. The navigation planning requirements for any flight will depend largely on the nature of the task, the
area of operation and any procedures or orders relevant to a particular aircraft type or role. Many tasks will
be of a 'standard' nature, e.g. regular air transport routes, and, in such cases, maximum use can be made of
Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs), computerized planning facilities and statistical meteorological data.
Alternatively, the mission may be of an operational or emergency nature and the normal flight planning
procedures may have to be amended or circumvented in the interests of expediency; much reliance will be
placed on the use of SOPs and on the experience of the crew. It would be inappropriate to attempt to cover
all of the specialist procedures in use; rather this chapter will review the basic navigation planning
requirements for a straightforward flight at medium or high level. Fuel planning, which is an integral part of
flight planning, will be covered in Volume 9, Chapter 15.

2. In order to highlight the principle ingredients of navigation planning, by way of example, this
chapter will investigate the planning requirements and procedures for a straightforward flight from St
Mawgan to Valley.

Pre-planning Considerations

3. Before any actual planning can take place a number of factors must be considered which will help
to determine the route and techniques to be used. Among these factors are:

a. The task.

b. The fuel requirements or limitations.

c. Aircraft performance.

d. The geography of the area to be overflown.

e. The meteorological forecast for the route or area.

f. The availability and serviceability of navigation aids.

g. Air traffic control restrictions, danger areas and prohibited airspace.

h. Any special procedures that must be obeyed.

i. Availability of diversion airfields.

4. The Task. In this example, the task is straightforward; to navigate the aircraft safely between St
Mawgan and Valley, in accordance with normal operating and air traffic procedures. It should be borne
in mind, however, that frequently the task is more complex, eg there may be intermediate stops,
specific times to make good at reporting points, air-to-air refuelling to be accomplished. The only
restriction in this example is that the flight is to take place at cruising levels around FL 200.

5. Fuel. In this case, the flight is well within the capability of the aircraft with regards to fuel
consumption. The detail of fuel planning is covered in Volume 9, Chapter 15.

6. Aircraft Performance. In this case, the aircraft has no performance limitations with respect to the
cruising level, or with the runway lengths at either airfield. It should be noted that this is not always the case,
for example, at some All-up Weights (AUWs) it may not be possible to climb to the desired level, and there
may be prohibitive restrictions on runway length. On a short route, such as in this example, a major

Revised Jul 10 Page 1 of 8

 AP3456 – 9-14 - Navigation Planning

consideration is that, if the aircraft is fully fuelled at take-off, it may arrive at the destination, at an AUW which
is too heavy for landing.

7. Geography. There are no particular geographical factors pertaining to this flight, except that it
should be noted that the northern end of the route is over mountainous terrain and particular care must be
taken when calculating safety altitude and when monitoring the descent.

8. Meteorology. The following meteorological data will be assumed:

a. Cloud. A general cloud base of 2,500 ft over the whole area, multi-layered up to tops at 15,000 ft.

b. Wind. The following wind structure applies to the whole route including departure and arrival
airfields:

Surface 310°/15 kt
2,000 ft 315°/22 kt
5,000 ft 325°/30 kt
10,000 ft 330°/35 kt
20,000 ft 340°/45 kt
25,000 ft 350°/55 kt

c. Temperature. The temperature is ISA +4.

d. Weather. There is no significant weather either en route or at either airfield.

9. Navigation Aids. It will be assumed that the aircraft is fitted with serviceable TACAN, VOR, ADF.
All of the appropriate ground beacons are also serviceable.

10. Restricted Airspace. A study of the en route chart (Fig 1) reveals that there are a number of
Danger Areas to be avoided, and some Airways to cross (for which clearance or control will be
necessary).

Revised Jul 10 Page 2 of 8

 AP3456 – 9-14 - Navigation Planning

9-14 Fig 1 En Route Chart for Route - St Mawgan to Valley (example only)

11. Special Procedures. Fig 2 shows the SID for St Mawgan, and it will be apparent that it involves
no more than a climb on runway heading to 2,000 ft (QFE) before setting heading as required. The
intention at Valley is to descend to the overhead at 1,000 ft, to join the visual circuit. These are simple
procedures; however, particularly at major civilian airfields, the procedures are likely to be far more
complex and will often influence the selection of the route to include specific reporting points. SIDs,
STARs, the ERS, and the Planning Document will need to be consulted at the planning stage.

Revised Jul 10 Page 3 of 8

 AP3456 – 9-14 - Navigation Planning

9-14 Fig 2 St Mawgan Standard Instrument Departure (example only)

SID ST MAWGAN
Elev 390 Var 5°W TA 3000 TRL ATC 04 OCT 01 G1

EGDG/- ENGLAND MSA SM

2000

0°
21
1800
3000
° 300
075 °
2400

25nm

30
5°
Changes: Minor

St Mawgan
SM 356.5
St Mawgan
SMG Ch 73
(112.6)

12
No1 AIDU (RAF)/Thales Avionics Aerad EGDGG1

5°
NOT TO SCALE

2000

MNM RQRD CLIMB RATE (fpm)

RWY GS 80 120 150 180 210 250 To
13 4.4% 360 540 670 810 940 1120 2000
31 2.6% 210 320 400 480 560 660 2000
1. CAUTION. Risk of birdstrike
RWY ROUTEING (Including Mnm Noise Routes)
13/31 Climb on rwy Tr to 2000 QFE, then as cleared

ST MAWGAN SID

12. Diversion Airfields. There are no significant problems with availability of diversion airfields in this
example. Cardiff and Shawbury are not far from the route should it be necessary to divert en route;
Mona, Ronaldsway, Liverpool, Woodvale and Warton would make suitable diversion airfields should it
be impossible to land at Valley. When selecting diversion airfields, it is important to consider their
suitability with regards to runway length, navigation and landing aids, weather (including any cross-wind
limitations) and necessary services, e.g. availability of appropriate fuels and oils. The fuel planning
implications of diversion will be reviewed in Volume 9, Chapter 15.

Route Determination and Chart Preparation

13. For the example exercise, the En Route Low Altitude and Area Navigation (R-NAV) charts are
appropriate. It would be prudent to carry High Altitude charts in case it is necessary for weather or air
traffic reasons to fly in the upper airspace or cross R-NAV(H) routes. Also a topographical chart
should be carried, and in any case will need to be consulted in order to ascertain safety altitudes.

14. Route. For convenience, the runway heading at St Mawgan will be maintained until the edge of the
MATZ before turning onto the desired track. The principle constraint on the choice of the route is the
need to avoid the numerous Danger Areas in the Bristol Channel and Cardigan Bay. With this in mind,

Revised Jul 10 Page 4 of 8

 AP3456 – 9-14 - Navigation Planning

turning points have been selected at 5130N 00400W and at 5250N 00400W, before making for the Valley
overhead (Fig 1). If required, the turning points may be lettered or numbered to aid identification.

15. Chart Preparation. Having drawn the route on the chart, other points of interest can be added or
highlighted, e.g. isogonals, ASR boundaries, suitable navigation beacons and Danger Area boundaries.
NOTAMs should be checked to ensure that no activity is likely to affect the flight and, if necessary, the
route may have to be amended. It may be convenient to draw range arcs, centred on Valley, to make
navigation in the terminal phase easier. Once the top of descent point has been determined, further
range arcs back along track from this point, and from intermediate turning points, may be constructed if
desired. Care must be taken to ensure that working areas of the chart do not become over-cluttered.

Completing the Navigation Flight Plan

16. Fig 3 shows a typical flight plan form. Different operators will use variations of this form to cater
for their particular requirements. The top part of the form is self-explanatory and needs no further
comment here. The bottom part acts as a reminder of various fuel requirements. This chapter will be
concerned with the main body of the form and its completion.

9-14 Fig 3 Flight Plan Form

A/C C/S DATE PILOT NAV SCREEN

DIVERSION 1 TR ( ) DIST NM FL

TR W/V HDG VAR HDG DR WP ROUTE TO SALT RAS FL OAT TAS G/S LEG LEG ET ETA START FUEL

(T) (T) (M) MACH ALT DIST TIME FLOW USED 8000 MIN

035 330/35 028 6W 034 7S TOC 3000 210 267 250 46 11 11

80

035 340/45 028 6W 034 7S 5130N 0400W 4000 210 210 -23 290 262 34 8 19

359 340/45 356 6W 002 3S 5250N 0400W/TOD 5600 210 210 -23 290 249 80 19 38

319 330/35 320 6W 326 1P VALLEY 5600 1000 282 250 32 8 46

MIN THRESHOLD 800 FUEL FOR APPROACHES RW.....................................ROLL.......................................

INST APP AT DIVERSION 400 VISUAL APPROACH 100 MIN FUEL..........................COMBAT..................................

OVERSHOOT AND CLIMB AT DESTN 100 INSTRUMENT APPROACH 200 RW.....................................ROLL.......................................

TRANSIT FUEL (W/C + ICING) FULL INSTRUMENT PATTERN AND APPROACH 400 MIN FUEL..........................COMBAT..................................

FUEL ON THE GROUND Notes: 1. Max x-wind component - 25 kt. 2. Max surface W/V limit - 40 kt

17. The first stage is to enter the names or positions of the waypoints in the column marked "Route To".
The first point will be 'Top of Climb' (TOC), and the penultimate point 'Top of Descent' (TOD), although these
points have not yet been determined. Tracks and distances are measured and entered in the appropriate
columns. The first and last leg distance will be divided once the climb and descent planning has been
completed. In this example, the initial part of the climb from take-off to five miles has been ignored for the
purpose of calculating headings, although it will of course be included in the total distance and in the time
and fuel calculations.

18. Climb Planning. Fig 4 shows the appropriate page from the Operating Data Manual (ODM) for
the climb portion of the flight. Care must be taken to ensure that the page is correct with respect to the
climb profile (if the aircraft can undertake a variety of climb profiles), and to the temperature profile

Revised Jul 10 Page 5 of 8

 AP3456 – 9-14 - Navigation Planning

(ISA +4 in this case). The layout of the ODM will vary between aircraft, but the example is fairly typical.
The first task is to decide the level to which it is intended to climb. The route brief has specified Flight
Levels around FL200 and in this situation FL210 is selected. By finding this level in the left-hand
column and reading across to the appropriate take-off weight (21,000 lb in this example) it will be seen
that the mean TAS for the climb is 267 kt and the time for the climb is 11 minutes. This data can be
inserted in the appropriate columns on the first line of the flight plan. In practice, the fuel used in the
climb can also be extracted at this stage and recorded in the flight plan, but fuel planning is covered in
Volume 9, Chapter 15.

9-14 Fig 4 ODM Climb Table

NORMAL CLIMB
(ISA + 3°C to ISA + 7°C)
TAKE-OFF WEIGHT (lb X 1000)
PRESS ISA MEAN 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 ISA PRESS
HEIGHT TEMP TAS TEMP HEIGHT
ft X 1000 °C kt FUEL TIME FUEL TIME FUEL TIME FUEL TIME FUEL TIME FUEL TIME FUEL TIME FUEL TIME °C ft X 1000
LB MIN LB MIN LB MIN LB MIN LB MIN LB MIN LB MIN LB MIN
42 -57 318 1745 36 1525 30 1375 26 1245 23 1130 20 -57 42
41 -57 314 1585 30 1420 26 1295 23 1180 21 1080 19 -57 41

25 -35 281 1060 13 1005 13 945 12 890 11 835 10 785 10 740 9 690 9 -35 25
24 -33 278 1020 13 955 12 905 11 850 10 805 10 755 9 710 9 665 8 -33 24
23 -31 274 980 12 920 11 870 10 820 10 775 9 725 9 685 8 640 8 -31 23
22 -29 271 940 11 880 11 835 10 785 9 745 9 695 8 660 8 615 7 -29 22
21 -27 267 900 11 845 10 800 9 755 9 715 8 670 8 635 7 595 7 -27 21
20 -25 264 860 10 805 9 770 9 720 8 685 8 645 7 610 7 570 7 -25 20
19 -23 260 820 9 775 9 740 8 695 8 660 7 620 7 590 7 550 6 -23 19
18 -21 257 785 9 740 8 705 8 670 8 630 7 595 7 565 6 530 6 -21 18
17 -19 254 745 8 705 8 675 7 640 7 605 7 575 6 540 6 510 6 -19 17
16 -17 251 710 8 670 7 640 7 610 7 580 6 545 6 520 6 485 5 -17 16
15 -15 247 670 7 635 7 610 7 575 6 550 6 520 6 495 5 465 5 -15 15
14 -13 244 635 7 605 7 580 6 550 6 525 6 495 5 470 5 445 5 -13 14
13 -11 240 600 6 570 6 550 6 520 6 500 5 470 5 450 5 425 5 -11 13
12 -9 237 565 6 540 6 520 5 490 5 470 5 450 5 425 4 405 4 -9 12
11 -7 233 530 6 510 5 490 5 465 5 445 5 425 4 405 4 385 4 -7 11
10 -5 229 495 5 480 5 460 5 440 5 420 4 400 4 380 4 365 4 -5 10
9 -3 224 465 5 445 5 430 4 410 4 395 4 380 4 360 4 345 4 -3 9
8 -1 219 430 4 415 4 400 4 380 4 370 4 355 4 335 3 325 3 -1 8
7 +1 213 400 4 385 4 370 4 355 4 345 3 330 3 315 3 300 3 +1 7
6 +3 207 365 4 350 4 340 3 330 3 320 3 305 3 295 3 285 3 +3 6
5 +5 200 335 3 352 3 310 3 305 3 295 3 285 3 275 3 265 3 +5 5
4 +7 187 290 3 280 3 270 3 265 3 255 3 250 2 245 2 235 2 +7 4
3 +9 175 245 2 240 2 235 2 230 2 220 2 215 2 210 2 205 2 +9 3
2 +11 163 200 2 195 2 195 2 190 2 190 2 185 2 185 2 180 2 +11 2
1 +13 151 150 2 150 2 150 2 150 2 150 2 150 2 150 2 150 2 +13 1

Time to height at Increase in time to height Increase in fuel to height

intermediate rating at max. cont. power at max. cont. power
(min.) (min.) (lb.)
4 1 35
6 2 60
8 3 95
10 4 135
12 5 180
14 6 230
16 7 295

19. The next stage is to determine the wind velocity for the climb, and then to use the DR Computer to
calculate the heading, groundspeed and distance to the TOC and enter the results on the form. It will
be assumed that the aircraft climbs at a steady rate to FL 210, and as the meteorological forecast
shows that the wind varies uniformly with height, the mid-height wind can be used; in this case the
10,000 ft wind, 330°/35 kt, will be satisfactory. The TOC position can now be plotted on the chart.

20. Descent Planning. The descent is planned in a similar manner to the climb using the appropriate
page from the ODM (Fig 5) and the correct descent profile (Normal Descent in this example). Mean
TAS, fuel used, and time taken are extracted from the table, allowing the heading, groundspeed, and
distance to be calculated, again using mid-height wind (330°/35 kt at 10,000 ft). The TOD can now be
plotted on the chart. In this example, the calculated TOD point is within a mile of the last planned
turning point and therefore it is reasonable to make them coincident.

Revised Jul 10 Page 6 of 8

 AP3456 – 9-14 - Navigation Planning

9-14 Fig 5 ODM Descent Tables

Normal Descent Fast Descent

(0.66MIND /234kt I A S) (0.715MIND /279kt I A S)
(85%NMAX to 30000 FT. (Air Brakes Open, Flight
Then Flight Idling) Idling Throughout)
Pressure Mean Pressure Mean
Height Fuel Time TAS Height Fuel Time TAS
ft X 1000 lb Min kt ft X 1000 lb Min kt
42 390 20 341 42 80 5 377
41 375 19 338 41 80 5 375
40 360 18 335 40 75 5 375
39 340 18 331 39 75 5 371
38 325 17 328 38 75 5 369
37 310 16 325 37 70 4 367
36 290 15 322 36 70 4 365
35 270 15 319 35 70 4 363
34 250 14 315 34 65 4 360
33 235 13 312 33 65 4 358
32 215 13 309 32 65 4 356
31 200 12 306 31 60 4 354
30 185 11 303 30 60 4 351
29 180 11 300 29 60 4 349
28 175 10 297 28 60 4 347
27 170 10 295 27 55 3 345
26 165 10 293 26 55 3 342
25 160 9 290 25 55 3 340
24 155 9 288 24 50 3 338
23 150 9 286 23 50 3 335
22 145 8 284 22 50 3 333
21 140 8 282 21 45 3 331
20 135 8 280 20 45 3 329
19 130 7 278 19 45 3 326
18 125 7 276 18 40 3 324
17 120 6 274 17 40 2 322
16 110 6 272 16 40 2 320
15 105 6 270 15 35 2 317
14 100 5 268 14 35 2 315
13 95 5 266 13 35 2 313
12 90 5 264 12 30 2 311
11 80 4 262 11 30 2 309
10 75 4 260 10 25 2 306
9 70 3 258 9 25 1 304
8 65 3 256 8 20 1 302
7 55 3 254 7 20 1 300
6 50 2 252 6 15 1 298
5 40 2 250 5 15 1 296
4 30 1 248 4 10 1 294
3 20 1 246 3 5 0 291
2 10 0 244 2 5 0 289
1 0 0 242 1 0 0 287

FOR DESCENT BETWEEN TWO INTERMEDIATE

HEIGHTS THE MEAN TAS IS OBTAINED BY ADDING
THE MEAN TAS AT EACH HEIGHT AND SUBTRACTING
THE FOLLOWING:

NORMAL DESCENT 240 KNOTS

FAST DESCENT 290 KNOTS

21. Cruise Planning. Having determined the TOC and TOD positions, the leg distances for the
cruise portion can be measured and inserted in the flight plan. The cruise section of the ODM can now
be consulted, once again ensuring that the correct cruise type or speed, and the correct temperature
profile are selected (Fig 6). In this case, the data obtained from the ODM is TAS and fuel flow rate.
The TAS may, alternatively, be calculated on the DR Computer using the forecast meteorological
information. The DR Computer can now be used to determine headings, groundspeeds and times for
each of the cruise legs, and this data entered on the flight plan form. Elapsed times and ETAs can be
entered in the appropriate columns of the flight plan.

Revised Jul 10 Page 7 of 8

 AP3456 – 9-14 - Navigation Planning

9-14 Fig 6 ODM Long Range Cruise Table

Long Range Cruise
(ISA + 3°C to ISA + 7°C)
Speed (knots T A S) above line
Pressure ISA Speed Fuel Fuel Speed ISA Pressure
Height Temp (below Flow Fuel Flow (lb/hr). below line Flow (below Temp Height
line) (above Weight (lb/1000) (above line)
knots line) line) knots
ft X 1000 °C TAS lb/hr 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 lb/hr TAS °C ft X 1000
42 -57 1675 360 1655 1590 1540 375 -57 42
41 -57 1760 357 1735 1670 1615 1565 375 -57 41
40 -57 1845 356 375 1750 1695 1645 1595 375 -57 40
39 -57 1935 356 375 1830 1775 1720 1670 1625 375 -57 39
38 -57 375 1975 1910 1850 1800 1750 1700 1660 375 -57 38
37 -57 367 1940 1885 1830 1780 1730 1795 1645 367 -57 37
36 -57 359 1915 1860 1810 1760 1710 1670 1635 359 -57 36
35 -55 352 1910 1855 1805 1760 1715 1675 1640 352 -55 35
34 -53 346 1900 1850 1805 1760 1720 1680 1640 346 -53 34
33 -51 340 1900 1850 1805 1760 1720 1680 1645 340 -51 33
32 -49 334 1900 1855 1810 1765 1720 1680 1645 334 -49 32
31 -47 328 1905 1855 1810 1765 1725 1690 1655 328 -47 31
30 -45 323 1910 1860 1815 1770 1730 1695 1660 323 -45 30
29 -43 317 1910 1865 1820 1780 1740 1700 1665 317 -43 29
28 -41 312 1915 1870 1825 1785 1745 1705 1670 312 -41 28
27 -39 307 1920 1875 1830 1785 1745 1710 1675 307 -39 27
26 -37 301 1925 1880 1835 1790 1750 1715 1680 301 -37 26
25 -35 296 1930 1880 1835 1795 1755 1720 1685 296 -35 25
24 -33 306 2040 1995 1955 1915 1880 1845 1815 306 -33 24
23 -31 301 2040 2000 1960 1920 1885 1850 1820 301 -31 23
22 -29 296 2045 2005 1965 1925 1890 1860 1830 296 -29 22
21 -27 291 2055 2015 1975 1935 1900 1865 1835 291 -27 21
20 -25 287 2070 2030 1990 1950 1915 1885 1855 287 -25 20
19 -23 282 2075 2035 1995 1960 1925 1895 1865 282 -23 19
18 -21 277 2085 2045 2010 1975 1940 1910 1885 277 -21 18
17 -19 273 2095 2060 2025 1990 1960 1930 1905 273 -19 17
16 -17 268 2115 2075 2040 2010 1980 1950 1925 268 -17 16
15 -15 265 2140 2105 2070 2040 2010 1985 1960 265 -15 15
14 -13 261 2165 2130 2100 2070 2040 2010 1985 264 -13 14
13 -11 256 2195 2160 2125 2095 2065 2040 2015 256 -11 13
12 -9 252 2225 2190 2155 2125 2095 2070 2045 252 -9 12
11 -7 248 2255 2220 2190 2160 2130 2105 2085 248 -7 11
10 -5 245 2295 2260 2230 2205 2180 2155 2135 245 -5 10
9 -3 241 2330 2300 2275 2250 2225 2200 2180 241 -3 9
8 -1 238 2375 2345 2320 2295 2270 2250 2230 238 -1 8
7 +1 234 2425 2395 2370 2345 2325 2300 2280 234 +1 7
6 +3 230 2475 2445 2420 2395 2375 2350 2330 230 +3 6
5 +5 227 2535 2505 2480 2455 2430 2405 2380 227 +5 5
4 +7 224 2590 2560 2535 2505 2475 2450 2425 224 +7 4
3 +9 221 2645 2610 2580 2550 2525 2495 2470 221 +9 3
2 +11 217 2695 2660 2630 2600 2570 2545 2520 217 +11 2
1 +13 214 2750 2715 2680 2650 2620 2590 2565 214 +13 1

NOTE: For operation above line throttles are set to give Maximum Continuous Power.
For operation below line engines are throttled back to give Recommended Speed.
For fuel flows above line reduce fuel flow by 10 lb / hr / 1000 lb for weights greater than 15000 lb, and
increase fuel by 10 lb / hr / 1000 lb for weights less than 15000 lb.

22. Safety Altitude. The safety altitude (SALT) for each leg or section must be determined from a
topographical chart using whatever criteria are laid down by the Command, Group, or other operating
authority. In this example, the basic criterion has been to find the highest obstacle within 30 nm of
each planned section of track, and then add 1,000 ft (2,000 ft in the case where the obstacle is 3,000 ft
or higher). That sum has then been rounded up to the nearest 100 ft. The SALT figure for each track
is then annotated on the flight plan form (Fig 3).

Note: SALT calculation is explained in detail in Volume 9, Chapter 23.

23. F2919/CA48. If necessary, an F2919/CA48 - Flight Plan can now be completed and submitted.
The occasions when this form should be completed, and instructions for its completion, are contained
in the UK Military Aeronautical Planning Document and in FLIPs.

Revised Jul 10 Page 8 of 8

 AP3456 – 9-15 - Fuel Planning

CHAPTER 15 - FUEL PLANNING

Introduction

1. Fuel planning is an integral part of flight planning, and accurate calculation of the fuel requirement for a
particular flight is important for safety, economical operation, and the maximum utilization of payload.

2. The methods of calculating the fuel plan, and of monitoring the fuel consumption in flight, will vary
between aircraft type and role, and on the requirements of the flight. The requirements, and terms
used, for fast-jet operations are described in Volume 9, Chapter 18. The principles outlined in this
chapter are applicable mostly to larger aircraft.

Fuel Planning Data

3. Fuel consumption is a function of altitude, air temperature, speed, all-up weight (AUW) and engine
RPM. Data on fuel consumption, expressed in either pounds (lb) or kilograms (kg) per minute or hour, is
presented in the Operating Data Manual (ODM) for the aircraft type, usually in tabular form with entering
arguments of altitude and AUW. The other parameters are assumed constant, with their values stated on
the table, and with a selection of tables for variations in these parameters. Fig 1 shows a typical ODM
table. The title 'Long Range Cruise' specifies the flight profile and a secondary table shows the assumed
speeds. The heading 'ISA –2 to ISA +2' specifies the air temperature range for which the table is valid.
There will be additional tables for different flight profiles (e.g. climb, descent, endurance cruise), and for
different air temperature regimes (see examples in Volume 9, Chapter 14).

Revised Jul 10 Page 1 of 9

 AP3456 – 9-15 - Fuel Planning

9-15 Fig 1 ODM Long Range Cruise Table

Long Range Cruise

(ISA -2°C to ISA +2°C)
Speed (knots T A S) Above Line
Pressure ISA Speed Fuel Fuel Speed ISA Pressure
Height Temp (Below Flow Fuel Flow (lb/hr). Below line Flow (Below Temp Height
Line) (Above Weight (lb/1000) (Above Line)
knots Line) Line) knots
ft X 1000 °C TAS lb/hr 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 lb/hr TAS °C ft X 1000
42 -57 1730 352 1685 1625 1565 1510 371 -57 42
41 -57 1815 349 1760 1705 1645 1590 1540 371 -57 41
40 -57 1905 348 1840 1785 1720 1665 1615 1565 371 -57 40
39 -57 371 1915 1860 1800 1745 1690 1640 1595 371 -57 39
38 -57 371 1940 1875 1820 1770 1720 1675 1630 371 -57 38
37 -57 362 1905 1850 1795 1750 1700 1655 1615 362 -57 37
36 -57 355 1885 1830 1775 1730 1685 1645 1605 355 -57 36
35 -55 348 1875 1825 1775 1730 1685 1645 1610 348 -55 35
34 -53 342 1870 1820 1775 1730 1690 1650 1615 342 -53 34
33 -51 336 1865 1820 1775 1730 1690 1650 1615 336 -51 33
32 -49 330 1870 1825 1780 1735 1695 1655 1620 330 -49 32
31 -47 325 1875 1830 1785 1740 1700 1660 1625 325 -47 31
30 -45 319 1880 1830 1785 1745 1705 1670 1635 319 -45 30
29 -43 314 1885 1840 1795 1750 1710 1675 1640 314 -43 29
28 -41 309 1885 1840 1800 1755 1715 1680 1645 309 -41 28
27 -39 303 1890 1845 1805 1760 1720 1685 1650 303 -39 27
26 -37 298 1895 1850 1805 1765 1725 1690 1655 298 -37 26
25 -35 293 1900 1855 1810 1770 1730 1695 1660 293 -35 25
24 -33 303 2015 1970 1930 1890 1855 1820 1790 303 -33 24
23 -31 298 2015 1975 1935 1895 1860 1825 1795 298 -31 23
22 -29 293 2020 1980 1940 1900 1865 1835 1805 293 -29 22
21 -27 288 2025 1985 1945 1910 1875 1840 1810 288 -27 21
20 -25 284 2045 2005 1965 1925 1890 1860 1830 284 -25 20
19 -23 279 2050 2010 1970 1935 1900 1870 1845 279 -23 19
18 -21 275 2060 2020 1980 1945 1915 1885 1860 275 -21 18
17 -19 270 2070 2035 2000 1965 1930 1905 1880 270 -19 17
16 -17 266 2085 2050 2015 1985 1955 1925 1900 266 -17 16
15 -15 262 2115 2080 2045 2015 1985 1960 1935 262 -15 15
14 -13 258 2140 2105 2070 2040 2010 1985 1960 258 -13 14
13 -11 254 2165 2130 2100 2070 2040 2010 1985 254 -11 13
12 -9 250 2195 2160 2130 2100 2070 2045 2020 250 -9 12
11 -7 246 2230 2195 2160 2130 2105 2080 2060 246 -7 11
10 -5 243 2265 2235 2205 2180 2155 2130 2110 243 -5 10
9 -3 239 2300 2270 2245 2220 2195 2175 2155 239 -3 9
8 -1 235 2345 2315 2290 2265 2245 2225 2205 235 -1 8
7 +1 232 2395 2365 2340 2315 2295 2275 2255 232 +1 7
6 +3 228 2445 2415 2390 2365 2395 2320 2300 228 +3 6
5 +5 225 2500 2475 2450 2425 2400 2375 2350 225 +5 5
4 +7 222 2560 2530 2500 2470 2445 2420 2400 222 +7 4
3 +9 219 2615 2575 2550 2520 2495 2470 2445 219 +9 3
2 +11 216 2665 2630 2600 2570 2545 2515 2490 216 +11 2
1 +13 212 2715 2680 2650 2620 2590 2560 2535 212 +13 1

NOTE: For operation above line throttles are set to give Maximum Continuous Power.
For operation below line engines are throttled back to give Recommended Speed.
For fuel flows above line reduce fuel flow by 10 lb / hr / 1000 lb for weights greater than 15000 lb, and
increases fuel by 10 lb / hr / 1000 lb for weights less than 15000 lb.

4. The ODM will normally present a rapid planning section where the fuel requirement for a given sector
distance is tabulated against a variety of head or tail wind components (Fig 2). These tables are valuable in
the initial planning stages, to see whether a proposed flight is possible and to give an idea of the payload that
might be carried. Additional tables give diversion fuel requirements (Fig 3) and holding fuel (Fig 4). In all of
these cases it is important to note the assumptions on which the tables are calculated.

Revised Jul 10 Page 2 of 9

 AP3456 – 9-15 - Fuel Planning

9-15 Fig 2 ODM Sector Fuel and Time Table

100 2500 0:41 2500 0:40 2450 0:39 2450 0:39 2400 0:38 2400 0:38 2350 0:37 2350 0:37 2300 0:36 2300 0:36 2250 0:35 100
150 2950 0:52 2900 0:51 2850 0:50 2800 0:49 2750 0:48 2750 0:47 2700 0:46 2650 0:45 2600 0:45 2600 0:44 2600 0:43 150
200 3350 1:03 3300 1:02 3200 1:00 3150 0:59 3100 0:57 3050 0:56 3050 0:55 3000 0:54 3000 0:53 2950 0:53 2900 0:51 200
250 3750 1:14 3700 1:12 3600 1:10 3550 1:09 3500 1:07 3450 1:06 3400 1:05 3350 1:03 3300 1:02 3250 1:01 3200 0:59 250
300 4100 1:25 4000 1:23 3950 1:21 3850 1:19 3800 1:17 3750 1:15 3700 1:14 3650 1:12 3600 1:11 3550 1:09 3500 1:07 300
350 4500 1:36 4400 1:33 4300 1:31 4200 1:28 4150 1:26 4050 1:24 4000 1:23 3950 1:21 3900 1:19 3850 1:17 3800 1:16 350
400 4850 1:47 4750 1:44 4650 1:41 4550 1:38 4450 1:36 4400 1:34 4300 1:32 4250 1:30 4150 1:28 4100 1:26 4050 1:24 400
450 5250 1:57 5100 1:54 5000 1:51 4900 1:48 4800 1:45 4700 1:43 4650 1:41 4550 1:38 4500 1:36 4400 1:34 4350 1:32 450
500 5600 2:08 5450 2:04 5300 2:01 5200 1:58 5100 1:54 5050 1:52 4950 1:49 4850 1:47 4800 1:44 4700 1:42 4650 1:40 500
550 5900 2:19 5750 2:15 5650 2:11 5550 2:07 5450 2:04 5350 2:01 5250 1:58 5150 1:55 5050 1:52 4950 1:50 4900 1:47 550
600 6250 2:30 6100 2:25 5950 2:21 5850 2:17 5700 2:14 5600 2:10 5500 2:07 5400 2:04 5300 2:01 5250 1:58 5150 1:56 600
650 6550 2:41 6450 2:36 6250 2:31 6150 2:27 6000 2:23 5900 2:19 5750 2:16 5650 2:12 5600 2:09 5500 2:07 5400 2:04 650
700 6900 2:51 6750 2:46 6550 2:42 6400 2:37 6300 2:33 6150 2:28 6050 2:24 5950 2:21 5850 2:18 5750 2:15 5650 2:11 700
750 7250 3:03 7050 2:57 6850 2:52 6700 2:46 6550 2:42 6450 2:37 6350 2:33 6200 2:30 6100 2:26 6000 2:23 5850 2:19 750
800 7550 3:14 7350 3:08 7200 3:02 7000 2:56 6850 2:51 6700 2:46 6600 2:42 6450 2:38 6350 2:34 6250 2:30 6150 2:27 800
850 7500 3:13 7300 3:07 7150 3:01 7000 2:56 6850 2:52 6700 2:47 6600 2:43 6500 2:38 6400 2:35 850
900 7450 3:11 7300 3:06 7150 3:01 7000 2:56 6850 2:51 6750 2:47 6600 2:43 900
950 7550 3:15 7400 3:10 7250 3:05 7100 3:00 7000 2:55 6850 2:51 950
1000 7500 3:14 7350 3:09 7250 3:04 7100 2:59 1000
1050 7450 3:13 7350 3:07 1050
1100 7550 3:16 1100
1150 1150
1200 1200
1250 1250
1300 1300
1350 1350
1400 1400

Notes 1. Take-off and climb to 1,000 ft (2 min) and landing (10 min) time allowances added.
2. Take-off and climb to 1,000 ft (150 lb) and landing and baulked landing (1,150 lb) fuel allowances added.
3. Procedure-normal climb to 38,000 ft, long range cruise at 38,000 normal descent to 1,000 ft.

9-15 Fig 3 ODM Diversion Table

20 400 350 350 300 300 300 300 300 250 250 250 200 200 200 200 200 150 150 150 150 150
40 650 650 600 600 550 550 500 500 450 450 450 400 400 400 350 350 350 350 300 300 300
60 850 850 800 800 750 750 700 700 650 650 600 600 550 550 550 500 500 500 500 450 450
80 1050 1000 950 950 900 900 850 850 800 800 750 750 700 700 700 650 650 650 600 600 600
100 1200 1150 1100 1100 1050 1050 1000 1000 950 950 900 900 850 850 800 800 800 750 750 750 700
120 1300 1300 1250 1200 1200 1150 1150 1100 1100 1050 1050 1000 1000 950 950 900 900 900 850 850 800
140 1450 1400 1350 1350 1300 1250 1250 1200 1200 1150 1150 1100 1100 1050 1050 1050 1000 1000 950 950 900
160 1550 1550 1500 1450 1400 1400 1350 1300 1300 1250 1250 1200 1200 1150 1150 1100 1100 1100 1050 1050 1000
180 1700 1650 1600 1550 1550 1500 1450 1400 1400 1350 1350 1300 1300 1250 1250 1200 1200 1150 1150 1150 1100
200 1800 1750 1700 1650 1650 1600 1550 1500 1500 1450 1450 1400 1400 1350 1350 1300 1300 1250 1250 1200 1200
220 1950 1900 1850 1800 1750 1700 1650 1600 1600 1550 1500 1500 1450 1450 1400 1400 1350 1350 1300 1300 1250
240 2050 2000 1950 1900 1850 1800 1750 1700 1700 1650 1600 1600 1550 1500 1500 1450 1450 1400 1400 1350 1350
260 2150 2100 2050 2000 1950 1900 1850 1800 1750 1750 1700 1650 1650 1600 1550 1550 1500 1500 1450 1450 1400
280 2300 2200 2150 2100 2050 2000 1950 1900 1850 1800 1800 1750 1700 1700 1650 1600 1600 1550 1550 1500 1500
300 2400 2300 2250 2200 2150 2100 2050 2000 1950 1900 1850 1850 1800 1750 1750 1700 1650 1650 1600 1600 1550

Revised Jul 10 Page 3 of 9

 AP3456 – 9-15 - Fuel Planning

9-15 Fig 4 ODM Holding Fuel Table

42 1850 1700 1450 1340 42

41 1810 1660 1440 1330 41
40 1770 1620 1420 1320 40
39 1750 1590 1410 1310 39
38 1710 1580 1400 1300 38
37 1690 1570 1390 1300 37
36 1680 1570 1380 1290 36
35 1680 1570 1380 1290 35
34 1670 1560 1390 1290 34
33 1670 1560 1390 1300 33
32 1670 1560 1390 1300 32
31 1670 1560 1390 1310 31
30 1670 1570 1400 1310 30
29 1670 1570 1360 1270 29
28 1670 1570 1370 1280 28
27 1670 1580 1380 1290 27
26 1680 1580 1380 1300 26
25 1680 1590 1390 1320 25
24 1690 1600 1410 1330 24
23 1700 1610 1420 1350 23
22 1710 1620 1440 1370 22
21 1720 1640 1460 1390 21
20 1730 1650 1480 1410 20
19 1750 1670 1510 1440 19
18 1770 1690 1530 1470 18
17 1790 1720 1560 1500 17
16 1810 1740 1590 1530 16
15 1840 1770 1620 1560 15
14 1870 1810 1660 1590 14
13 1910 1840 1690 1620 13
12 1950 1880 1720 1650 12
11 1990 1920 1760 1680 11
10 2030 1960 1790 1720 10
9 2080 2000 1820 1750 9
8 2120 2040 1860 1780 8
7 2160 2080 1890 1810 7
6 2200 2120 1930 1850 6
5 2250 2160 1960 1880 5
4 2290 2200 2000 1910 4
3 2330 2240 2030 1940 3
2 2370 2280 2070 1980 2
1 2410 2320 2100 2010 1

The Fuel Plan

5. Preparing the basic fuel plan is straightforward, using the data from the appropriate tables of the
ODM. The following example will illustrate the procedure. A simple route is shown in profile in Fig 5; it
consists of a climb, a cruise portion at two flight levels, and a descent. The cruise portion is divided by
a number of waypoints. Even if this were not necessary for navigation purposes, the cruise would
need to be divided for fuel planning as the fuel consumption rate depends on AUW, which will, of
course, reduce during flight. The length of each section for fuel planning considerations will depend on
the aircraft type. The flight plan entries for this route are shown in Fig 6.

9-15 Fig 5 Simple Route (Elevation)

TOD
TOC FL 370
FL 330

Cruise
Climb Descent

WP0 WP1 WP2 WP3 WP4 WP5

Revised Jul 10 Page 4 of 9

 AP3456 – 9-15 - Fuel Planning

9-15 Fig 6 Simplified Flight Plan

SA RAS FL OAT TAS G/S LEG LEG ET ETA START FUEL 8000 DTG
Route to MSFL MACH ALT DEV DIST TIME WEIGHT FLOW USED REM
230 115
TOC 240 −4 293 328 21 21 21000 1410 6590 840
.56 315
WP 1 200 330 −1 336 428 200 28 49 19590 1865 870 5720 640

WP 2  330
 437 175 24 73 18720
 750 4970 465

WP 3  370
 362 287 110 23 96 18070 1850 710 4260 355

WP 4  370
  284 180 38 134 17360 1795 1140 3120 175

TOD  370
  286 175
95
20 154 16220 1750 590 2530 80

WP 5 (Dest) 240
.67 180
 325 300 80
16 170 15600 310 2220 0

Totals 955 170 Total Fuel used 5780

Tick () indicates 'same as above'

6. Climb. The fuel for the climb section is extracted from the climb table of the ODM, ensuring that the
correct climb and temperature profile is selected. In practice, this will be done at the same time that the
mean TAS and time to climb are found for navigation planning (see example in Volume 9, Chapter 14).
The top of climb (TOC) position is plotted allowing the first cruise leg to be defined. The fuel used is entered
in the appropriate column of the flight plan and, by subtraction, the fuel remaining and AUW at the top of
climb are calculated and entered.

7. Descent. The descent fuel is similarly found using the ODM descent tables, as per the example
in Volume 9, Chapter 14. The top of descent (TOD) point can be plotted, thus allowing the last cruising
leg to be defined. It should be noted that the descent table will normally assume a descent to 1,000 ft.
If it is planned to stop the descent at an intermediate level, then an adjustment must be made. For
example, if it is intended to descend from FL 310 to FL 40 then the figures for fuel and time for a
descent from FL 40 are subtracted from those for a descent from FL 310. The fuel calculated for use
in the descent is then entered in the flight plan.

8. Cruise. The start weight at the beginning of the first leg is used as an entering argument with
altitude to determine the fuel flow rate. The table for the correct cruise conditions (speed, temperature)
in this example yields a rate of 1,865 lb/hr (Fig 7). The time for the 200 nm leg is 28 minutes and
therefore the fuel used is 870 lb. This can be entered in the flight plan and subtracted from the fuel
remaining to give the new fuel remaining, and from the previous AUW to give the AUW for the next leg.
The process is repeated for the remaining cruise legs.

9-15 Fig 7 Extraction of Cruise Fuel Rate

Long Range Cruise
(Extract from Fig 1)
Speed (knots T A S) Above Line
Pressure ISA Speed Fuel
Height Temp (Below Flow Fuel Flow (lb/hr). Below line
Line) (Above Weight (lb/1000)
knots Line)
ft X 1000 °C TAS lb/hr 19 18 17 16 15 14 13
42 -57 1730 352 1685 1625 1565 1510
41 -57 1815 349 1760 1705 1645 1590 1540
40 -57 1905 348 1840 1785 1720 1665 1615 1565
39 -57 371 1915 1860 1800 1745 1690 1640 1595
38 -57 371 1940 1875 1820 1770 1720 1675 1630
37 -57 362 1905 1850 1795 1750 1700 1655 1615
36 -57 355 1885 1830 1775 1730 1685 1645 1605
35 -55 348 1875 1825 1775 1730 1685 1645 1610
34 -53 342 1870 1820 1775 1730 1690 1650 1615
33 -51 336 1865 1820 1775 1730 1690 1650 1615
32 -49 330 1870 1825 1780 1735 1695 1655 1620
31 -47 325 1875 1830 1785 1740 1700 1660 1625

(Extract from Fig 6)

TAS G/S LEG LEG ET ETA START FUEL 8000 DTG
DIST TIME WEIGHT FLOW USED REM
115
293 328 21 21 21000 1410 6590 840
315
336 428 200 28 49 19590 1865 870 5720 640

437 175 24 73 18720

 750 4970 465

362 287 110 23 96 18070 1850 710 4260 355

 284 180 38 134 17360 1795 1140 3120 175


95 1750
286 20 154 16220 590 2530 80
175
325 300 16 170 15600 310 2220 0
80

Totals 955 170 Total Fuel used 5780

Tick () indicates 'same as above'

Revised Jul 10 Page 5 of 9

 AP3456 – 9-15 - Fuel Planning

Minimum Fuel Requirements

9. Minimum Fuel Overhead the Destination. The planning procedure discussed above has
determined the amount of fuel needed to carry out the flight but has taken no account of the quantity of
fuel with which it is necessary to arrive at the destination. The ODM-based calculations give the
amount of fuel remaining when the aircraft arrives overhead the destination at 1,000 ft (2,220 lb in
Fig 6). The minimum fuel required overhead the destination should be calculated, and is normally the
sum of the following factors:

a. Minimum Landing Fuel. There will be a minimum landing fuel permitted for the aircraft
type. This usually allows sufficient for taxiing to dispersal, plus an allowance for gauging errors.

b. Missed Approach and Transit to Alternate Airfield. It is normal to carry a fuel allowance
for a 'Missed Approach' at the destination airfield, and subsequent transit to the alternate
(diversion) airfield. Extra fuel may be required within this allowance, for factors such as forecast
icing and its associated fuel penalty, or air traffic restrictions.

c. Approach Fuel. A fuel allowance will be required to provide for the approach (either visual or
instrument) from 1,000 ft overhead the destination, to touchdown. Similarly, an allowance must be
made for the approach at the alternate airfield.

10. 'Standard' Diversion Figures. For most aircraft there will be 'standard' amounts for these various
fuel requirements (perhaps printed on the flight plan form for convenience - see Fig 3 to Volume 9,
Chapter 14). In addition, there is usually a locally produced table giving the transit fuel required to the
commonly-used diversion airfields. For other airfields, the transit fuel will have to be calculated, normally
by the use of a table such as that shown in Fig 3.

11. En Route Minimum Fuel. The 'en route minimum fuel' is the amount of fuel required at a specific point
to enable the aircraft to complete the route as planned, arriving at the destination with the specified overhead
fuel. Once the fuel overhead the destination has been calculated, it is possible to work back through the fuel
plan and calculate the en route minimum fuel for any point on the flight plan.

In-flight Fuel Monitoring

12. The fuel plan, as calculated, gives an indication of the expected fuel consumption, leg by leg.
However, if the fuel consumption varies from that expected, it can be difficult to make an accurate
assessment of any trend from the flight plan form. To overcome this shortcoming, the fuel graph
has been developed. The fuel graph presents a visual solution: the fuel expected is plotted on the
vertical axis against either time or distance on the horizontal axis. The former is known as the
fuel/time Howgozit and the latter as the fuel/distance Howgozit. Each type is suited to certain roles;
in general, the maritime and AAR roles use fuel/time graphs while transport operations tend to use
the fuel/distance graph. The fuel/distance Howgozit has the advantage of being ideally suited to the
solution of critical point and other tactical problems (Volume 9, Chapter 16).

13. COMBAT, BINGO and JOKER Fuels. The terms 'COMBAT', 'BINGO' and 'JOKER' can be used
to assist with in-flight fuel management. These terms are described fully in Volume 9, Chapter 18.

Fuel/Distance Howgozit

14. Construction. Fig 8 shows an example fuel/distance Howgozit, based on the flight plan at Fig 6.
The vertical axis represents fuel remaining while the horizontal axis represents the distance to go to
the destination. The departure airfield is represented by the intersection of the total route distance and

Revised Jul 10 Page 6 of 9

 AP3456 – 9-15 - Fuel Planning

the take-off fuel, in this example 955 nm and 8,000 lb. The destination is similarly represented by the
intersection of the flight plan fuel remaining overhead the destination (2,220 lb) and zero distance to
go. The predicted fuel consumption between these points is plotted using the flight plan values of fuel
remaining at each waypoint and the corresponding distance to go. As fuel consumption is a function of
time rather than distance, the gradient of the line will vary with changes in groundspeed (higher
groundspeeds giving shallower gradients). This fact can be used as a cross-check of the plotting as
the gradient changes can be correlated with the flight plan groundspeed changes.

9-15 Fig 8 Fuel/Distance Howgozit

FROM: WP 0 E/L
TIME
WP 0 TO: WP 5 FUEL
REM
+ LINE
8000
+ ETA
TOC
TOTAL
7000 FP

WP 1 DEST
REV
DEST
6000 MIN
WP 2 DEST
OXY
VOLTS
5000 WP 3

4000 WP 4
TOD
3000 WP 5

2000

WEIGHT OF
FUEL IN LBS

900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0

DISTANCE FROM DESTINATION (IN NAUTICAL MILES)

15. Minimum Fuel Line. The graph plotted in Fig 8 represents the expected fuel consumption for
the flight and, in particular, terminates at the expected fuel remaining overhead the destination. For
the reasons outlined in paras 9 to 11, there will be a minimum fuel requirement overhead the
destination; this value is plotted at the zero distance-to-go point. In the example (Fig 9), the
minimum fuel overhead is assumed to be 1,710 lb. A minimum fuel line may now be constructed
through this minimum fuel point and parallel to the planned fuel line. As a flight safety item, the
minimum fuel line is normally plotted in red. Any in-flight fuel check that falls below this line means
that the destination cannot be reached with the stipulated reserves and some action must be taken
to remedy the situation.

9-15 Fig 9 Fuel/Distance Howgozit with Minimum Fuel Line and Plotted Fuel Checks

DTG
FROM: WP 0 E/L 830 630 460 315 175
TIME 1025 1055 1125 1155 1225
TO: WP 5 FUEL
REM 6800 5800 5200 4200 3300
+250 +100 +250 +200 +150
8000 1025
POSITIVE TREND NEGATIVE TREND
TOTAL
7000 FP

1055 1125 DEST 2220 2220 2220 2220 2220

REV
DEST 2440 2290 2440 2390 2240
6000 MIN
DEST 1710 1710 1710 1710 1710
OXY
1155 VOLTS 6/28 6/28 6/28 6/28 6/28
5000

4000 1225

3000

MINIMUM FUEL LINE

2000

WEIGHT
OF FUEL MINIMUM FUEL OVERHEAD
IN LBS

900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0

DISTANCE FROM DESTINATION (IN NAUTICAL MILES)

Revised Jul 10 Page 7 of 9

 AP3456 – 9-15 - Fuel Planning

16. In-flight Fuel Checks. One advantage of graphical monitoring of fuel consumption is that fuel
checks can be carried out at any convenient time and are not restricted to pre-planned times or
positions. The fuel remaining at any time is simply plotted against the distance to go at that time. If
the fuel check plots above the line, then there is more fuel than planned and vice versa. A series of
such checks is shown in Fig 9. From the first fuel check it will be seen that the fuel consumption is
'above the line'. There may be several reasons for this; a greater than expected start fuel, colder
temperatures, better than average engine efficiency. At this stage, the only assumption that can be
made is that the fuel for the remainder of the flight will be as planned and therefore the fuel
remaining overhead the destination will be above the line by a similar amount. The frequency of fuel
checks will normally be stipulated by the operating authority, but, in general, a check will be made at
TOC, just prior to TOD and at approximately 30-minute intervals during the cruise.

17. Fuel Consumption Trend. After a number of fuel checks, it will be possible to join them to
establish an impression of the actual, rather than the predicted, consumption. This trend line may
be extrapolated to estimate the effect on the expected destination fuel. Clearly, such estimates
must be treated with caution and, the longer the period over which the trend can be established, the
more reliable it is likely to be. It is important to give some consideration as to the reason for a trend
varying from the prediction. For example, it may be due to winds differing from forecast, in which
case this difference may not necessarily persist for the rest of the flight. In the case of a circular
route back to base, it is quite likely that such a trend established on the outbound section will be
reversed on the inbound section. This effect is shown in Fig 9 where the positive trend between
1055 hrs and 1125 hrs is reversed between 1125 hrs and 1155 hrs.

Fuel/Time Howgozit

18. Construction. The fuel/time Howgozit is constructed in a similar manner to the fuel/distance variety
except that the horizontal axis represents flight plan elapsed time from take-off. Fig 10 shows an example
graph on which a horizontal minimum fuel line has been plotted. The gradient of the fuel/time line is more
constant than the fuel/distance line as the fuel flow with respect to time is relatively constant. The minor
difference as AUW reduces is not readily apparent at the scale of the graph.

9-15 Fig 10 Fuel/Time Howgozit with Minimum Fuel Line and Plotted Fuel Checks

FROM: WP 0 E/L 3L 6L 10L 10L 11L

TIME 1025 1055 1125 1155 1225
TO: WP 5 FUEL
REM 6800 5800 4900 3900 3000
+350 +300 +300 +200 +200
8000
-90 -180 -300 -300 -330
TOTAL +260 +120 0 -100 -130
7000 FP
DEST 2220
TREND REV
DEST 2480 2340 2220 2120 1990
6000 MIN
DEST 1710 1710 1710 1710 1710
OXY
VOLTS 6/28 6/28 6/28 6/28 6/28
5000

4000

PREDICTED FLOW
3000

2000

WEIGHT
MINIMUM FUEL LINE
OF FUEL
IN LBS
1020 1040 1100 1120 1140 1200 1220 1240 1300 1320
TIME

Revised Jul 10 Page 8 of 9

 AP3456 – 9-15 - Fuel Planning

19. In-flight Fuel Checks. Once airborne, the elapsed times on the horizontal axis can be replaced
with real times, if required. Fuel checks are plotted on the graph as values of fuel remaining against
time, or elapsed time from take-off. Revision of fuel expected at destination requires an extra stage
when using this graph. Suppose that a fuel check plots above the line by 200 lb. It is not sufficient
to assume that the destination fuel will be better by 200 lb; it is first necessary to check how airborne
ETAs correspond with the flight plan ETAs. At the time of the fuel check, the ETA for the next
waypoint is calculated and compared with the flight plan ETA. If the flight is running, say, 3 minutes
behind flight plan then 3 minutes extra fuel will be used (assuming that the 3-minute discrepancy is
maintained). Using an average fuel flow rate of 30 lb/min in this example, an extra 90 lb of fuel will
be used. Thus, the revision to the overhead fuel is 200 – 90 = +110 lb. An extra facility can be
offered, on the fuel/time Howgozit, by joining 2 representative fuel checks, and extending that line
downwards. Where this line intercepts the minimum fuel line, the time can be estimated for
achieving that fuel state. In the example in Fig 10, by joining the 1155 hrs and 1225 hrs fuel checks
and projecting that line, it can be forecast that the minimum fuel of 1,710 lb will be reached at
approximately 1306 hrs.

Fuel Saving

20. If, during the flight, a fuel check falls below the minimum fuel line, or if a reliable trend shows that
the fuel will be below minimum at the destination, then some fuel saving action must be initiated.

21. The action to be taken will depend on a number of factors such as the aircraft type and
performance, the nature of the task, and airspace restrictions. Although no precise guidance can be
given, the following options might be considered:

a. Reduce Time on Task. Reducing time on task is a simple method of saving fuel but may
not be operationally acceptable.

b. Shorten the Route. This is normally the most effective method but is dependent upon the
route geometry. It should be relatively simple in a route with large turns but will be impossible in a
straight route. In addition, there may be air traffic control or airspace restrictions preventing re-
routeing.

c. Alter the Cruise Profile. There are various techniques which may be considered within the
cruise profile. When on task, it may be possible to change to a more economical speed
(endurance cruise), or perhaps fly higher. On route to the destination, best speed for range
should be utilized. A higher cruising flight level may also save fuel over a long distance (but the
effect of a different fuel flow rate and of a different wind structure must be considered).
Approaching the destination, it may be beneficial to remain at height for longer and then execute a
rapid, rather than normal, rate of descent. Finally, the planned approach may be changed, eg
straight-in visual rather than full instrument recovery, weather permitting.

d. Re-negotiate the Minimum Overhead Fuel. It may be possible to change the planned
diversion airfield to one that is closer or has better weather (allowing a visual approach instead of
an instrument approach) thereby permitting a reduced minimum fuel overhead the destination.

Revised Jul 10 Page 9 of 9

 AP3456 – 9-16 - Critical Point and Point of No Return

CHAPTER 16 - CRITICAL POINT AND POINT OF NO RETURN

Introduction

1. An important aspect of flight planning is the calculation of the action to be taken in the event of a
diversion or an emergency. The decision to be made is whether, with the available fuel and knowledge of
the wind velocity, it will be preferable to return to base, divert, or continue to the destination, and indeed
which of these options is feasible. This chapter will describe the various decision points which can be
determined at the flight planning stage and the methods by which they can be calculated.

CRITICAL POINT

Definition

2. Route Critical Point (CP). The CP is the point between two airfields from which it would take the
same time to fly to either airfield. The calculation of critical point is based on the ratio of groundspeed to
destination and groundspeed back to base. These speeds are computed from a mean wind velocity for
the flight for simplicity. The TAS selected for the calculation depends on the type of emergency
envisaged. For example in the case of an engine failure a reduced TAS will be used, whereas in the case
of a sudden deterioration in the condition of a patient on a medical evacuation flight a higher than normal
TAS might be appropriate.

3. There are three methods of determining the critical point between two airfields; formula (DR
Computer), Howgozit and critical line graphics.

Formula (DR Computer) Method

4. Fig 1 illustrates the problem to be solved. A and B are the two airfields and C is the critical point
whose position along AB is to be found. The distance from A to B is D, and the distance from A to C is X.
The groundspeed on to the destination is O and the ground-speed back to base is H. In most cases, these
ground-speeds will be calculated on the basis of a reduced TAS.

9-16 Fig 1 Critical Point Problem

H O
C
A B

Revised Jul 10 Page 1 of 10

 AP3456 – 9-16 - Critical Point and Point of No Return

By the definition of Critical Point, the time from C to A is the same as the time from C to B.

Therefore:

D−X X
=
O H
XO = H(D – X)
XO = HD – HX
XO + XH = HD
HD
ie X =
O+H
X H
or =
D O+H

5. In this latter form, the equation can be solved for X on the DR Computer by setting H on the outer
scale against (O + H) on the inner scale and then reading X on the outer scale against D on the inner
scale.

6. Example.
D = 1,000 nm
Reduced TAS = 260 kt
W/V = 060°/60
Track = 090°T
=
O = 208 kt
H = 312 kt
O+H = 520 kt
From the DR Computer (Fig 2)

X = 600 nm

Revised Jul 10 Page 2 of 10

 AP3456 – 9-16 - Critical Point and Point of No Return

9-16 Fig 2 DR Computer Solution to Critical Point

X
D

H
O+H

Howgozit Method

7. The CP can be determined using the fuel/distance Howgozit graph. The principle is to back plot,
from the point at the departure and destination airfield representing the minimum fuel, two fuel gradient
lines equivalent to the expected fuel consumption rate from the CP. The intersection of these gradients
will then be at the CP.

8. Fig 3 shows a fuel/distance Howgozit for a flight of 741 nm. The minimum fuel required at either
the destination or on return to base is 1,500 lbs. Points A and B represent this fuel value at the
departure and destination airfields.

9-16 Fig 3 Howgozit Solution of Critical Point

FROM: LOSSIEMOUTH E/L

TIME
TO: KEFLAVIK FUEL
REM
8000

TOTAL
7000 FP
DEST 2900 2900 2900 2900
REV
DEST
6000 MIN
DEST
Weight E OXY
VOLTS
of Fuel 5000
in lbs
C D
4000

3000

F
2000
1500 B
1000
A

700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0

CP

Revised Jul 10 Page 3 of 10

 AP3456 – 9-16 - Critical Point and Point of No Return

9. The requirement now is to determine the fuel gradients in terms of fuel against distance, taking
into account the optimum single-engine cruising level and speed, a representative AUW, and the
expected wind velocity. The ODM table (Fig 4) shows an example of the distance flown whilst using
2,500 lbs of fuel (from 4,000 lbs to 1,500 lbs) for a selection of head and tail wind components. Other
aircraft will have different figures, but the principle remains the same. The gradients can now be
constructed by stepping these distances from the departure and destination airfields on the graph and
plotting the 4,000 lbs of fuel point.

9-16 Fig 4 ODM Table - Distance Flown for 2500 lbs of Fuel

Headwind Distance Tailwind Distance

Knots Naut. Miles Knots Naut. Miles

0 415 0 415
5 405 5 425
10 400 10 430
15 390 15 440

20 380 20 450
25 375 25 455
30 365 30 465
35 355 35 475

40 350 40 480
45 340 45 490

50 330 50 500
55 325 55 505

60 315 60 515
65 305 65 525
70 300 70 530
75 290 75 540

80 280 80 550
85 275 85 555
90 265 90 565
95 255 95 575

100 250 100 580

10. On the example graph, the 'home' wind component is 9 kt head and the 'out' component is 8 kt
tail. These values are computed using forecast wind velocity and a reduced TAS in the single engine
case. Fig 4 gives distances of 401 nm and 428 nm respectively for these wind components. Point C is
plotted at 4,000 lbs and 428 nm from destination; point D is plotted at 4,000 lbs and 401 nm from
departure (741 − 401 = 340 DTG). CB and AD are then the required fuel gradients and their
intersection gives the CP position, 383 nm DTG.

11. It should be remembered that the CP represents the equal time point between two bases and the
fact that the solution has been determined on a fuel Howgozit graph does not in itself guarantee that
the aircraft will arrive at base or destination with the minimum required fuel. The expected fuel can be
determined by drawing a line through the flight plan fuel point at the CP parallel to the appropriate
gradient determined above. Thus, on the example graph, if it was decided to return to base from the
CP under the single-engine conditions, the fuel line would be plotted as EF, parallel to AD, giving an
expected fuel at base of 2,900 lbs. However an adverse combination of distance and wind velocity
could bring the overhead fuel level to less than minimum.

Revised Jul 10 Page 4 of 10

 AP3456 – 9-16 - Critical Point and Point of No Return

Critical Line

12. The critical point represents that point on track from which it will take equal time to proceed to
destination or return to base. If the aircraft is off track however, the critical point loses its significance
and must be replaced by a critical line. For a straight line track, as in Fig 5, in still air the perpendicular
bisector of track represents the equal time line back to A or on to B. Thus, for an aircraft well off track
(at C), it would be quicker to return to A than proceed to B in still air.

9-16 Fig 5 Critical Line in Still Air

X
C Equi-line

A B
500 nm 500 nm

Y
13. To be valid, this line must be modified for the effect of wind. The time for the aircraft to fly from
the still air critical line to either A or B in still air at the reduced TAS is calculated. The critical line is
then moved upwind by a distance equal to the still air time multiplied by the wind speed.

14. In the example, the still air critical line is at 500 nm, the reduced TAS is 260 kt and the wind velocity is
060°/60. The still air time to fly from the critical line to either A or B is 115 minutes (1.923 hrs). Thus the
critical line must be moved upwind (i.e. in the direction 060° T) by 1.923 × 60 nm = 115 nm (Fig 6).

9-16 Fig 6 Wind - Modified Critical Line

Equi-line moved
upwind for 115 nm

A B

Equi-line Critical Line

15. The assumption in this solution is that the distance, from any point on the still air critical line to A or B,
is the same (i.e. 500 nm in this example). This assumption becomes less valid as distance off track
increases but the errors induced are unlikely to be significant unless the track error is large and the route
relatively short.

Critical Point/Line Between Three Airfields

16. The discussion in the foregoing paragraphs has considered only the case where the options
available are proceeding to the destination or returning to base. More commonly, there will be a third
option of diverting to an off-track airfield. Fig 7 shows the still air situation, where, between A and L, it will
be quicker to return to base, from L to N it will be quicker to divert to C, and beyond N it will be quicker
to proceed to B. Thus, L and N represent two critical points. The best method of finding the positions
of L and N is graphical and is based on the critical line solution.

Revised Jul 10 Page 5 of 10

 AP3456 – 9-16 - Critical Point and Point of No Return

9-16 Fig 7 Critical Point Between Three Airfields

A L N B

17. The method is illustrated in Fig 8. AC and BC, joining the departure and destination airfields to
the diversion, are drawn, and the perpendicular bisectors of these lines (LM and NO) are constructed
to cut the track, AB, at L and N. As L is equidistant from A and C, and N is equidistant from B and C, L
and N are the still air critical points.

9-16 Fig 8 Graphical Solution for Critical Points/Lines Between Three Airfields

M O

Critical
Line

Critical
L CP N CP Line

A B
Wind Vector Wind Vector
for Time for Time
L to C N to C

18. To account for the wind effect the points L and N are moved upwind, in the same manner as
constructing a critical line, by an amount equal to the wind speed multiplied by the time to fly from L and N
respectively to C at the reduced TAS. Critical lines are drawn through the ends of the wind vectors,
parallel to LM and NO, and where these cut the track represent the critical points.

POINT OF NO RETURN

Definition

19. The point of no return (PNR) is that point furthest removed from base to which an aircraft can fly
and still return to base within its safe endurance. PNR is normally calculated on long flights where the
aircraft is unable to land between the departure and destination airfields. As with the CP, there are
three methods of solution, but only the formula (DR Computer) and Howgozit methods are practical.

Revised Jul 10 Page 6 of 10

 AP3456 – 9-16 - Critical Point and Point of No Return

Formula (DR Computer) Method

20. By definition, the distance to the PNR equals the distance from the PNR back to base. If T is the
time to the PNR, O the outbound groundspeed (using full TAS), H the homebound groundspeed
(full TAS), and P the aircraft endurance, then:

T×O = (P – T)H
TO = PH – TH
T(O + H) = PH

PH
ie T =
O+H

Distance to the PNR is then found from T × O.

21. The problem can be solved on the DR Computer by transposing the formula into the form:

T H
=
P O+H

H is set on the outer scale against O + H on the inner scale and then T can be read on the outer scale
against P on the inner scale.
22. Example.
O = 380 kt
H = 340 kt
P = 3 hrs
T = 340 340
∴ =
180 380 + 340 720

From Fig 9, T can be seen to equal 85 minutes. Distance to PNR is then equal to 85 minutes at
380 kt = 538 nm.

Revised Jul 10 Page 7 of 10

 AP3456 – 9-16 - Critical Point and Point of No Return

9-16 Fig 9 DR Computer Solution to PNR

Howgozit Method

23. Fig 10 shows a fuel/distance Howgozit for a flight of 741 nm. Point A represents the minimum fuel
requirement on arrival back at base (1,200 lbs) and it is necessary to construct a fuel gradient back to
this point.

9-16 Fig 10 Howgozit Solution for Point of No Return

FROM: LOSSIEMOUTH E/L

TIME
TO: KEFLAVIK
BEM

8000 FP

TOTAL
7000 FP
DEST 2900 2900 2900 2900
REV
DEST
6000 MIN
Weight DEST
of Fuel OXY
VOLTS
in lbs 5000
C
4000
B
3000

2000
A
1000

700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0

PNR

24. From the ODM cruise table, the TAS and fuel flow rate for the appropriate return flight level is
extracted. An assumption will have to be made for the AUW pertinent to the return leg, a mid-AUW will
probably suffice.

25. The groundspeed is now calculated for the homebound leg, using the ODM TAS and the forecast
wind velocity. There is now sufficient information to plot the gradient as the fuel used per hour and the
distance flown per hour are known and therefore the fuel used per distance is known. In the example,

Revised Jul 10 Page 8 of 10

 AP3456 – 9-16 - Critical Point and Point of No Return

the fuel rate is 1760 lbs/hr and the groundspeed is 312 kt and a point on the graph at 1760 + 1200 =
2960 lbs and 312 nm from base can be plotted (B in Fig 10).

26. The fuel gradient is drawn in by joining AB and is extended to intersect the planned consumption
line (C in Fig 10). The distance corresponding to this point represents the PNR.

Last Point of Diversion

27. The last point of diversion (LPD) is a special case of the point of no return. Under normal
circumstances, an aircraft will arrive at its destination with sufficient fuel reserves to divert to and reach
its diversion with a specified minimum fuel. However, occasionally, routes may be flown where the
nearest diversion is at such a distance from the destination that the aircraft cannot carry enough fuel to
reach the destination and then divert safely. Under these circumstances it is possible to determine that
point along track beyond which it is impossible to reach the diversion airfield safely. This point is
known as the 'Last Point of Diversion'.

28. The LPD is found graphically and the procedure is illustrated in Fig 11, where B is the intended
destination. AB is the final track, and C is the diversion airfield. The track AB is extended to D (the
false destination) such that AD represents the limit of safe endurance at the groundspeed along that
track. CD is joined and a perpendicular bisector is constructed, QP, cutting AD at P. The still air time
from P to C is calculated and a wind vector is drawn upwind from P for this time. A critical line can now
be drawn parallel to PQ cutting the track AB at the last point of diversion for C.

9-16 Fig 11 Last Point of Diversion (LPD) Solution

A P B

D
LPD

29. In flight it may be necessary to amend the position of the false destination in accordance with a
Howgozit fuel trend. Fig 12 shows a Howgozit graph with a fuel trend drawn in. This is extended to
intersect the minimum fuel line and the distance equating to this point defines the false destination, in
this example 100 nm beyond the destination. The LPD is then constructed graphically as above.

Revised Jul 10 Page 9 of 10

 AP3456 – 9-16 - Critical Point and Point of No Return

9-16 Fig 12 Howgozit Solution of False Destination (FD)

8000
1000
Trend Line
1030
6000
Fuel (lbs) 1100
'False Destination' is
Planned Fuel Line 1300 100 nm beyond
4000 real destination

2000
Min Fuel Line (1200 lbs)

1000 800 600 400 200 0 False

nm Dest

Revised Jul 10 Page 10 of 10

 AP3456 – 9-17 - Timing Techniques

CHAPTER 17 - TIMING TECHNIQUES

Introduction

1. Many air operations require that aircraft reach a given point at a precise time. As it is usually
easier to lose time than to gain it, such operations are often planned with a margin of time in hand.
Whether or not this is done, some adjustment to the speed or to the distance flown will invariably be
necessary to achieve the planned arrival time.

TIMING BY SPEED ADJUSTMENT

General

2. The obvious way to alter an aircraft’s time of arrival at its target is to increase or decrease the
airspeed, thus changing the groundspeed. If the aircraft is equipped with a navigation system giving a
direct readout of groundspeed, it is more convenient to base adjustments directly on groundspeed.

3. Only a small increase above the standard operating speed of an aircraft at a given height is normally
possible without an appreciable penalty in fuel consumption. Small speed changes result in only small
increases or decreases in flight time. For example, at a groundspeed of 200 kt an adjustment in
groundspeed of 10 kt will gain or lose only three minutes in an hour; the same adjustment at 400 kts gives
a difference of only one and a half minutes per hour. If, therefore, accurate timing at the target is to be
achieved by speed adjustments, action must be initiated as early as possible. The ideal is to be on time
at the beginning of a flight, and stay on time by adjusting the speed at each fix.

4. Two factors usually tell against attainment of the ideal. If operating in an area not served by a
reliable wind forecasting service (a situation more common operationally than in training), to stay on
time during the early part of the flight might lead to impracticable speed changes being required when
near the target, to compensate for major changes from the forecast head or tail wind component.
Furthermore, frequent speed changes when operating high performance aircraft are expensive in fuel.
It is therefore good practice to make only one or two adjustments to speed in the early stages of
theflight, and changes at turning points are usually adequate. The aim is to stay nearly on time but with
a progressively decreasing amount of time in hand, arriving on time at a suitable way point near
enough to the target to allow any reasonable wind changes to be taken care of by speed adjustment.
From that waypoint, to the target, timing is checked and speed adjusted at each fix.

Calculation of Speed Adjustments

5. The required groundspeed changes can be calculated as follows:

a. On the Dead Reckoning computer, by calculating the groundspeed required between a fix
and the next turning point, by using time and distance to go.

b. By the use of tables, prepared for the usual operating speeds, giving the amount of time
gained or lost if various speed changes are applied for a given period.

c. By using annotations, made on the flight plan, of the airspeed adjustments required to gain or
lose one minute, computed for each leg.

d. By estimation in flight using mental DR (MDR).

Revised Jul 10 Page 1 of 7

 AP3456 – 9-17 - Timing Techniques

6. An MDR change of G/S can be converted to an MDR change in CAS by multiplying it by the
approximate ratio of CAS to TAS. Thus, if the required G/S is an increase of 44 kt with a current CAS
of 209 kt and a TAS of 282 kt, then the CAS should be increased by 44 × 0.75, i.e. 33 kt.

Change of Mach Number

7. When an aircraft is being flown by reference to a Mach meter, rather than an airspeed indicator,
an adjustment to indicated Mach number to gain or lose time can be calculated as follows:

a. Computer Method.

(1) Determine the present groundspeed.

(2) Determine the groundspeed required to make good the required ETA.

(3) Calculate, on the computer, a new Mach number to fly, using the following formula:

Current Mach No New Mach No

=
Current G / S Required G / S

This method is adequate under most circumstances, but becomes increasingly inaccurate with head or
tail wind components in excess of 50 kt.

b. Use of Timing Graph. The change in Mach number required can be determined directly
from a graph (such as that illustrated at Fig 1); the method is as follows:

(1) Calculate the ETA, using the current groundspeed and the distance to go.

(2) From this ETA and the required ETA, determine the amount early or late.

(3) Enter the graph with distance to go and current groundspeed, extract the Mach number
change required to gain or lose one minute, and by proportion determine the Mach change
needed.

9-17 Fig 1 Change of Mach Number to Gain or Lose Time

.10
300
400
500
Change in Mach No to Gain or Lose One Min

.08

.06

.04

Groundspeed
(Knots)
.02
500
400
300
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Distance to Go (nm)

Revised Jul 10 Page 2 of 7

 AP3456 – 9-17 - Timing Techniques

TIMING BY ADJUSTMENT OF DISTANCE TO BE FLOWN

General

8. It may sometimes be desirable to adjust timing by altering the distance to go rather than by
changing airspeed. The various methods of doing this, some of them requiring pre-planning and some
not, are described in the following paragraphs.

Losing Time by 60° Dog-leg

9. Heading is altered 60° in either direction for the length of time that is to be lost, then altered 120°
in the opposite direction for the same length of time to regain track. Heading to the next turning point,
or target, is then resumed. The aircraft will, thus, have flown two sides of an equilateral triangle, and
the time lost will be equal to the time taken to fly one side.

10. Small inaccuracies in tracking and time lost will be introduced by the wind effect during the
procedure, but they will usually be negligible if the amount of time to be lost is small. If the same
constant rate of turn is maintained throughout the three turns, and if legs are timed accurately from
levelling out after a turn to the start of the next turn (see Fig 2), the effect on time lost of the time taken
to turn can be ignored.

9-17 Fig 2 60° Dog-leg Procedure

Wind Direction
120°
C
D

B 60° E
A 60°
Notes.
1. Legs are Timed Between B-C and D-E.
2. Time Lost Time Flown B-C.

11. The 60° dog-leg procedure, as described above, can normally be used for small time losses. If
more than two minutes is to be lost, or if the wind is strong, it will be necessary to adjust the time on
the second leg to ensure that the final turn will bring the aircraft back on track. If this is not done, the
resulting track error will leave a further timing problem, particularly if near the next turning point.
Where such an adjustment will be necessary, it is usual to make the first turn towards the 'into wind'
direction. This will ensure that track can be rejoined with time in hand, and that it will not be necessary
to extend the second leg to regain track, thus putting the aircraft in the more difficult position of having
to make up time.

Losing Time by 30° Dog-leg

12. A similar procedure, altering heading first 30° in one direction, then 60° in the other, before resuming
heading, may be used for small adjustments in ETA (see Fig 3).

Revised Jul 10 Page 3 of 7

 AP3456 – 9-17 - Timing Techniques

9-17 Fig 3 30° Dog-leg Procedure

C 60°
D

B
30° F
E
A 30°
Notes.
1. Legs are Timed B-C and D-E.
2. Time A-F of time A-C-F and time loss
1 min in 8 mins.

13. For each minute to be lost, each leg is flown for four minutes. This procedure is useful for small
time losses (up two minutes) when it is desired to stay near track and avoid big alterations of heading.

14. Even when timing is not a consideration, adoption of a formal dog-leg procedure to avoid
obstacles or weather will enable the track to be regained and ETA amended with minimum calculation.

Losing Time by Rate 1 Turns (90° Method)

15. The procedure illustrated at Fig 4 could occasionally be useful in high performance aircraft. The
time lost by using the procedure is arrived at as follows:

Distance A-B-C-D = π d (where 'd' is the diameter of turn)

Time A-B-C-D = 2 mins (360ºat Rate 1)
Direct Distance A-D = 2d
2
Time A-D = 2d × mins
πd
= 1¼ mins approx
∴ Time lost = ¾ min

9-17 Fig 4 Losing Time by 90° Method

Commence Reverse Commence Reverse

Turn Through 180° Turn Through 90°

B C
Commence Rate 1 Back on Original
Turn Through 90° Heading

d d
A d D
2 2

Revised Jul 10 Page 4 of 7

 AP3456 – 9-17 - Timing Techniques

16. To lose more than ¾ min, subtract ¾ min from the time to be lost, and straighten up between
each reverse for half the resultant time.

Summary of Dog-leg and 90° Methods

17. The above methods suffer from the disadvantages that:

a. They are imprecise in regaining track.

b. They can be inaccurate in losing time.

18. It is usually necessary for them to be followed by heading corrections, and if precision is required,
by speed adjustments. They do, however, serve to lose a lot of time in a short distance along track,
but at the expense of considerable deviation from the planned track - not always tactically acceptable.

Cutting the Corner

19. If there is a suitably large track alteration along the route, timing may be adjusted by extending or
cutting the corner at that turning point. Two simple examples of this procedure are shown in Fig 5.

9-17 Fig 5 Timing by Adjustment of Track at a Turning Point

a b

L3 L3
L2 L2
L1 L1 Allowance for
G3 G2 G1 L1 L 2 L 3 Turning Circle

A X B G1 B G1
G2 G2
G3 G3

C C

20. Given a route A-B-C (Fig 5a), timing is adjusted by adopting a new turning point in place of
position B. As shown in Fig 5a, distances representing 1, 2 and 3 minutes of groundspeed are marked
along the track B C and its reciprocal, and marked G1, G2 and G3 (gaining time) and L1, L2 and L3
(losing time). If at position X the aircraft were two minutes ahead of time, heading would be altered to
fly the track X-L2-C. Alternatively, the track AB may be extended beyond B and the 1, 2, and 3 minute
marks placed on this extension for losing time ( L1 , L2 and L3 ) and on the reciprocal for gaining time
( G1 , G2 , and G 3 ). If running late, time may be gained by turning early to C from either G1 , G2 or
G 3 . If early, overflying B and turning towards C from L1 , L2 or L3 will provide the appropriate
number of minutes delay. However, since the track has changed so too will the groundspeed. Thus a
revision of timing on the new leg will be necessary. Where turning circles have to be allowed for, and
using the first method as an example, it is convenient to mark the timing points along a line parallel to
the track from B to C, passing through the originally planned start turn point at B, as shown in Fig 5b.
ETA start turn is then easily calculated.

Revised Jul 10 Page 5 of 7

 AP3456 – 9-17 - Timing Techniques

21. The technique of cutting short/extending at corners, described in Para 20, requires the turn angle at
B to be close to 90°, so that, for example, the leg X - L2 would be approximately equal to X - B.

Pre-computed Timing Leg

22. A more precise method of adjusting timing, by revising the distance to be flown, is to use pre-
computed timing legs at any convenient turning point. Use is again made of the principle of isosceles
triangles.

23. Fig 6 shows pre-computed timing legs constructed for the route A-B-C. At position B, a line BDE
is drawn at an angle of 75° to track BC. The length of BD is the distance flown in, say, four minutes
where three minutes is the longest period it is thought it will be necessary to make up at that turning
point. Similarly, DE is the distance flown in the maximum time it will be necessary to lose. From D,
line BDE is divided into units of distance flown in one minute, and marked G1, G2, L1, L2 etc as shown.

9-17 Fig 6 Pre-computed Timing Legs

A

B
F
75°
G3 C
G2
G1 75°
D
L1
L2
L3
L4
E

24. A line DF is drawn at an angle of 75° to BD to intercept BC at F. A-B-D-F is now the 'on time'
track, used in calculating the required set heading time when completing the flight plan. The dotted
line in Fig 6 illustrates the track to gain two minutes. A method of construction when allowance must
be made for turning circles is shown in Fig 7.

9-17 Fig 7 Pre-computed Timing Legs with Turning Circles

B
G3 F
G2
G1
D
L1

Revised Jul 10 Page 6 of 7

 AP3456 – 9-17 - Timing Techniques

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

Accuracy

25. Accurate flying and navigation are essential to successful timing. Turns should be executed at the
planned rate, and the aircraft flown at the correct airspeed and altitude. Track keeping is important;
attempts to make up or lose time by speed adjustment will be negated if the aircraft is allowed to stray
far from the planned track.

Early Remedial Action

26. The task of arriving at a target, or destination, on time will be simplified if any tendency to gain or
lose time is quickly recognized, and if remedial action is taken before too big an error has
accumulated. When the aircraft is early, care must be taken to ensure, before shedding all the time in
hand, that the planned route for the remainder of the flight to the target, coupled with practicable speed
adjustments, gives sufficient flexibility to make up any foreseeable subsequent loss of time.

Revised Jul 10 Page 7 of 7

 AP3456 – 9-18 - Flight Planning

CHAPTER 18 - FLIGHT PLANNING

Introduction

1. Fast jet operations are primarily concerned with the delivery of weapons onto a surface or air
target, and the gathering of reconnaissance information. In the air defence role, air navigation will
normally be carried out with direct reference to the air target rather than to geography, and with
assistance or control from ground agencies, AWACS, or on-board sensors. Even so, an awareness of
geographical position is vital so that adequate terrain clearance can be maintained and the aircraft fuel
state in relation to base or diversion airfield can be monitored.

2. In addition to these specialized roles, there are occasions where some form of medium or high-
level navigation techniques are appropriate, e.g. transit to a low level entry point (LLEP) or exercise
area, or a ferry flight. However, due to the limited cockpit space the techniques of Volume 9,
Chapter 14 can rarely be used without amendment, particularly in single-seat aircraft; maximum use
will be made of mental dead reckoning (MDR) techniques (Volume 9, Chapter 19) and radio aids (see
Volume 9, Chapter 21). The particular case of airways flying is covered in Volume 8, Chapter 30.

Planning and Map Preparation

3. Chart. The en route series of charts (ERCs) are normally used for medium/high level navigation.
Although the high-level chart will be used in the UK for any cruise portion of the flight above FL 245,
reference will need to be made to the low level chart for the climb and descent portions, to ensure that
due account is taken of restricted and controlled airspace at the lower levels. It may be considered
desirable to highlight any restricted airspace adjacent to track and emphasize its vertical extent. In
addition, navigation beacons and any control frequencies may be emphasized. Other information
which should be annotated includes safety altitude and pressure setting for the descent, and the
contact frequency for any suitable air traffic control agency that might be able to provide assistance,
particularly if in IMC.

4. Route. The route waypoints should be carefully selected and plotted. The tracks can be drawn
between waypoints, ensuring that the appropriate turning circles for the TAS and rate of turn are correctly
constructed. An information box may be drawn near the beginning of each leg as shown in Fig 1.
Distance-to-go (DTG) marks are annotated along track, if required.

Revised Jul 10 Page 1 of 4

 AP3456 – 9-18 - Flight Planning

9-18 Fig 1 Medium Level Transit to LLEP (not to scale)

LEU
LARS 255.4

9
30
LLEP
129R/10nm

0
18
00
10

29
0 5
38 70 20
TOD
129R/37nm
40 95
2 10 DME
2
30
129R/
40 43nm

9
30
05
2
50

FL
CH 72

37 0
Prepared DME Arcs

18
00
15 DME
12
9R

SCOT MIL
CH 89Y
14 DME 249.475

Control Agencies
& Frequency

349
Expected Fuel 460 FL205
En Route
LONDON MIL
Minimum Fuel
350 173
299.975
3700
070R
TO C
070R/20
nm

Track (M)
349
FL205
Flight Level
090R 140 IAS
090R/15nm 3300 SALT
3300

090
140
FL205

5. Planning. The top-of-climb (TOC) and top-of-descent (TOD) points are calculated and plotted
using Operating Data Manual (ODM) or Flight Reference Card (FRC) information. The determination

Revised Jul 10 Page 2 of 4

 AP3456 – 9-18 - Flight Planning

of headings and groundspeeds for the climb, cruise and descent portions may be achieved using the
DR Computer or MDR methods.

6. Fixing. To simplify matters in the air, especially for the single-seat operator, it will be beneficial to
construct a selection of range circles and bearing lines from appropriate TACAN, VOR or DME
beacons (Fig 1). Careful selection of beacons can assist navigation and reduce workload. TACAN or
DME ranges from beacons on the beam will provide position lines to assist tracking. Beacons ahead
or behind, aligned with track, offer many advantages - a VOR or TACAN bearing will assist with
tracking; a DME or TACAN range will provide distance gone or distance to go information. The use of
radio aids for navigation is covered in Volume 9, Chapter 21.

7. Selection of Beacons for Descent. It is especially beneficial to have one beacon aligned with
track during the section from TOD to LLEP. This will help to ensure that the TOD and LLEP can be
located accurately and with the minimum of effort, during a portion of the flight where the workload is
liable to be high. Indeed, it may be worthwhile revising the descent track if a small change (perhaps
10º to 15º) will enable alignment with a beacon (see Fig 2). During the final stages of the descent,
terrain screening and earth curvature (i.e. long range) are considerations, as they may cause the
beacon to unlock.

9-18 Fig 2 Adjusting Track to make best use of TACAN Beacon

a Original Plan b TOD on Radial c LLEP on Radial

TACAN TACAN TACAN

LLEP LLEP LLEP

Alternatively, fly
Track through TOD to intercept the
and LLEPdoes not lie By flying a TACAN radial through
on any common radial radial from WP1, the LLEP.
from TACAN beacon.
the revised TOD
is easily located.
TOD Original Original
Track New TOD New TOD Track

Revised Track Revised Track

<10° <10°

WP1 WP1 WP1

Fuel Planning

8. Fuel planning is accomplished using data from the ODM or FRCs as appropriate (see also
Volume 9, Chapter 15). Many units will have locally-produced, rapid planning guides to cover the
normal load configurations and the common flight profiles. Minimum and expected fuel figures are
calculated for TOC, TOD and, if appropriate, the LLEP. Conventionally, the figures are marked on the
map in a circle (Fig 1), the top figure being the expected fuel and the lower figure is the 'en route
minimum fuel' (see para 9). In addition, for extended cruise sectors, fuel circles should be added, at
medium level every 30 minutes and, at low level at convenient intervals such as 6 or 10 minutes.

Revised Jul 10 Page 3 of 4

 AP3456 – 9-18 - Flight Planning

9. En Route Minimum Fuel. The 'en route minimum fuel' is the amount of fuel required at a specific
point, to enable the aircraft to complete the route as planned, arriving at the destination with the
specified fuel reserves.

10. Fuel Checks. During the sortie, fuel checks should be taken at the planned points by comparing the
aircraft’s actual fuel remaining against the expected fuel. Regular and punctual fuel checks will assist the
crew in identifying any deviation from the expected fuel flow rate.

11. COMBAT and BINGO Fuels. The following terms are commonly used to assist in-flight fuel
management:

a. COMBAT Fuel. At any point en route, the difference between the aircraft’s fuel remaining
and the en route minimum fuel is termed COMBAT fuel. A positive COMBAT figure can be
utilized for unplanned eventualities such as extra tasking, weather avoidance, timing adjustment
by speed (if late), or actual combat. A negative COMBAT figure indicates that some fuel saving
action is necessary.

b. BINGO Fuel. The term BINGO fuel is used to describe the minimum amount of fuel required
at a point, to enable the aircraft to recover to base, or nominated airfield, utilizing the most
economical route and profile from that point, to arrive with the specified fuel reserves. The ideal
criterion for a BINGO profile is a direct route, with an unrestricted climb to the most efficient
cruising level, followed by an unrestricted descent to land from the first approach. The BINGO
calculation must include an allowance for any headwind. Furthermore, where there are
foreseeable ATC restrictions in routeing or cruising heights, the BINGO fuel must include suitable
allowance.

12. Formation Sorties. To assist with sortie management, the leader of a formation must be aware
of the fuel situation of the other aircraft whilst airborne. The leader will normally brief the other pilots to
declare when they first reach a specified fuel state; often termed 'JOKER' fuel. The pre-flight briefing
should include fuel information calls tailored to the particular sortie, e.g.

JOKER 1 = 30 minutes of fuel remaining

JOKER 2 = 2,000 kg of fuel remaining

Prompt and diligent reporting of fuel states by formation members is essential.

Revised Jul 10 Page 4 of 4

 AP3456 – 9-19 - Mental Deduced Reckoning

CHAPTER 19 - MENTAL DEDUCED RECKONING

Introduction

1. The operating environment in a single or two-seat cockpit normally precludes the use of
traditional plotting and calculating equipment. Further limitations may be imposed by system
degradation or equipment unserviceability and, in some aircraft, the lack of navigation aids.
There is, therefore, a requirement to be able to solve mentally, calculations involving speed,
distance, direction, time and fuel. The ability to multiply and divide numbers mentally is an
essential skill that users of Mental Deduced Reckoning (MDR) techniques must possess. As with
any other skill, MDR needs to be practiced to the extent that it becomes second nature. This is
particularly important in the airborne environment. An appreciation of the techniques of MDR can
also be useful in checking the results from ground planning aids and aircraft navigation systems,
thus avoiding gross errors.

The 1 in 60 Rule

2. The 1 in 60 rule is used as a method of assessing track error and closing angle, and has long
been favoured as a MDR navigation technique because of its flexibility, ease of use and relative
accuracy (up to about 40º). The 1 in 60 rule postulates that an arc of one unit at a radius of 60 units
subtends an angle of one degree (see Fig l).

9-19 Fig 1 The 1 in 60 Rule

1o
60 Units
1 Unit
60 Units
3. In practical use, this 1 in 60 rule may be applied equally well to a right-angled triangle. It may be
accepted that, in a right-angled triangle, if the length of the hypotenuse is 60 units, the number of units
of length of the small side opposite the small angle will be approximately the same as the number of
degrees in the small angle (see Fig 2).

9-19 Fig 2 Application to a Right-angled Triangle

1o
60 Units
1 Unit

This approximation can be compared with the exact computation below:

Short Side Sine of Angle Angle

1 unit 1/60 = .0167 0º 57'
10 units 10/60 = .1667 9º 36'
20 units 20/60 = .3333 19º 28'
30 units 30/60 = .5000 30º
35 units 35/60 = .5833 35º 41'
40 units 40/60 = .6667 41º 49'

Revised Mar 11 Page 1 of 15

 AP3456 – 9-19 - Mental Deduced Reckoning

4. Furthermore, since the navigator is likely to have distances on the required track marked on his
map, the approximation is just as good if the distance gone is measured along the required track
(see Fig 3). In either case, the distance gone is compared with the distance off track and the ratio of
one to the other is reduced to an angle.

Distance off Track x 60

Track error (degrees) =
Distance along Track

9-19 Fig 3 Calculation of Track Error

Pin Point Fix

ood
Made G
Track
2 nm

4o Required Track

30 nm

Thus, an aircraft passing over a feature 2 miles port of the required track, after flying 30 miles has a
track error of:

2
× 60 = 4º
30

Estimation of Map Distances

5. With practice in using particular maps and their scale on the parallels of latitude, it should be
possible to make reasonable estimates of distance by eye. This skill may be aided by one of the
following techniques:

a. Hand Measurements. Map distances can be measured against a hand span, fist, or against
the length from knuckle to tip of a finger or thumb. Wearing flying gloves will yield marginally
different measurements over those made with the bare hand.

b. Map Comparisons. Pre-flight map preparation includes distance-to-go markers or time

marks. These give distance values that can be used for comparison. Symbols on the map, such
as a standard UK MATZ, or the latitude graticule can also be used for comparison.

c. Map Scale. Any convenient straight edge can be marked and the length measured against the
latitude or map scale.

Estimation of Map Directions

6. Changes of track may be required at short notice and the use of plotting instruments may be
impractical. The ability to measure a direction 'by eye' is a skill that can be acquired with practice.
Several techniques to estimate map directions are described in the following sub-paragraphs.

Revised Mar 11 Page 2 of 15

 AP3456 – 9-19 - Mental Deduced Reckoning

a. Visual Inspection. Most people can bisect or even trisect an angle by visual inspection quite
accurately. Thus a 90° angle can be progressively broken down by bisection to 45°, 22° and 11°
(see Fig 4), or by trisection to 30° and 10° (Fig 5). It is possible to combine these two techniques.

9-19 Fig 4 Visual Inspection to Bisect Angles

360°
Approx
022°

(045°)

9-19 Fig 5 Visual Inspection to Trisect Angles

360°
(030°)

(060°)

070°
(080°)

b. 1 in 60 Rule. Use of the 1 in 60 rule to calculate angles (Para 2) can give results which are
accurate to within 2°, up to about 40°. The rule can also be used to estimate tracks on a map as
explained below (see Fig 6).

(1) Starting at a point where the track crosses a parallel of latitude (see Fig 6a), estimate a
distance along the track which is a convenient fraction of 60. In this example, 30 nm has
been used.

(2) From this estimated point, drop a vertical line to the parallel of latitude to form a right-
angled triangle, as shown in Fig 6a.

(3) The length of this line is now measured (10 nm in this case) and the 1 in 60 rule applied
to determine the angle (20°) (see Fig 6b).

(4) The track can now be estimated as 070° (90 – 20).

Revised Mar 11 Page 3 of 15

 AP3456 – 9-19 - Mental Deduced Reckoning

9-19 Fig 6 Using the 1 in 60 Rule to Estimate Track

a b

nm
60

20 nm
nm nm
30 10 nm 30 10 nm

c. Map Comparison. A required direction can often be estimated by comparison with other
known directions on the map, such as drawn and measured tracks, airway centrelines, or
overprinted VOR radials.

d. Map Graticule. The latitude and longitude graticule on the map can be used to estimate
bearings and tracks. In Fig 7, the top left-hand corner of the box has been joined by lines to the
10 minute divisions of latitude and longitude. Measuring the angles these lines make with respect
to true north, gives guidance which can be used to estimate tracks and bearings. This method
can be used worldwide, but the example shown here applies to latitudes between 50° and 60°.
Other latitudes will produce different angles to those shown. Users can construct an equivalent of
Fig 7 for their normal operating latitudes.

9-19 Fig 7 Using the Map Graticule Between Latitudes 50°and 60° to Estimate Track

30
o
300

o
120

60o 20
30 minutes Latitude

340o

40o

o
30
10
o
20

10o 160o

0
0 10 20 30

30 minutes Longitude

Revised Mar 11 Page 4 of 15

 AP3456 – 9-19 - Mental Deduced Reckoning

Estimation of True Airspeed (TAS)

7. Because of the rather complex effects of deviations from the standard atmosphere and of
compressibility, there is no simple formula for the determination of TAS from either Calibrated Airspeed
(CAS) or Mach number (see Volume 1, Chapter 1). Nevertheless, there are a few methods which can
produce acceptable results within their limitations.

a. Formula Method. Up to about 25,000 feet, the TAS can be estimated by multiplying the
CAS (in nm/min) by the altitude (in thousands of feet) and adding this figure to the CAS. This can
be shown as:

TAS = CAS + (C x A)

Where C = CAS in nm/min

A = Altitude in thousands of feet

For example:

CAS = 210 kt (3 ½ nm/min), Altitude = 20,000 feet

TAS = 210 + (3.5 × 20)

TAS = 210 + (70) = 280 kt

b. Mach Number Method. At about 25,000 feet, the Mach number multiplied by ten is
approximately equal to the TAS in nm/min, e.g. M 0.6 equates to 6 nm/min, which is 360 kt. For
other heights a correction is applied to the TAS value as follows:

(1) If the indicated Mach number is M 0.6 or less, 1 kt is added to the TAS for each 1,000 ft
below 25,000 ft, or, 1 kt is subtracted from the TAS for each 1,000 ft above 25,000 ft.

At 25,000 ft M 0.6 ≡ 6 nm/min ≡ 360 kt TAS

At 20,000 ft M 0.6 ≡ 360 + (1 × 5) = 365 kt TAS

At 35,000 ft M 0.6 ≡ 360 – (1 × 10) = 350 kt TAS

(2) If the indicated Mach number is greater than M 0.6, 2 kt are added to the TAS for each
1,000 ft below 25,000 ft, or, 2 kt are subtracted from the TAS for each 1,000 ft above 25,000 ft.

At 25,000 ft M 0.8 ≡ 8 nm/min ≡ 480 kt TAS

At 20,000 ft M 0.8 ≡ 480 + (2 × 5) = 490 kt TAS

At 35,000 ft M 0.8 ≡ 480 – (2 × 10) = 460 kt TAS

(3) Where the Mach number does not equate to a whole number of nm/min, the number of
nm/min is multiplied by 60 to give the TAS; for example:

At 25,000 ft M 0.43 ≡ 4.3 nm/min ≡ 4.3 × 60 = 258 kt TAS

At 20,000 ft M 0.43 ≡ 258 + (1 × 5) = 263 kt TAS

At 35,000 ft M 0.43 ≡ 258 – (1 × 10) = 248 kt TAS

Revised Mar 11 Page 5 of 15

 AP3456 – 9-19 - Mental Deduced Reckoning

c. Tabular Solution. Table 1 shows the factor by which the CAS should be increased to
approximate TAS at various heights.

Table 1 CAS to TAS Correction Factors

Height % (Starting Value

Starting Value Fraction of CAS to be added
(ft) Squared)
40,000 10 100 1 × CAS
35,000 9 81 4/5 × CAS
30,000 8 64 2/3 × CAS
25,000 7 49 1/2 × CAS
20,000 6 36 1/3 × CAS
15,000 5 25 1/4 × CAS
10,000 4 16 1/6 × CAS
5,000 3 9 1/10 × CAS

The square of each 'starting value' gives a 'percentage' which is then used to give an approximate
fraction by which the CAS should be increased. If the starting value of 10 for 40,000 ft is
memorized, it is necessary only to reduce it by 1 for every 5,000 ft below.

For example:
CAS = 210 kt at 20,000 ft

From memory, starting value at 40,000 ft = 10.

Deduct 1 for every 5,000 ft below 40,000 ft.

Therefore, starting value at 20,000 ft = 6

6 squared = 36 % = approximately ⅓.

⅓ × CAS = 70 kt.

∴TAS = 210 + 70 = 280 kt.

Four-step MDR Plan

8. The four-step MDR plan (Table 2) is a useful tool to enable the user to mentally determine, in a
logical manner, navigational information within acceptable limits of accuracy. Subsequent paragraphs
will explain the actions given in Table 2 and the reader should refer to the table as required.

Revised Mar 11 Page 6 of 15

 AP3456 – 9-19 - Mental Deduced Reckoning

Table 2 The Four-step MDR Plan

Step Action Remarks

PICTURE Visualising the vectors will assist in the
1 Picture the situation, i.e. the triangle of velocities. correct application of drift and the head/tail-
wind component.
HEADING Once the max drift is determined (Para 10),
Calculate Max Drift the clock analogy (Para 12) is used to find
2 Actual Drift = Max Drift × Clock Analogy Fraction the actual drift. The picture of the situation
Apply Actual Drift to Track = Heading ensures the drift is applied in the correct
sense to the track to find the heading.
GROUNDSPEED The picture of the situation ensures the
Wind Speed × Clock Analogy Fraction (90-Wind Angle) head/tail component is applied in the
3
= Head/Tail component. correct sense to the TAS to find the
Apply (±) Head/Tail component to TAS = Groundspeed groundspeed.
TIME Use one of the four methods given in
4 Time = Distance/Speed Volume 9 Chapter 20.
Distance/Groundspeed = Time

Wind and Track Vectors

9. Vector Components of Track and Wind. Fig 8 illustrates how the wind vector can be split into two
component vectors at right angles to each other. One vector is across track and will affect drift. The
other vector is along track and will affect groundspeed. For drift purposes, the size of the across track
vector must be determined. Mathematically, this value varies in proportion to the sine of the wind angle.

9-19 Fig 8 Wind Vector Components

Track

Across Track
Component
W
ind

Along Track
Ve
cto

Component
r

Wind Angle

Revised Mar 11 Page 7 of 15

 AP3456 – 9-19 - Mental Deduced Reckoning

Estimation of Drift

10. Maximum Drift. To estimate the drift on a given track, it is first necessary to determine the
maximum drift that could be experienced, i.e. if the wind was at 90° to the track. The maximum drift
can be derived from the formula for the 1 in 60 rule. The 1 in 60 rule formula states that:

Distance Off Track × 60

Track Error (degrees) =
Distance Along Track

Relating this to drift:

Wind Speed (kt) × 60

Max Drift =
TAS (kt)

60
= Wind Speed (kt) ×
TAS (kt)

TAS (kt)
= Wind Speed (kt) ÷
60

Wind Speed (kt)

∴ Max Drift =
TAS (nm/min)

Thus, maximum drift is easily calculated by dividing the wind speed by the TAS expressed in nm/min. For
example, given a wind velocity of 200°/50 kt and a TAS of 300 kt (5 nm/min), the maximum drift is:

50
Max Drift = = 10°
5

11. Wind Angle. The actual drift encountered can be considered to be a proportion of the maximum
drift, depending on the angle at which the wind lies relative to the aircraft track. In this part of the
calculation, the 'wind angle', which is the angle between the wind direction and the track, or its
reciprocal, is determined (see Fig 9). If the wind angle is 0°, then the drift will be 0°. Conversely, if the
wind angle is 90°, then the drift will be at a maximum value. The wind angle, therefore, determines the
amount of drift, between zero and maximum drift. The proportionate calculation to determine drift
value may be carried out mentally, using the 'clock analogy' (described in Para 12). With a track of
230° and a wind direction of 270°, as shown in Fig 9a, it can be seen that the wind effect will be from
the right and the nose of the aircraft. This information is important in determining how to apply the
calculated drift and groundspeed. The along track component will be into the wind and is referred to as
a headwind component. Drift will be applied to the right of track and the headwind will result in a
groundspeed that is less than the TAS.

Revised Mar 11 Page 8 of 15

 AP3456 – 9-19 - Mental Deduced Reckoning

9-19 Fig 9 Wind Angle

a b
Track = 040

Wind Direction 270

Wind Direction 270
Wind Angle = 40
Wind Angle = 50
Track = 230

Reciprocal of Track 040 0

With a track of 040° (Fig 9b), the wind effect will be from the left and tail of the aircraft. Thus, the drift
will be applied to the left of track and the groundspeed will be greater than the TAS.

12. The Clock Analogy. The clock analogy is an MDR simplification of the sine function. It uses the
fact that one full revolution of 60 minutes on a clock is equal to 1 hour, half a revolution of 30 minutes
equals ½ hour, etc (see Fig 10). To use the clock analogy, take the wind angle (in degrees) and assume
that figure to be minutes of time and thus a fraction of one complete revolution. For example, a wind
angle of 15° would be regarded as 15 minutes of time, which equates to ¼ of an hour. Therefore, with a
wind angle of 15°, ¼ of the maximum drift will be experienced. Likewise, a wind angle of 30° equates to
one half of maximum drift, and 40° equates to two-thirds of maximum drift, etc. Where wind angles are
between 60° and 90°, it is assumed that the aircraft will experience the full value of the maximum drift. It
will be seen from Fig 10 that some approximations are used on the clock face. For example, 24 minutes
is used instead of 25 minutes. If 25 minutes was used, it would produce a fraction of 5/12, whereas 24
minutes produces the fraction 2/5 which makes the mental manipulation of other numbers much easier.
Where a wind angle lies between divisions, for example 32°, it should be rounded to the nearest 5 minute
mark, in this case 30 minutes, and the fraction 1/2 used. Depending on the accuracy required, the user
may choose to use divisions of 10, 15 or 20 minutes only.

9-19 Fig 10 The Clock Analogy

60
54 1/1 6
9/10 12 1/10
11 1
50 10
5/6 1/6
10 2

45 15
9 3
¾ ¼

40 8 4
20
2/3 1/3
7 5
36 6 24
3/5 30 2/5
½

Revised Mar 11 Page 9 of 15

 AP3456 – 9-19 - Mental Deduced Reckoning

13. Calculation of Drift. To calculate the drift for a given track, using the following parameters:

Track 230°, TAS 300 kt (or 5 nm/min), W/V 270°/30 kt

a. The first step is to visualise the vectors, either mentally, by referring to the aircraft Horizontal
Situation Indicator, drawing a sketch or by referring to a map. Fig 11 represents a sketch of the
given example. Once the vectors are visualised, the effect of the wind can be determined. In this
case, the wind is from the right giving a headwind component.

9-19 Fig 11 A Simple Sketch of the Vectors

S
g/TA
adin e d
He s pe
d
un
ro
G
k/
ac
Tr

Wind Velocity
Wind Angle
b. The Wind Angle (the angle between the wind direction, 270°, and the track, 230°) is
determined and its clock analogy fraction found.

2 By the clock analogy

Wind Angle = 40° ≡
3 (See Fig 7)

c. The maximum drift (see Para 10) is calculated as:

Wind Speed (kt)

Max Drift =
TAS (nm/min)

Thus:
30
Max Drift = = 6°
5

d. From the visualisation of the vectors (Fig 11) it can be seen that the wind angle is from the
right and nose of the aircraft. Thus, the drift is applied to the right of the track.

e. In the given example, the drift is calculated as follows:

Actual Drift = Max Drift × Clock analogy fraction

2
∴ Actual Drift = 6° x = 4°
3

Revised Mar 11 Page 10 of 15

 AP3456 – 9-19 - Mental Deduced Reckoning

14. Calculation of Heading. Having calculated the actual drift for a specific track, that figure can be
applied mathematically, to determine the heading to fly to maintain that track. In this example, the wind
vector is from the right and so the drift will be applied to the right of track giving a heading of 234°.

Heading = Track ± Actual Drift

Heading = 230° + 4° (from the right) = 234°

(Drift from the left is subtracted)

Estimation of Groundspeed

15. Wind Angle. Referring back to the vector components (Fig 8), the maximum wind effect on
groundspeed occurs when the wind angle is 0°, giving either a maximum headwind or maximum
tailwind component. The wind effect on groundspeed will fall to zero when it is at 90° to track.

16. Use of the Clock Analogy. Just as the amount of drift varies with the sine of the wind angle, so
the groundspeed headwind/tailwind component will vary with the cosine of that angle. The relationship
between cosine and sine is 90° out of phase, therefore Cos α = Sin (90 - α). The same clock analogy
can be used to solve this problem, but the entering argument must be 90° minus the wind angle. This
then generates the proportion of the wind speed to be added or subtracted from TAS to give
groundspeed.

17. Calculation of Groundspeed. To calculate groundspeed for a given track, using the example in
Para 10, the procedure is as follows:

a. Determine the value of wind angle.

With a wind vector of 270/30 and a track of 230° the wind angle will be 40° from the right (with a
headwind component) (Fig 11).

b. Subtract wind angle from 90°.

Wind Angle = 40° degrees

90° – 40° = 50°

c. Use the clock analogy to calculate the head/tail wind component.

5
50o applied to the clock analogy gives (Fig 10)
6

d. Calculate the headwind or tailwind component by multiplying the wind speed by the clock
analogy fraction, remembering that this example gives a headwind component.

5
30 kt x = 25 kt (Headwind)
6

e. Apply the head or tailwind component to the TAS, to give the groundspeed for that track. A
headwind component will be subtracted from the TAS value while a tailwind component will be
added. This step illustrates the importance of visualising the vectors and determining the effect of
the wind at the start of the process (Para 13a) so that the calculated wind component is applied in
the correct sense.

TAS = 300 kt – 25 kt (headwind) = 275 kt groundspeed.

Revised Mar 11 Page 11 of 15

 AP3456 – 9-19 - Mental Deduced Reckoning

Estimation of Time

18. The time taken to travel a certain distance is calculated using the following formula:

Distance
Time =
Groundspeed

19. For the purposes of this chapter, the following parameters are used: distance (D) in nautical
miles (nm), groundspeed (GS) in knots (kt) and time (T) in minutes. As knots are a measure of speed
in nm/hr, to calculate T (in minutes), the above formula is multiplied by 60:

D × 60
T =
GS

This formula can be manipulated mathematically to give:

D
T =
GS
60

Thus, time equals distance over groundspeed (in nm per minute):

D
T =
GS (nm/min)

20. Practical MDR methods should be easy to remember and produce valid answers. Four different MDR
methods of determining time are described in Volume 9, Chapter 20. As all give valid results (to varying
degrees of accuracy), users can select the one most suited to their needs.

Regaining Track

21. Standard Closing Angle (SCA) Technique. The SCA technique for regaining track is used
when a position is fixed off track, but no on-track feature is available to assist regaining track, or when it is
impractical to over-fly an on-track feature. The SCA is based on the 1 in 60 rule and is a closing angle
determined by the speed of the aircraft. The SCA for any groundspeed can be found by dividing 60 by the
groundspeed in nm/min.

60
SCA =
GS (nm/min)

Fig 12 shows an aircraft with a groundspeed (GS) of 360 kt (6 nm/min), 1 nm to the left of track.

Thus: 60
SCA = = 10o
6

9-19 Fig 12 Standard Closing Angle at 360 kt

SCA
1 nm
off Track
SCA

Revised Mar 11 Page 12 of 15

 AP3456 – 9-19 - Mental Deduced Reckoning

The SCA is used to regain track by altering heading through the SCA and maintaining this heading for a
number of minutes equal to the number of miles off track. When it is estimated that track has been
regained, the heading is altered to maintain the original track. In this example, being one mile off track,
the aircraft, flying at 360 kt, turns 10° right, and after one minute will be back on track. Variations can be
considered when necessary, e.g. by doubling the angle and halving the time or vice versa. However,
using large angular corrections can lead to tracking errors due to the turning circle of the aircraft. Timing
errors can also be introduced with large SCAs due to the extra distance flown and fact that the changing
effect of the wind on the new heading is ignored. 20° is generally considered to be the maximum heading
alteration that should be employed without adversely affecting the route timing (allowing for any change in
wind, if necessary). The aircraft should be flown parallel to the required track before applying the SCA.
This allows for the correct SCA to be applied and will provide the correct heading to turn on to once the
required track has been regained.

Adjusting Time

22. Adjusting Speed. As well as maintaining track, it is often necessary to maintain the planned timing.
Providing that the speed range of the aircraft permits, and the fuel penalty is acceptable, relatively small
timing errors can be corrected by speed changes. One method of calculating the necessary adjustment
is to adjust speed by the number of knots equal to the number of seconds late or early and maintain this
speed for the number of minutes equal to the groundspeed in nm/min. For example, assuming a GS of
420 kt and the aircraft being 18 seconds late, the aircraft should be flown at 438 kt for 7 minutes
before resuming 420 kt

Explanation:

Assume a distance to go of 79 nm at time 10:00 hrs, 420 kt groundspeed and 18 sec late.

The actual ETA is 10:11:18 (hrs:min:sec)

The planned ETA is 10:11:00
Thus, the aircraft is 18 seconds late

Fly at 438 kt for 7 minutes (420 kt ≡ 7 nm/min).

438 kt for 7 minutes ≡ 51 nm

The distance remaining = 79 – 51 = 28 nm

28 nm at 420 kt = 4 minutes

51 nm at 438 kt + 28 nm at 420 kt = 11 minutes

10:00 hrs + 11 minutes = 10:11:00 = planned ETA

The speed adjustment can be halved and maintained for twice the time (or vice versa) if necessary.
Should a turning point occur during the correction, the turn should be made and the timing
correction reassessed if necessary.

23. Dog-legs. Time can be lost by using standard dog-legs. A 60° dog-leg (Fig 13a) will lose the
time equivalent to the time of each leg, whilst for a 30° dog-leg (Fig 13b), each leg needs to be flown
for a time period equal to four times the time that needs to be lost. The use of the dog-leg for timing
is described further in Volume 9, Chapter 17.

Revised Mar 11 Page 13 of 15

 AP3456 – 9-19 - Mental Deduced Reckoning

9-19 Fig 13 Losing Time by Use of Dog-legs

a 60° Dog-leg b 30° Dog-leg

120° 4 minutes 30°

60°
1m
inu
te

tes
1 minute

te)

inu
60° inu
1m

4m
te) es
inu os
s 1m (L
60° se
o 30°
( L
Each side of the dog-
Time lost is equal to leg should equal 4 x
time to fly one side time to be lost

24. 90° Turns. 90° turns, or large turns of about 90°, are extremely useful for solving timing problems
accurately, and expediently. By simply extending at a turning point, time will be lost (see Fig 14).
Likewise, by turning early, time will be gained. After the turn, the aircraft should be flown back to track
at a convenient closing angle that does not adversely affect the route timing. Large turns can be
planned into a route and used, as necessary, to correct gross timing errors caused by external factors.
As well as being useful to adjust timing, large turns, especially close to a target area, make the aircraft
track less predictable to defending forces.

9-19 Fig 14 Saving/Losing time at 90° Turns

Regain track at a convenient closing

angle that does not affect timing

Planned
Planned Track Turning Point

Turn early to gain time. Turn late to lose time

Estimation of the Crosswind Component for Take-Off or Landing

25. Runways are designated with a two-digit suffix to the nearest 10° magnetic, and so, for example,
Runway 04 can be orientated between 035° M and 044° M. For the purposes of the crosswind
estimation, 040° M is used. A wind vector from ATC is given in degrees magnetic whereas that from a
TAF or METAR is given in degrees true. Variation must be applied when using a true wind vector. For
the purposes of the following example, a magnetic wind direction is assumed. The resultant crosswind
component is expressed as 'from the left/right at XX kt'. It is essential to determine the correct sense
of the crosswind and the habit of picturing the situation is vital to ensure this.

Revised Mar 11 Page 14 of 15

 AP3456 – 9-19 - Mental Deduced Reckoning

26. Normally, take-offs and landings are flown into wind and so the crosswind vector will generally
have a headwind component. Exceptionally, take-offs and landing may be made with a tailwind
component and it is vital that this is determined because of the adverse implications on the aircraft
performance.

Example: Runway 04, W/V 010°/12 kt.

a. The first step is to picture the situation, either mentally, by referring to the aircraft HSI, with a
diagram (Fig 12), or by imagining that you are on the runway, heading 040°M.

7-27 Fig 1 Estimating the Crosswind Component

W/V 010/12kt

b. Once a picture of the situation is visualised, the direction (left/right) of the crosswind
component can be established; in this example it is from the left. It can also be determined
whether there is a headwind or tailwind component. In this example, there is a headwind
component.

c. The wind angle is calculated (Para 11) and the clock analogy fraction (Para 12) is applied to
determine the magnitude of the crosswind component.

Wind Angle = 040° (runway direction) - 010° (wind direction) = 30°

Clock analogy fraction: 30° ≡ 1/2

Crosswind speed: 1/2 × 12 kt (wind speed) = 6 kt

Crosswind component: From the left at 6 kt

27. The method of establishing the crosswind component described in Para 26 is based on the
assumptions that the runway direction is exactly that of its designation, and that the clock code analogy
gives a precise result. There may be occasions when the estimated crosswind is out of limits for the
aircraft to take off or land safely. In this case, the precise orientation of the runway can be obtained
(from the appropriate En-Route Supplement) together with an exact wind velocity from ATC. This
information can be used to determine the exact crosswind value using the Crosswind Component
Table in the Flight Information Handbook.

Revised Mar 11 Page 15 of 15

 AP3456 – 9-20 - MDR Timing Methods

CHAPTER 20 - MDR Time Calculation Methods

Introduction

This chapter offers 4 methods of calculating time using Mental Deduced Reckoning (MDR) methods. At
first glance they may appear to be quite complicated and unsuited to MDR in a fast-moving airborne
environment. Careful reading of the methods will allow the user to understand each and choose the one
that is best suited to their environment. It must also be stressed that each method will only be effective with
practice such that they become second nature.

Estimation of Time Using the Percentage Adjustment Method

1. Practical MDR methods should be easy to remember and produce valid answers. For example, to
multiply any number by 95 without using a calculator, multiply the number by 100 then subtract 5%.
Consider an example of multiplying 8.1 by 95.

a. By calculator:
8.1 x 95 = 769.5

b. By MDR and approximation:

8.1 × 100 = 810

Subtract 5% of 800 = - 40
810 - 40 = 770

Note: Numbers are chosen to ease the mental arithmetic process, thus in line two, 810 is adjusted
down to 800 to make the percentage calculation easier.

2. Although the MDR answer is not absolutely correct, it is within acceptable levels of accuracy for most
users. This method of MDR can be used across a wide range of applications and it will now be considered
with respect to time calculations.

3. In the same way that an approximate answer of 810 was calculated by adjusting 95 up to 100 in
Para 1, timing problems can be solved by approximating an answer (using a simple number) and then
making an adjustment to improve the accuracy of the answer.

4. Time, in hours, is calculated from distance (D) in nautical miles (nm) and groundspeed (GS) in knots (kt).

Distance
Time =
Groundspeed

To calculate time in minutes (T), multiply by 60:

D × 60 60
T = = D×
GS GS

5. The 60/GS element of the above equation will produce a fraction that is the time, in minutes, taken to
travel 1 nm. For example, using a groundspeed of 240 kt (4 nm/min):

60 1
=
240 4

Revised Jan 16 1 of 10
 AP3456 – 9-20 - MDR Timing Methods

Therefore, the aircraft will travel 1 nm in ¼ of a minute ( ≡ 4 nm/min). Referring to the equation in Para 4, if
it takes ¼ of a minute to travel 1 nm, the total time in minutes can be found by multiplying ¼ by the total
distance.

6. For the purposes of this method of time estimation, the fractions derived from the 60/GS element of the
above equation are termed 'Basic Numbers'. In this context, useful Basic Numbers are considered to be
easily manipulated fractions such as ⅓, ½, ⅔. These are derived from groundspeeds that give whole or half
nm/min values, such as 300 kt (5 nm/min) or 210 kt (31/2 nm/min). Single-digit decimal numbers, such as 0.4,
are also considered to be Basic Numbers but these occur less frequently. In the speed range 100 kt to 600 kt,
single-digit decimal numbers only occur at the following groundspeeds:

100 kt (0.6) 120 kt (0.5) 150 kt (0.4) 200 kt (0.3) 300 kt (0.2) 600 kt (0.1)

7. The equation, T(approximate) = D × Basic Number, is used to calculate an approximate time and then
a percentage adjustment is applied to improve accuracy.

8. Calculating Time. To calculate an approximate time in minutes, the Basic Number derived from the
standard groundspeed nearest to the actual groundspeed is used. A series of tables at the end of this chapter
give a series of standard speeds and their associated Basic Numbers. For example:

D = 24 nm, actual GS = 132 kt, nearest standard groundspeed = 120 kt (2 nm/min).

From Table 1, the Basic Number (BN) for 120 kt is ½.

1
T (approximate) = D × BN = 24 × = 12.0 min
2

It is essential, for accuracy, that the approximate time is calculated to one decimal place (± 0.1 min).
Having found an approximate time, an adjustment is made to produce a more accurate answer.

9. Percentage Adjustment. The adjustment is derived from the percentage difference between the actual
groundspeed and the speed used to work out the approximate time. For example, consider an actual
groundspeed of 132 kt. The nearest standard groundspeed to 132 kt to give a Basic Number is 120 kt. The
difference between the two speeds is 12 kt which equates to 10% of 120 kt. The approximate time is calculated
using 120 kt and a 10% adjustment is then applied to give a valid time for an actual groundspeed of 132 kt. The
basic steps are:

T (approximate) = D x BN

T (actual) = T (approximate) ± adjustment

It is vital that the percentage adjustment is applied in the correct sense. It must be noted before any
calculations are done, whether the actual groundspeed is faster or slower than the speed chosen to work
out the approximate time.

a. If the actual groundspeed is faster than the chosen standard groundspeed, it will take less time to
cover the distance, so the percentage adjustment is subtracted from the approximate time (GS faster
= less time, therefore subtract the adjustment from the approximate time).

b. If the actual groundspeed is slower than the chosen standard groundspeed, it will take more time
to cover the distance, so the percentage adjustment is added to the approximate time
(GS slower = more time, therefore add the adjustment to the approximate time).

Revised Jan 16 2 of 10
 AP3456 – 9-20 - MDR Timing Methods

10. The following sub-paragraphs show some examples of applying 5% and 10% adjustments:

a. Example 1. Assume D to be 20 nm and the actual groundspeed to be 132 kt. From Table 2, the
nearest standard groundspeed to 132 kt that gives a Basic Number is 120 kt which gives a BN of ½. It is
noted that the actual groundspeed (132 kt) is faster than the chosen groundspeed (120 kt).

1
T (approximate) = 20 × = 10.0 min
2

132 kt is exactly 10% faster than 120 kt which means the adjustment is subtracted from the
approximate time.

10% of 10.0 min = 1.0 min

T(actual) = 10.0 – 1.0 = 9.0 min

The answer derived using a calculator is 9.09 min.

b. Example 2. Assume D to be 36 nm and actual groundspeed to be 256 kt. From Table 3, the
nearest standard groundspeed to 256 kt that gives a Basic Number is 270 kt, which gives a BN of 2/9.
It is noted that the actual groundspeed (256 kt) is slower than the chosen groundspeed (270 kt).

2
T (approximate) = 36 × = 8.0 min
9

256 kt is just over 5% slower than 270 kt which means the adjustment is added to the approximate
time.

5% of 8.0 min = 0.4 min

T(actual) = 8.0 + 0.4 = 8.4 min

The answer derived using a calculator is 8.44 min.

11. This MDR time calculation technique is accurate to within a few percent using 0%, 5% and 10%
adjustments except in the extremes of slow speeds (below 80 kt) and/or long distances when accurately
worked percentage adjustments are required. The tables at the end of this chapter give guidance, in the
form of tables and notes, on which standard speeds to use and their 0%, 5% and 10% values. Study of
Tables 2, 3 and 4 will show that:

a. Above 180 kt, only 0% and 5% adjustments need be used. It can be seen from the tables that
above 180 kt, the 10% values of the standard groundspeeds impinge on the speed ranges of adjacent
standard groundspeeds and so are not needed.

b. Above 330 kt, only the nearest whole nm/min groundspeed need be used. It can be seen from
the tables that above 330 kt, the 5% values of the standard whole number nm/min groundspeeds can
be used instead of the ½ nm/min groundspeeds.

c. The converse argument, to that in sub-paragraph b above, is that below 300 kt the closest
½ nm/min groundspeed, or whole number groundspeed, should be used.

d. The application of percentage adjustments greater than 10% degrades the accuracy of the estimated
time. It can also be seen, from the tables, that adjustments greater than 10% impinge on the speed ranges
of adjacent standard groundspeeds and so are not needed.

Revised Jan 16 3 of 10
 AP3456 – 9-20 - MDR Timing Methods

12. Choosing 0%, 5% or 10% Percentage Adjustment. Although at first glance the above process may
seem to be complicated, there is no need to work out the percentage adjustment for every occasion. It is
sufficient to work out the approximate time, as described above, and then to pick the closest 0%, 5% or
10% value to the actual groundspeed and complete the calculation.

13. Operators need only remember a small range of numbers applicable to speeds flown by their particular
aircraft. It is generally quicker and easier to recall a few fixed numbers rather than to calculate percentage
adjustments each time they are needed. Table 1 is an extract from Table 4 and illustrates a range of
numbers that may be needed for an aircraft that usually cruises at 420 kt. The standard groundspeeds and
their Basic Numbers are memorized along with the groundspeeds relating to the respective 5% values.
The actual groundspeed is compared to the memorized table and the appropriate Basic Number and
percentage adjustment selected.

Table 1 - Percentage Adjustments Examples

Speed to use closest to actual GS 360 378 399 420 441 456 480
Basic Number 1 1 1
(Time in minutes to travel 1 nm) 6 7 8
% adjustment of time 0 -5 +5 0 -5 +5 0

14. The following sub-paragraphs show two examples of choosing the closest percentage adjustment to
the actual groundspeed.

a. Example 1. Assume an actual groundspeed of 402 kt. From the above table, the nearest speed
giving a Basic Number is 420 kt. The closest 0% or 5% value to 402 kt is 399 kt which is 5% slower.
Now, assume D to be 28 nm. The approximate time is worked out using 1/7. Since the actual
groundspeed (402 kt) is slower than the chosen groundspeed (420 kt), the percentage adjustment will
be added.

1
T (approximate) = 28 × = 4.0 min
7

5% of 4.0 min = 0.2 min

T(actual) = 4.0 + 0.2 = 4.2 min

The answer using a calculator is 4.18 min.

b. Example 2. Assume an actual groundspeed of 435 kt. The nearest speed giving a Basic
Number is 420 kt. The closest 0% or 5% value to 435 kt is 441 kt which is 5% faster. Now, assume D
to be 44 nm. The approximate time is worked out using 1/7. Since the actual groundspeed (435 kt) is
faster than the chosen groundspeed (420 kt), the percentage adjustment will be subtracted.

1
T (approximate) = 44 × = 6.3 min
7

5% of 6.3 min = 0.3 min

T(actual) = 6.3 - 0.3 = 6.0 min

The answer using a calculator is 6.07 min.

Revised Jan 16 4 of 10
 AP3456 – 9-20 - MDR Timing Methods

Estimation of Time to the Nearest Whole Minute

15. If a tolerance in the order of plus or minus one whole minute is acceptable to the user, a modified
version of the percentage adjustment method is used. The approximate time is still calculated accurately to
± 0.1 min in accordance with the instructions in the previous paragraphs. The actual groundspeed is still
noted as faster or slower than the speed used to work out the approximate time, but instead of applying a
calculated percentage adjustment, the approximate time is adjusted down or up in the correct sense to the
next nearest whole minute.

a. Assume D to be 40 nm and the actual groundspeed to be 164 kt. The nearest speed to 164 kt to
give a basic fraction is 150 kt or 2½ nm/min (see Table 2). Thus, the approximate time is calculated
using 2/5. It is noted that 164 kt is faster than the basic fraction speed of 150 kt.

2
T (approximate) = 40 × = 16.0 min
5

164 kt is faster than the basic fraction speed.

GS faster = less time, therefore subtract from the approximate time, and so the answer is adjusted
down to next nearest whole minute. Note: where the approximate time results in a whole number of
minutes, it is adjusted to the next whole minute, up or down as appropriate.

T = 16.0 ≈ 15 min (adjusted down)

The answer using a calculator is 14.63 min. Care is required with the application of rounding when
speeds used to work out the approximate time are derived exactly from half or whole nm/min
groundspeeds. If the actual speed in this example had been exactly 150 kt, rounding would have been
inappropriate.

b. Assume D to be 134 nm and the actual groundspeed to be 405 kt. The nearest speed to 405 kt to
give a basic fraction is 420 kt or 7 nm/min (see Table 4). Thus, the approximate time is calculated
using 1/7. It is noted that 405 kt is slower than the basic fraction speed of 420 kt.

1
T (approximate) = 134 × = 19.1 min
7

405 kt is slower than the basic fraction speed.

GS slower = more time, therefore add to the approximate time, and so the answer is adjusted up to
next nearest minute.

T = 19.1 ≈ 20 min (adjusted up)

The answer using a calculator is 19.85 min. Large errors can be introduced by adjusting. Consequently,
use of this method may be inappropriate, and the method of calculating a percentage adjustment should
be used.

16. Great care must be taken when calculating fuel used based on times derived from this method. The
accumulative effect of adjusting, where the actual time is greater than the adjusted time, will result in the
actual fuel used being greater than the planned fuel.

Revised Jan 16 5 of 10
 AP3456 – 9-20 - MDR Timing Methods

Estimation of Time Using the Interpolation Method

17. Another method of estimating time is to calculate the time taken to cover a distance at two groundspeeds,
giving whole number nm/min values, that bracket the actual groundspeed. The required answer is then
determined by interpolating between the two-time values. This process is described below.

18. Assuming a groundspeed of 275 kt, and a distance of 86 nm, the time is determined, by calculator, as
18.76 minutes or 18.8 minutes (to 1 decimal place).

19. 275 kt is bracketed by 240 kt (4 nm/min) and 300 kt (5 nm/min) and so:

86 nm 86 nm
At 240 kt = 21.5 minutes At 300 kt = 17.2 minutes
4 nm/min 5 nm/min

The difference between the 240 kt and 300 kt times is 21.5 – 17.2 = 4.3 minutes. The groundspeed of 275
kt equates to a proportion of that difference as shown:

240 kt 275 kt 300 kt

Total difference between 240 and 300 = 60
Difference = 35 Difference = 25
35/60 = 7/12 of the total difference 25/60 = 5/12 of the total difference
7/12 of 4.3 minutes = 2.5 5/12 of 4.3 minutes = 1.8

Thus, by adjusting the 240 kt time we get: 21.5 – 2.5 = 19.0 minutes. Alternatively, the 300 kt time can be
adjusted to give 17.2 + 1.8 = 19.0 minutes. This explanation shows both whole number nm/min
groundspeeds being adjusted. In practice only one needs to be adjusted to arrive at the answer, but, care
must be taken to ensure that the adjustment is applied in the correct sense. When this result is compared
to the calculated time of 18.76 minutes, it can be seen that this method of interpolation introduces an error
of less than 2% which is acceptable for the purposes of MDR.

20. Although the interpolation method can give acceptable results, it involves more calculations than the
percentage adjustment method. Meticulous application of this method is required to ensure that the time
adjustment is applied correctly, or large errors will occur.

Estimation of Time Using the Fractional Proportion Method

21. Where the groundspeed is not a multiple of 60, the nm/min value is often difficult to manipulate
mentally. For example, a groundspeed of 300 kt is divisible by 60 to give an equivalent speed of 5 nm/min,
whereas a groundspeed of 287 kt, when divided by 60, gives an equivalent speed of 4.78 nm/min. One
method of solving this problem is to increase, or decrease, the groundspeed to a multiple of 60 kt and
adjust the distance in proportion. It is important at this stage to note whether the assumed groundspeed is
faster or slower than the actual groundspeed. For example:

a. Assuming a groundspeed of 287 kt and a distance of 98 nm. As 287 kt is not a multiple of 60, the
groundspeed is assumed to be 300 kt. To calculate the time correctly, the distance must be increased
by the same proportion as the groundspeed. The proportional adjustment is calculated by:

(1) Dividing the actual groundspeed, by the difference between the actual groundspeed and the
assumed groundspeed.

Revised Jan 16 6 of 10
 AP3456 – 9-20 - MDR Timing Methods

Actual Groundspeed
The difference between the actual groundspeed and the assumed groundspeed

287
=
(300-287)

287
= = 22 ≈ 20
13

Note: Numbers may be adjusted to make subsequent calculations easier.

(2) Dividing the distance by the number found at (1), to give the proportion to be added, or
subtracted, from the original distance.

98
= 4.9 ≈ 5 nm
20

If the assumed groundspeed is faster than the actual groundspeed, the difference is added and
vice versa.

(3) In this example, the proportional difference is added to the distance to give an adjusted
distance:

98 + 5 = 103 nm

b. The distance adjustment calculation can be summarized as:

D
Adjusted Distance = D ± nm
X
Where:
D = Actual distance.
X = Actual groundspeed divided by the difference between the actual groundspeed and the
assumed groundspeed (adjusted as necessary).

c. The time is calculated as:

Adjusted Distance
Time =
Assumed Groundspeed (nm/min)

D
D ±
= X
Assumed GS

Thus, in the above example, the time is calculated based on the adjusted distance of 103 nm and the
assumed groundspeed of 300 kt.

103 (nm)
Time = = 20.6 min
5 (nm/min)

Revised Jan 16 7 of 10
 AP3456 – 9-20 - MDR Timing Methods

d. Using a groundspeed of 287 kt and a distance of 98 nm, the answer by calculator is 20.5 min.

Revised Jan 16 8 of 10
 AP3456 – 9-20 - MDR Timing Methods

The tables below contain the numbers and speed ranges of Whole and Half nm/min GS, and their Basic Numbers, used in the MDR calculation of an approximate time (T(approximate)). The 0%,
5%, and 10% values applicable for each speed are also tabled.

60 T (approximate) = D x Basic Number

Formula: T(minutes) = Dx (60/GS = Basic Number)
GS T(actual) = T(approximate) ± % adjustment

Table 2 - Nearest Half or Whole nm/min GS below 180 kt with 0%, 5% and 10% speed values for ± adjustment of time
Speed range 75 105 135 165
Speed to use closest to
actual GS 81 86 90 95 99 108 114 120 126 132 135 142 150 158 165

Standard GS nm/min 1½ 2 2½

2 1 2
Basic Number
3 2 5
% adjustment
of time +10 +5 0 -5 -10 +10 +5 0 -5 -10 +10 +5 0 -5 -10

Table 3 - Nearest Half or Whole nm/min GS above 180 kt with 0% and 5% speed values for ± adjustment of time
Speed range 165 195 225 255 285 315
Speed to use closest
to actual GS 171 180 189 199 210 221 228 240 252 256 270 284 285 300 315 314 330

Standard GS nm/min 3 3½ 4 4½ 5 (5½)

1 2 1 2 1 2
Basic Number
3 7 4 9 5 11
% adjustment
of time +5 0 -5 +5 0 -5 +5 0 -5 +5 0 -5 +5 0 -5 +5 0

Table 4 - Nearest Whole nm/min GS above 300 kt with 0% and 5% speed values ± adjustment of time
Speed range 330 390 450 510 570 630
Speed to use closest
to actual GS 342 360 378 399 420 441 456 480 504 513 540 567 570 600 630 627 660 693

Standard GS nm/min 6 7 8 9 10 11

1 1 1 1 1 1
Basic Number
6 7 8 9 10 11
% adjustment
of time +5 0 -5 +5 0 -5 +5 0 -5 +5 0 -5 +5 0 -5 +5 0 -5

Revised Jan 16 9 of 10
 AP3456 – 9-20 - MDR Timing Methods

Table 5 - Single Digit Decimal Numbers taken from 100, 120, 150, 200 and 300 kt with 0%, 5% and 10% speed values for ± adjustment of time
Speed to use
closest to actual GS 90 95 100 105 110 108 114 120 126 132 135 142 150 158 165 180 190 200 210 220 270 285 300 315 330

60 60 60 60 60 60
GS 100 120 150 200 300
Basic Number
Time for 1 nm (mins) 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2
% adjustment
of time +10 +5 0 -5 -10 +10 +5 0 -5 -10 +10 +5 0 -5 -10 +10 +5 0 -5 -10 +10 +5 0 -5 -10

In Table 4, percentage adjustments of 10% are given for speeds above 180 kt. This is because of the greater interval between standard speeds (200 kt – 300 kt) in the Table than in Tables 1, 2, and 3.

Table 6 - Basic Numbers for GS below 80 kt requiring exact % adjustments of time

Speed to use
closest to actual GS 10 15 20 24 30 36 40 45 50 54 60 70 75 80 81 86 90 95 99 90 95 100

60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60
GS 10 15 20 24 30 36 40 45 50 54 60 70 75 80 90 100
Basic Number 5 5 3 4 6 10 6 4 3 2
6 4 3 2 1 0.6
Time for 1 nm (mins) 2 3 2 3 5 9 7 5 4 3
% adjustment
of time exact exact exact exact exact exact exact exact exact exact exact exact exact exact +10 +5 0 -5 -10 +10 +5 0

Example using Table 3 Example using Table 5

D is 32 nm and Actual GS is 280 kt D is 58 nm and Actual GS is 325 kt
nearest Standard GS is 270 kt & Basic Number is 2/9 nearest Standard GS is 300 kt & Basic Number is 0.2
2/
T (approximate) = 32 x 9 = 7.1 min T (approximate) = 58 x 0.2 = 11.6 min
284 kt = Closest percentage speed to Actual GS ≡ 5% faster than 270 kt 330 kt = Closest percentage speed to Actual GS ≡ 10% faster than 300 kt
5% of 7.1 min = 0.4 (faster, less time, subtract) 10% of 11.6 min = 1.2 (faster, less time, subtract)
T(actual) = 7.1 – 0.4 = 6.7 min (Calculated 6.86 min) T(actual) = 11.6 – 1.2 = 10.4 min (Calculated 10.71 min)
Example using Table 4 Example using Table 6
D is 67 nm and Actual GS is 395 kt D is 17 nm and Actual GS is 28 kt
1/
nearest Standard GS is 420 kt & Basic Number is 7 Nearest Standard GS is 30 kt & Basic Number is 2
T (approximate) = 67 x 1/
7 = 9.6 min T (Approximate) = 17 × 2 = 34 min
399 kt = Closest percentage speed to Actual GS ≡ 5% slower than 420 kt Actual GS = 28 kt; Standard GS = 30 kt; Difference = 2 kt;
5% of 9.6 min = 0.5 (slower, more time, add) 2 kt = 7% of 28 kt (The exact percentage difference is used)
T(actual) = 9.6 + 0.5 = 10.1 min (Calculated 10.18 min) 7% of 34 min = 2.4 min. 28 kt is slower than 30 kt ∴ Add the adjustment
T(actual) = 34 min + 2.4 min = 36.4 min (Calculated 36.4 min)

Revised Jan 16 10 of 10
 AP3456 – 9-21 - Use of Radio Aids in Navigation

CHAPTER 21 - USE OF RADIO AIDS IN NAVIGATION

Position Fixing

1. Most operational fast jet aircraft will be equipped with comprehensive integrated navigation systems
and displays which can continually portray present position, either as geographical coordinates or on a
map display. In addition, the system will calculate the track or heading, distance and time to any
designated waypoint. These systems will vary between aircraft, but typically will use information derived
from radar, radio navigation aids (e.g. TACAN), inertial, and Doppler equipments. Information may also
be derived from satellite navigation systems and terrain profile matching techniques.

2. In less sophisticated aircraft, or in certain phases of a flight (e.g. a procedural instrument pattern),
the pilot or navigator will be required to interpret the raw radar or radio data to determine position and
deduce the required heading, distance and time. The aids most commonly available to the fast jet
crew are:

a. Mapping Radar. Mapping radar may be used for fixing, provided that a terrestrial feature
can be identified. Whereas the identification of coastal features is fairly straightforward, some skill
and practice is needed in other situations. The scanner and display is normally aligned with the
aircraft axis, so a relative bearing will be obtained which must be added to heading and the
reciprocal plotted (taking care to distinguish between true and magnetic bearings). Range will be
slant range which may be corrected to plan range using the graph at Fig 1. However, in practice
the error is usually ignored unless the aircraft is at high level and the range is short.

9-21 Fig 1 Slant/Plan Range Conversion Graph

Slant Range (nm)

13 15 17 19 21 23
70
10 9.5
Slant Range (nm)

Height (ft x 1000)

50

32
5 30

10
1

1 5 7.9 10 15 20
Plan Range (nm)

b. VOR/DME. VOR provides the magnetic bearing of the aircraft measured from the VOR
beacon. DME provides slant range from a DME beacon, which may be corrected to plan range if
required using the graph at Fig 1. Each element on its own can only provide a single position line. In
many cases, VOR and DME ground stations are collocated and so two mutually right-angled position
lines (range and bearing) can be obtained simultaneously to produce a fix. Where this is not the
case, or where the aircraft is fitted with only VOR or DME equipment and not both, then other
techniques must be used:

Revised Jul 10 Page 1 of 9

 AP3456 – 9-21 - Use of Radio Aids in Navigation

(1) VOR/VOR. A two-position line fix can be obtained by tuning to two VOR beacons
sequentially such that the two position lines are approximately at 90°. Ideally, one position line
should be near parallel to track and this position line should be obtained first, followed by the line at
90° to track. The bearing of the first position line, aligned parallel to track, will not change
significantly during the time taken to re-tune and acquire the second bearing (Fig 2).

9-21 Fig 2 VOR/VOR Fix

Radial 010° M
100°
Planned Track

Radial 100° M
Fix Position

010°

(2) VOR/VOR/VOR. Where two VORs at 90° are not available, it may be possible to find
three beacons to give bearings spaced approximately 60° apart. The time taken to obtain the
three bearings should be kept to a minimum but, inevitably, there will be some loss of
accuracy.

(3) DME/DME. Two DME beacons generating position lines approximately 90° apart can be
used to give a fix. The 'sandwich' technique usually gives the best result. The range of the first
beacon is noted on a half-minute, the range of the second beacon on the full minute, and the first
beacon again on the next half-minute. The first and third ranges are averaged and plotted with the
second range to give a fix, timed at the full minute (Fig 3).

9-21 Fig 3 DME/DME 'Sandwich' Fix

1009.5
74 nm
1010.5 1010

88 nm

83 nm
78 nm (assumed)
DME 'A'

DME 'B'

c. TACAN. TACAN gives an instantaneous range and bearing from a single beacon, and is
generally the preferred radio fixing aid in fast jet aircraft.

d. V/UDF. It is possible for an ATC unit to measure the direction of a VHF or UHF radio
transmission from an aircraft and transmit the information by radio to the aircraft. The information
will be in the form of a true bearing of the aircraft from the ground station, or as a magnetic track
from the aircraft to the ground station. Clearly, in order to obtain a fix, at least two such bearings
would be necessary, and the time taken to achieve this makes the technique cumbersome and
inaccurate. Nevertheless, the service can be valuable when it is required to fly to the overhead and
no other navigation data is available.

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 AP3456 – 9-21 - Use of Radio Aids in Navigation

e. Auto-triangulation. Auto-triangulation is an emergency service, within the United Kingdom,

based on a network of UDF stations. The service is only available on the emergency frequency of
243.0 MHz. The service can provide a geographical position in latitude and longitude or, more
usually, relative to a known ground position, such as an airfield. Details of the coverage of the
system are contained in the Flight Information Handbook.

f. ATCRUs. Air Traffic Control Radar Units can provide navigation information and assistance,
provided they have identified the aircraft on radar.

Homing

3. There is often a requirement to fly directly overhead a radar fix point or ground beacon, both in
general en-route navigation and when flying a procedural instrument pattern. The bearing of a line joining
the aircraft to the fix point defines the track to fly to that fix point, and so the requirement is to fly that track
by selecting a heading to compensate for drift. In practice, small changes in drift, especially if height is
changed, and the inherent system inaccuracies will cause slight changes in the bearing and so small
corrections to the heading will usually be needed. The process is known as homing.

4. Homing can be carried out using any navigation aid which is capable of giving a continuous
indication of bearing, and thereby the required track. Suitable aids are radar, VOR, TACAN, and
navigation computers (e.g. TANS); it is also possible to carry out a visual homing.

5. Radar. Airborne mapping radars are usually aligned with the fore-and-aft axis of the aircraft, so the
centre line of the display represents aircraft heading. However, most systems allow track to be displayed by
means of a cursor, fed from Doppler or inertial drift or from a manual control set to the known or estimated
drift value. To home to an identified fix point, it is simply necessary to turn the aircraft so that the fix point lies
underneath the track cursor (Fig 4). Unfortunately, radar contact will be lost as the overhead is approached
and thus, when this occurs, it is necessary to maintain the last heading and determine the overhead from
ETA or from another system.

9-21 Fig 4 Radar Homing

a Radar Fix point lies 10° Right of TMG b Radar Fix Point now lies under TMG Cursor
Hdg 050 TMG 060 Hdg 060 TMG 070

10 0 10 10 0 10
20 20 20 20
30 30 30 30

Fix Pt
A turn of 10° right
brings fix point to
Drift cursor
10° S

6. VOR/TACAN. VOR and TACAN indicate the magnetic track from the aircraft to the beacon against
the pointed end of the indicator needle. When using a Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI) or Horizontal
Situation Indicator (HSI), it is only necessary to fly a heading such that the drift angle is shown between
the heading pointer and the VOR/TACAN needle (Fig 5). As the overhead is approached, the needle will
oscillate before swinging rapidly through 180°. It should be noted that although TACAN (or DME) range
will decrease as the beacon is approached, the displayed range is slant range and, therefore, will not
normally reach zero; in the overhead the range will equate to the aircraft’s height.

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 AP3456 – 9-21 - Use of Radio Aids in Navigation

9-21 Fig 5 TACAN/VOR Homing

a HSI Display b Plan View

Indicated Hdg
= 274 M
270 280
290

Var 4° W
Inbound 280 M
Drift = 6°S Track =
276 T

Drift = 6°S

110 Inbound Hdg

100 required 270T (274M)

7. Navigation Computer. A navigation computer can calculate the required track to any designated
waypoint and thus, by applying drift, the appropriate heading can be flown. Accuracy will depend largely
on the preciseness with which the system knows present position; the system can only give the track to its
estimate of the destination’s relative position, which may, of course, not be the true position.

8. Visual Homing. In suitable weather, a visual homing can be carried out by flying to a visually identified
feature, making an allowance for drift. However, the accuracy with which the overhead position can be
determined decreases with increasing altitudes, and may only be satisfactory below about 5,000 ft.

Homing on a Nominated Track

9. On some occasions, it is necessary to home to a position on a specific track; SIDs and STARs are
examples.

10. Radar. Consider the case where it is necessary to home to a fix point 'A' on a given track of
090° T, and on initial contact the radar screen shows the situation as depicted in Fig 6, with 'A'
identified at 10° left; the aircraft heading is 080° T with a drift of 5° S.

9-21 Fig 6 Radar 'On-track' Homing - Initial Identification of Fix Point 'A' 10° Left

Hdg 080

10 0 10
20 20
30 30
40 40
50 Fix Pt 'A' 50

In order to home directly, it would only be necessary to turn the aircraft 10° left to bring 'A' on to the
nose, and then a further 5° to allow for the drift. This, however, would result in the aircraft approaching
'A' on a track of 070° T which is 20° removed from the required track of 090° T. At present, the true
bearing of 'A' from the aircraft is 070° and, as the required track is 090° T, the aircraft must be to the
right of the required track (Fig 7).

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 AP3456 – 9-21 - Use of Radio Aids in Navigation

9-21 Fig 7 Radar 'On-track' Homing - Plan of Initial Situation

Required Track = 090 Fix Pt 'A'

True Bearing 070

Hdg 080

Relative Bearing = 10 Left

It is therefore necessary to turn left in order to intercept the required track. There is no set rule as to
how large a turn should be made. A small heading change will entail a long time to intercept track,
while too large a heading change will result in the fix point disappearing off the edge of the radar
screen. In general, a turn in the range of 20° to 40° is usually adequate, and the procedure becomes
simpler if the alteration is a multiple of 10°. As an example, consider a turn of 20° left onto a heading
of 060° T, i.e. 30° left of the required track of 090° T. When the turn is complete, the radar picture will
be as shown in Fig 8, in which it will be seen that 'A' has moved 20° across the screen.

9-21 Fig 8 Radar 'On-track' Homing - Radar Picture after 20° Left Turn
Hdg 060

10 0 10
20 20
30 30
40 40
50 Fix Pt 'A' 50

The requirement now is to determine when the 090° T track has been intercepted. In plan form, the
situation at this time will be as illustrated in Fig 9, and on the radar 'A' will appear 30° right of the centre
line (Fig 10). As this point is reached, the aircraft can be turned onto a heading to maintain a 090° T
track, and the homing can be continued as discussed in para 5.

9-21 Fig 9 Radar 'On-track' Homing - Plan View on Intercepting Track

Hdg 060

Relative Bearing = 30 Right

Required Track = 090 Fix Pt 'A'

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 AP3456 – 9-21 - Use of Radio Aids in Navigation

9-21 Fig 10 Radar 'On-track' Homing - Radar Picture on Intercepting Track

Hdg 060
Bearing = 090
10 0 10
20 20
30 30
40 40
50 50

Fix Pt 'A'

11. VOR/TACAN. A similar procedure can be used when it is necessary to track on a

predetermined VOR or TACAN radial. The task is somewhat simpler, as the indicator continually
shows the current magnetic track. Thus, it is only necessary to determine which side of track the
aircraft lies and turn an arbitrary amount to intercept that track. The bearing indication will
change as track is approached, and the aircraft can be turned onto the required track and a
heading assumed to allow for drift. With an HSI presentation, the required track can be inserted
into the instrument and the deviation bar will then indicate the relative position of track and will
centralize as track is approached (Fig 11).

9-21 Fig 11 TACAN/HSI Homing on Desired Track

a. Aircraft Right of Track and Heading Directly Towards TACAN Beacon.

Wind from North-east

b. Aircraft Turned 20° Port to Intercept Desired Track

c. Aircraft About to Intercept Desired Track. Deviation Bar Nearly Central

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 AP3456 – 9-21 - Use of Radio Aids in Navigation

d. Aircraft Established on Desired Track. Deviation Bar Central.

Heading Selected to Account for Drift

TACAN/VOR Point-to-point Navigation

12. It is sometimes necessary to fly from a point on one radial of a TACAN or VOR beacon to another
point, without first having to overfly the beacon or having to follow a range arc. It is, of course, possible to
achieve this by plotting the two positions on a map and working out the track and distance. However, this
can be cumbersome, particularly for a single-seat operator, and an alternative technique can be employed
using an RMI or HSI presentation, which is regarded as a circular map.

13. The map is orientated with the aircraft heading at the top and the beacon at the centre. The scale
of the map is variable, and the aircraft lies along the bearing pointer towards the tail end, the exact
distance depending upon the chosen scale.

14. The principle of the technique is best described by example. Consider an aircraft on the 055° M
radial at a distance of 90 nm, steering a heading of 301° M, and suppose that it is required to fly to a
position 60 nm on the 330° M radial. Fig 12a shows the appearance of the HSI, and it is necessary to
imagine a line drawn from the centre of the display towards the tail of the TACAN needle. The length of
this line is scaled to represent the aircraft’s range from the beacon, ie 90 nm. A further line is imagined to
be drawn from the centre of the display along the desired radial. The length of this line is proportional to
the length of the desired range, in this case the desired range is 60 nm and, thus, this line extends 60/90,
i.e. 2/3, of the way to the circumference (Fig 12b). A third line is now imagined joining the ends of the first
two lines (Fig 12c). The length of this line is proportional to the distance to the destination (100 nm in this
example). By imagining a final line parallel to the previous line, drawn outwards from the display centre,
where this intersects the display circumference indicates the required track (Fig 12d). MDR techniques
can then be used to determine the heading and time to reach the destination. Where the aircraft is closer
to the beacon than the destination, the destination distance determines the scale of the display. This case
is shown in the example of Fig 13 a - d where the aircraft is on the 315° M radial at 25 nm heading 330° M
and it is necessary to reach a position 75 nm on the 030° radial.

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 AP3456 – 9-21 - Use of Radio Aids in Navigation

9-21 Fig 12 TACAN Point-to-point Navigation

a b

90 nm

60 nm

Imagine a line 90 nm long, drawn from the centre of Imagine a further line 60 nm long, drawn from the
the display toward the tail of the TACAN needle as centre of the display along the 330° radial
shown above

c d

100 nm

Imagine a line joining the ends of the original lines. Imagine a final line parallel to the previous line. The
The length of the line gives the range to the required point where this intersects the circumference of the
point (100 nm) display is the required heading (270°)

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 AP3456 – 9-21 - Use of Radio Aids in Navigation

9-21 Fig 13 TACAN Point-to-point Navigation. Aircraft Closer to Beacon than Destination

a b

25 nm

75 nm

Imagine a line, 75 nm long, drawn from the centre of Imagine a further line 25 nm long, drawn from the centre
the display along the 030 Radial, as shown above of the display towards the tail of the TACAN needle

c d

70 nm

Imagine a final line parallel to the previous line. The

Imagine a line joining the ends of the original lines. The length
point where this intersects the circumference of the
of the line gives the range to the desired point (70 nm)
display is the required heading (050°)

Revised Jul 10 Page 9 of 9

 AP3456 – 9-22 - Maps

CHAPTER 22 - MAPS

The Choice of Maps

1. The choice of which map to use for low level visual navigation should be dictated by considerations
of the scale, the clarity with which appropriate features are shown, and the depiction of aeronautical
information such as Danger Areas and Controlled Airspace. In practice, availability and common usage
may be overriding factors.

2. The three series of maps commonly used within the UK, and described within this chapter, are:

a. Low Flying Charts. For most routine low-flying navigation tasks, the 1:500,000 scale Low
Flying Charts (LFC) are used.

b. UK Special Air Charts. Where speeds are relatively low, or if more detail is required, the
1:250,000 scale UK Special Air Charts (M5219-Air) are used.

c. UK Ordnance Survey Maps. For applications where greater accuracy or detail is required,
e.g. for identifying targets, the Ordnance Survey (OS) maps at a scale of 1:50,000 are used.

3. Generally, equivalent maps are available for other geographical areas of operation. Furthermore,
maps to other scales are available, if required, for particular purposes.

Depiction of Relief on Maps

4. Four methods are used to show the height and shape of the land-form: spot heights, layer tinting,
contours, and hill shading. Most maps will use at least two methods (commonly contours and spot
heights); some maps will use all four techniques.

a. Spot Heights. Spot heights show the highest elevation in a region. They are simply shown as a
black dot with the elevation above mean sea level printed alongside. Although normally in feet, it should
be noted that spot heights are shown in metres on the 1:50,000 OS series. The only information they
convey is the position and height of the highest point; there is no information as to land shape.

b. Layer Tinting. Layer tinting shows different bands of height in different colours; the deeper
the colour the higher the land. A key on the map will show the height band corresponding to each
colour. As well as showing height, layer tinting also gives an impression of land shape.

c. Contours. Contours are lines joining points of equal height above sea level and are drawn at
regular intervals of height. Figures, stating the contour height (in feet or metres), are printed
periodically along them. Closely spaced contour lines represent steep gradients and, conversely,
widely spaced lines indicate gentle gradients. Thus, contours can give a good impression of both
height and shape.

d. Hill Shading. Hill shading is a technique which imagines that the land is illuminated from
one direction. For example, one side of a ridge will be illuminated while the other will be in
shadow. Hill shading gives no indication of height but can give a fair impression of hill shape. Hill
shading is never used in isolation.

Recognizing Relief Features

5. The interpretation of a map to establish the land-form takes practice and experience. There are,
however, a number of features that occur regularly, sometimes in isolation, but most often in association with

Revised Jul 10 Page 1 of 11

 AP3456 – 9-22 - Maps

others. Five such features are illustrated below, both as sketch diagrams and as real features on example
maps. The sketch diagrams illustrate the four methods of showing relief.

a. Conical Hill. The conical hill (Fig 1) is characterized by a series of closed contour lines in a
roughly circular or oval pattern. The summit may or may not be shown as a spot height. For flight
safety reasons, when no spot height is shown, the highest ground should be assumed to be at the
level of the next contour interval. Thus in the example (Fig 1a), with a 200 metre contour interval,
the highest ground should be assumed to be 1,400 metres.

9-22 Fig 1 Conical Hill

a – Contours and Layer Tinting b – Cross Section A – A’

1200
A A 1000
1200 800
1000 m

800

c - Example from 1:500,000 Chart

b. Col. A col (Fig 2) is a depression in a line of hills. It often forms a pass across the range and
so, on occasions, will have a road running through it. It is characterized by a localized narrowing
of the contour lines.

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 AP3456 – 9-22 - Maps

9-22 Fig 2 Col

a – Contours, Layer Tinting and Hill Shading b – Cross Section A – A’

1200
A 1000
800
600
m

c - Example from 1:250,000 Chart

c. Escarpment. An escarpment (Fig 3) is a linear range of hills with a steep slope along one
side and a gentler slope along the other. It can be recognized by the close contour spacing on the
steep side and the wider spacing on the more gently sloping side.

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 AP3456 – 9-22 - Maps

9-22 Fig 3 Escarpment

a – Contours and Spot Height b – Cross Section A – A’

326
100
150
200
250

300

250

200

150
50

300
250
200
A A
150
100
50
m

c - Example from 1:50,000 Ordnance Survey Map

d. Spur. A spur (Fig 4) is a promontory of higher land penetrating into a valley. The contours
show a triangular form. Spurs are frequently found where a river meanders through a hilly region.
The inside of each bend is occupied by a spur, thus spurs project alternately from each side of the
valley (interlocking spurs). It should be noted that in the case of the spur, the broad end of the
triangle of contour lines lies on the higher ground. The reverse of this, with the broad end on lower
ground, indicates a narrow descending valley (typically occupied by a river and often wooded.)

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 AP3456 – 9-22 - Maps

9-22 Fig 4 Spur

a – Contours b – Cross Section A – A’

250
A A 200
150
20 100
0
50
15
0 m
10
0

c - Example from 1:50,000 Ordnance Survey Map

e. Steep-sided Valley. A steep-sided valley can take one of the two forms, known as V-shaped or
U-shaped (Fig 5). The V-shaped valley, which is formed by the erosive effect of a river, has a narrow
floor, whereas the U-shaped valley, which is a result of glacial erosion, has a broader, flatter base. In
both cases, the valley walls are characterized by closely spaced linear contours. In the case of the U-
shaped valley there will be a band of wider spaced, or few, contours along the bottom of the valley
walls and along the valley centre. Often, the floor of a U-shaped valley will be in a markedly different
tint from the surrounding land.

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 AP3456 – 9-22 - Maps

9-22 Fig 5 Steep-sided Valley

a – U-shaped Contours and Layer Tinting b – V-shaped Contours

Often Wooded

150
200

150

100

200
100
50

A 50 A
B B

0
0
30
20
0
10
c – Cross Section A – A’ d – Cross Section B – B’
250
200 400
150 300
100 200
50 100
m m

e U-shaped Example f V-shaped Example

The Low Flying Chart (LFC) Series (1:500,000)

6. The Low Flying Chart (LFC) maps are constructed on a Lambert’s Conformal Conic projection
and therefore scale can be considered constant. Three sheets cover the UK, whilst further sheets
cover the RAF’s frequent areas of operation in NW Europe.

7. Amendments to the LFC sheets are promulgated to users in the Chart Amendment - Low Flying
(CALF) (see Volume 9, Chapter 13).

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 AP3456 – 9-22 - Maps

8. The depiction of man-made features follows a conventional pattern (see Fig 6). Thus, for
example, railways are shown as black lines (with one or two cross hatches to show single or multiple
track stretches), roads and motorways as single or double brown lines, towns as grey areas
approximating to their outline, villages as small black circles.

9-22 Fig 6 Extract from Low Flying Chart (1:500,000)

9. The manner in which natural features are shown is also conventional. Water features are shown
in blue and are easily interpreted; equally, wooded areas are shown in green, although some caution is
necessary as woods are sometimes harvested, and new plantations established. All four methods are
used to show land-form: spot heights (in feet), layer tinting, contours (at vertical intervals of 250 ft), and
hill shading.

10. It is possible to construct a reasonable impression of a region from the LFC. For example, Fig 6
shows an area around Brecon, most of which is layer tinted in deep or medium tone, so it is clearly an
area of generally high ground. The high ground is divided by a number of valleys, shown in a lighter

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 AP3456 – 9-22 - Maps

tone and often emphasized by the presence of rivers, roads and railways. A major valley can be seen
from Llandovery, through Brecon to Abergavenny (River Usk). Another valley (with a railway in it) runs
north-east from Llandovery towards Builth Wells. A further valley runs north-east from Brecon,
eventually joining the major valley of the River Wye. To the south and east of Brecon, the land rises
steeply, but to the north-west it rises less steeply. The range of hills, aligned East-West, to the South
of Brecon is punctuated by a number of small, steep-sided valleys running predominantly north-south.
South of the 2907 spot height the land falls away more gently towards the more populated areas to the
north of Cardiff.

11. A legend explaining the depiction of aeronautical information (e.g. controlled airspace, restricted
areas, obstructions and low flying boundaries) is available as a separate sheet (see Fig 7).

9-22 Fig 7 Legend (Extract) – Low Flying Chart and Special Air Chart

UK Special Air Charts (1:250,000)

12. The UK Special Air Charts (M5219-Air) are to a scale of 1:250,000 and are designed for use as
low flying charts. They are based on a transverse Mercator projection; therefore, scale can be
considered constant. The charts are overprinted with Latitude and Longitude and the National Grid
Reference System (10 km squares). Both of these overlays are adjusted to the WGS 84 datum
(see Volume 9, Chapter 2).

13. Amendments to the UK Special Air Charts are promulgated to users in the Chart Amendment -
Low Flying (CALF).

14. The chart shows aeronautical information including Regional Pressure Setting (RPS) areas, Low
Flying Areas and hang glider sites (for legend, see Fig 7). The chart also has a power line and
obstruction overprint.

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 AP3456 – 9-22 - Maps

15. Topographical information is based on Ordnance Survey data, and man-made features are
shown using conventional Ordnance Survey symbology. Terrain is shown by spot heights, layer
tinting, and contours. Elevations are in feet with a contour interval of 200 ft.

16. With double the scale of the LFC series, more gradual change in colour of the layer tinting, and
the increase in the number of contour lines, it is possible to visualize the terrain depicted on the chart
clearly and accurately. A comparison of the 1:250,000 map at Fig 8, with the 1:500,000 map at Fig 6,
will reveal the similarity of major features such as valley lines, towns, road/rail links, and major wooded
areas. However, the 1:250,000 chart reveals extra information, particularly in the detail of contours
and minor roads.

9-22 Fig 8 Extract from Special Air Chart (1:250,000)

Ordnance Survey (OS) Maps (1:50,000)

17. The OS maps at 1:50,000 scale are based on a transverse Mercator projection and, for all
practical purposes, the maps can be considered to be of constant scale. These maps are overprinted
with the National Grid Reference System (1,000 metre squares), based on the 1936 OSGB Datum. A
comprehensive legend explaining symbology is included on each sheet. The maps are available with
an overprint of power lines and obstructions (Series GSGS 5215).

18. The difference between True North and Grid North, at the corner of each map, is stated in the
legend. The difference between Grid and Magnetic North, together with the annual change, is also
quoted in the legend and indicated at the top of each sheet.

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 AP3456 – 9-22 - Maps

19. Relief is shown by contour lines and spot heights. The contour lines are at vertical intervals of 10
metres; spot heights are shown to the nearest metre. The lack of layer tinting and hill shading means that
the interpretation of relief will often need more care and study. Nevertheless, with practice and experience, it
is possible to interpret the topography with a high degree of accuracy.

20. Fig 9 shows an extract from a 1:50,000 sheet, in which several areas of close contours can be
identified. In the north-west corner is part of a conical hill (the same as that depicted in Fig 1). Notice that
the contours on the lower part of the hill are closer than those near the top, showing that the hill has a
rounded profile. In the centre of the map, near the village of Dumbleton, is a conical hill with three distinct
summits: Alderton Hill, Dumbleton Hill and spot height 162 m. The contours between these hilltops show
the narrowing characteristic of cols. A spur can be identified on the right-hand side of the map, running
northward from Toddington, with the land descending towards Wormington. It shows the typical triangular
pattern of contours and the shape is emphasised by the rivers on either side.

9-22 Fig 9 Extract from Ordnance Survey Map (1:50,000)

21. In many of the examples in Fig 9, the hill line is, in part, accompanied by woodland which has a
tendency to follow the general trend of the contours; a not uncommon feature. Woods are also a
common feature of steep-sided river valleys, making them easier to identify; an example is to be found
in the north-west corner, along two streams running north from Overbury.

22. Over most of the rest of this map extract, the contours are fairly widely spaced and form no readily
identifiable patterns. Investigation of the contour and spot height values shows that the ground varies
between about 25 and 60 metres, ie it is gently undulating. Thus, it is possible to build up a picture of the
area - a low, undulating plain, interrupted by several conical hills, with a ridge to the south-east.

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Maximum Elevation Figure (MEF)

23. On aeronautical charts, a Maximum Elevation Figure (MEF) is printed for designated quadrangles
(quadrangle sizes vary with chart scale and latitude - typically, 1:500,000 maps have thirty-minute
quadrangles). The MEF is calculated in the following manner:

a. The highest terrain elevation within the quadrangle is determined. A safety factor for
mapping accuracy, and a Non-Represented Allowance (NRA) are added. The total is rounded up
to the next 100 ft. (The NRA allows for obstructions not portrayed on the chart because they fall
below the requirements of the chart specification. In UK, the NRA is 300 ft.)

b. The elevation of the highest man-made obstruction in that quadrangle is determined and,
after adding a safety factor for data accuracy, is rounded up to the next 100 ft.

c. The MEF is the higher figure, from a or b.

On the map, the MEF is depicted by two sets of figures; one represents thousands of feet, the other
hundreds of feet above mean sea level (AMSL). For example:

5
12
represents 12,500 feet AMSL.

Note: MEF refers to highest elevation and is not to be confused with Safety Altitude (see Volume 9,
Chapter 23).

Summary

24. For the majority of low flying tasks within the UK, and the normal operational regions in NW Europe,
routine low level navigation is carried out using the LFC 1:500,000 series or the Special Air Chart
1:250,000 series, while detailed work, such as targeting, is accomplished using the 1:50,000 OS Maps (or
their national equivalents in Europe). It is, therefore, essential for aircrew to become familiar with these
maps. Learning the legend is a straightforward task, but interpreting the topography takes a considerable
amount of study and practice. Without doubt, the airborne experience of matching the mapped features
to reality greatly improves this skill.

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 AP3456 - 7-30 - Planning

CHAPTER 30 - PLANNING

Introduction

1. Planning for a low level flight can take a variety of forms. For example, of necessity, it may take only
minutes, and involve using a chinagraph pencil on a plastic covered map whilst sitting in the cockpit of a
tactical aircraft. Alternatively, it may take 1 or 2 hours to plan a co-ordinated, multi-aircraft interdiction
mission in a well-equipped Flight Planning section. It is beyond the scope of this manual to cover the
particular techniques required for these special cases. Instead, this chapter will be concerned with the
elementary techniques and considerations which form the basis of all low level route planning.

2. It will be assumed that the 1:500,000 LFC or the 1:250,000 chart will be used for routine navigation, and
the OS 1:50,000 maps for target planning. The discussion will be on the basis of planning for a single aircraft
executing a low level navigation sortie, with a simulated level attack on a target. Nevertheless, some of the
factors to be considered when planning for a formation of aircraft will be mentioned.

3. The aim of low flying is to arrive safely, and ideally undetected, at an objective; typically a target. In
practice, the target planning will be done before the route planning. However, as low level navigation may
occasionally be undertaken without a target element, this chapter will first look at planning the route.

ROUTE SELECTION AND PLANNING

Initial Considerations

4. Route. The low level route should normally be the shortest, safest, practical route to the target
and back to base or destination. In particular, the time spent in 'enemy' territory should be kept to the
absolute minimum. Long, straight legs are easier to fly, particularly if in formation. The following points
should be considered when planning the route:

a. Airspace Reservations. Controlled and restricted airspace must be avoided. Certain hazards
and sensitive areas on the ground must be avoided, eg hospitals and built-up areas (such
avoidance has its parallel in a tactical situation where enemy defences or friendly 'weapons free
zones' (WFZs) must be considered). Additionally, the UK Low Flying System regulations impose
some route restrictions, such as flow arrows in congested areas.

b. Low Level Turning Points and Check-features. The selection of easily identified turning
points and 'check-features' or 'check-points' (significant features selected to assist navigation) are
essential to a successful low level sortie. This subject is discussed in detail in Volume 7,
Chapter 31.

c. Visibility. Visual perspective and range to the horizon reduce as height reduces; it will be
necessary to fly directly over most pre-selected check-points. Visibility into sun can be poor,
particularly when the sun is low on the horizon. The area downwind of a large industrial complex
is often associated with poor visibility and therefore should be avoided. Visibility in hazy/misty
conditions and industrial pollution are all worsened when combined with a low sun.

d. High Ground. The crossing of high ground should be avoided for tactical reasons. The highest
ground should also be avoided for meteorological reasons; it is more likely to be enshrouded in low
cloud, and turbulence is often present on the lee side.

e. Birds. Flying adjacent to coastlines and estuaries should be kept to a minimum as these
areas tend to have higher than average bird concentrations.

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f. Nuisance. To reduce undue noise nuisance, towns and villages should be given as wide a
berth as is practical. If this is not practical, then the transit height must be increased. It should be
noted that, when flying in formation, other aircraft may be displaced laterally. Adequate horizontal
clearance must therefore be planned for all aircraft.

g. Natural Features. Landmarks with vertical extent which rise above the surrounding terrain
make excellent turning points or check-features. Natural line features (ridges, rivers etc) provide
useful assistance when orientated along track. Multiple line features can be used as a guide, or
'funnel', to lead into a destination, turning point or visual fix-point.

5. Speed. Low level navigation exercises for fixed-wing aircraft are normally planned and flown on the
basis of maintaining a constant groundspeed. For convenience, this groundspeed is usually a multiple of
60 kt so that it equates to an integral number of nautical miles per minute. On the other hand, rotary wing
aircraft often fly close to Vmax, and therefore a constant airspeed is flown during a navigation sortie. For
most practical purposes it can be assumed that IAS = TAS at low level and thus the only necessary
adjustment for speed will be to account for the wind effect. Clearly, if operations are to take place over
regions considerably above sea level, the IAS/TAS relationship may need to be considered.

6. Height.

a. Fixed Wing (FW). In the majority of cases low flying will be carried out between 250 and 500
feet minimum separation distance (MSD). Excursions outside of this bracket, between 100 and
2000 feet MSD, will normally need little change to planning methods, although there may be some
need to adjust the low flying techniques.

b. Rotary Wing (RW). Low flying frequently takes place at 50 feet above ground level (AGL) with an
associated minimum separation criteria (MSC), even down to hover taxi height in some cases.

7. Track Orientation. The low level plan is usually made on a 'still air' basis, and so directions are
annotated in terms of track, either true or magnetic, rather than heading. Adjustments are made on
the day, by rule of thumb methods, to account for drift and thus determine required heading to maintain
each track.

Map Preparation

8. Maps. It is important that maps are updated using the latest CALF, CHAD, CHUM and NOTAMs.
It should be remembered that NOTAMs may be issued after planning is complete and so must be
consulted immediately prior to flight so that any necessary amendments to the plan can be made.

9. Track. The track should be drawn on the map in such a way that it is easily seen even in turbulent
conditions, ie in a deep colour and boldly, but so that it does not obscure significant detail. Gaps can be
left in the track line so that fix points along track are obvious. The track direction should be clearly
annotated near the start of each leg. Straight line tracks are not mandatory. Although the straight line
represents the shortest distance between two points, it is not necessarily the most appropriate route; for
example it will often be preferable to follow a valley rather than fly the direct line over hills. In this situation,
'mean' tracks for sections of the valley should be measured as guides to direction.

10. Timing Reference Marks. Time provides the prime reference system for low level visual
navigation. The tracks on the chart should therefore be marked at intervals representing the distance
flown in one minute (or two minutes if preferred and appropriate). The ETA at turning points, and at
other significant features, should also be annotated on the map. Several methods of providing a timing

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reference are possible using stopwatch or real time; this subject will be dealt with in Volume 7,
Chapter 31.

11. Other Information. Other information, which should be annotated on the chart, clearly, includes:

a. Safety altitude(s) for the route or area of operation.

b. Altimeter setting region boundaries.

c. Radio frequencies, for assistance from radar units and airfields.

d. Heights of controlled airspace and other restricted airspace.

Safety Altitude

12. A safety altitude (SALT) provides aircrew with a safe height at which to fly, when visual safe
separation from the ground is not possible. The SALT is calculated by:

a. Determining the elevation (i.e. height above mean sea level (AMSL)) of the highest ground or
obstacle over which there is any possibility of the aircraft passing.

b. Adding an increment of one thousand feet.

c. Rounding up the sum of a and b, to the nearest hundred feet.

Where the flight takes place over mountainous terrain - defined as terrain of 3,000 ft AMSL or higher - the
increment is increased to a minimum of 2000 ft. When severe turbulence is anticipated, consideration
should be given to further increasing the SALT. The instructions pertaining to SALT are contained within
the MAA RA 2307(1).

13. A common method of applying safety altitude is for a separate SALT to be calculated for each
track of the planned flight. Alternatively, a route might be divided into several areas, each with its own
SALT. Finally, it is feasible for a route to have one 'blanket' safety altitude for its entirety, from
departure to destination.

14. When determining the highest elevation on which to base the SALT, it is usual to allow a safety factor in
distance around the planned track. This will allow for unplanned deviations from route and navigation errors.
Command and Group Orders will normally specify the criteria for such safety factors.

Fuel Planning

15. The exact fuel planning procedure will depend upon the aircraft type, the nature of the exercise,
and local requirements. In general, the route should be marked at regular and convenient intervals
(perhaps every 5 or 10 minutes), and at the point furthest from base, showing in each instance:

a. The anticipated fuel remaining.

b. The 'en route minimum fuel' (see Volume 7, Chapter 26).

16. When operating on a return-to-base route, it is often convenient to draw 'BINGO arcs' on the map
showing the amount of fuel needed to return to base from that range, by the most direct and

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practicable route, to arrive with the necessary minimum fuel. The calculation of the BINGO figure (see
Volume 7, Chapter 26) may be on the basis of remaining at low level, or on flying the profile which is
most economic on fuel. These arcs should take into account the wind on the day.

Route Examples

17. Fig 1 shows an example of a route for a fixed-wing aircraft, to fly at low level from base, to a
target, and back. Drawn on a LFC, it illustrates many of the items mentioned in the foregoing
paragraphs. There is no definitive way in which the chart should be annotated with information;
operating authorities may specify in some cases, but much will be left to personal preference. Some
aspects of this example route are explained below:

7-30 Fig 1 Low Level Route Plan (not correct scale)

a. Route. The route is designed to be about 30 minutes in duration, to have one target (a level
attack), and to include flight over varied terrain, including some valley flying. As far as is practical,
the route is confined to the lower ground in any area.

b. Start/Stop Points. Shawbury is the operating base, and it is assumed that there are standard
departure and arrival procedures. The low level plan therefore starts and stops at points in accord
with those procedures.

c. Timing. The route has been planned at a constant groundspeed of 420 kt (7 nm/min), utilizing
one stopwatch. The stopwatch is started at the low level start point and is run continuously to the
Initial Point (IP) for the target run. At the IP, the stopwatch is zeroed, and restarted. The stopwatch
is then left to run until the route stop point. Timing marks are annotated on the chart at one minute
intervals; the elapsed time is also annotated at each turning point.

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 AP3456 - 7-30 - Planning

d. Tracks. Tracks are magnetic. In the north-west corner of the route, the track follows the
valleys, and has been drawn in a broken line to indicate this. Notice the flow arrows, which
constrain the route in this area, in accordance with the low flying system.

e. Fuel. Circles highlighting fuel figures are drawn at intervals, showing the anticipated fuel
remaining in black and the 'en route minimum fuel' in red. In this example, the aircraft uses 100
kg of fuel every 4 minutes. The general fuel plan is to take a fuel check every 8 minutes from the
start of low level. Whilst some fuel circles are conveniently located at furthest points from base,
note that the check due near the IP was brought forward 2 minutes, to spread the workload.
BINGO arcs are in red, at 100 kg, 150 kg and 200 kg. In this example, these figures represent the
fuel required to transit back to base in a straight line, maintaining speed at 420 kt and remaining at
low level. The minimum fuel required at destination (which may change, depending on the
weather and diversion plans) must be added to the BINGO figures during the flight.

f. NOTAMs. One NOTAM has been plotted to the north of Tregaron. This notifies a prohibited
area of 2 nm radius, up to 3,000 feet above mean sea level, around the point.

h. Safety Altitude. In this example route, a SALT of 5,600 ft (based on Snowdon, elevation
3,560 ft) has been calculated for the extreme NW portion of the route, to the west of the dam on
Llyn Elyrnwy. For the remainder of the route, a SALT of 4,000 ft has been calculated (based on
the spot height of 2,975 ft, NE of Dolgellau). Both SALTs are annotated on the chart in red.

i. Controlled Airspace. The height/altitude of the base of controlled airspace has been
emphasized on the chart. Aircrew flying at low level should be aware, at all times, of the base
height of controlled airspace above them, and this should be compared with the SALT. If the
SALT is higher than the base of the controlled airspace, then the procedures for penetrating the
controlled airspace must be investigated at the planning stage. Initial Contact Frequencies (ICFs)
for radar assistance should be annotated on the chart.

j. Target and Initial Point. The triangle to the east of Leominster marks the simulated target.
The square box on track to the south of Leominster represents the associated Initial Point (IP).
The techniques of target planning will be covered in the next section of this chapter.

18. Fig 2 shows an example helicopter low level route plan to a landing point (LP) and back to
Shawbury. Drawn on a UK Special Air Chart, this route illustrates some of the differences between
RW and FW map preparation, and is described below.

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 AP3456 - 7-30 - Planning

7-30 Fig 2 Low Level Route Plan - RW

a. Timing. The main route is planned at 120 kt, and at 90 kt for the IP to LP leg. Timing marks
are made at 2 minute intervals along legs. Elapsed times for each leg are marked (and
underlined) at the end of the leg to the right of the turning point (TP). Total elapsed time is
marked (surrounded by a box) to the left of each TP or IP. Helicopters equipped with GPS or
other navigation systems may mark distance gone, or to go, instead of timing marks. Depending
on the route and scale of map, timing marks may be at 1, 2, or even 5 or 10 min intervals. Some
routes may lend themselves to times at significant features.

b. IP. An IP is marked by a square drawn parallel to the IP-to-LP run.

c. LP. An LP is marked by 4 lines radiating from the grid reference.

d. Fuel. Fuel circles are normally drawn at the start of each leg, or at 10 minute intervals on longer
legs. The circles only show, in red, the minimum fuel plus minimum landing fuel required to
complete the task and return to base or refuel point.

e. Significant Features. Significant features selected along the route should be indicated on the
map with the elapsed time. Ideally, they should be at 3-5 minute intervals on long legs, or near
half-way on shorter legs.

TARGET PLANNING

Introduction

19. Whilst flying a route, a slight tracking error of one or two miles is unlikely to be of any cause for
concern, unless it leads to the infringement of an area to be avoided. However, much greater accuracy
is required when attacking a target; an error of a few metres may result in missing it. Because of this,
target planning is normally carried out using OS 1:50,000 maps which provide the required amount of

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 AP3456 - 7-30 - Planning

detail. Change-over of operation, from the en route map to the target map, is accomplished by means
of an Initial Point (IP) - a feature whose position is identifiable on both maps and which has a high
probability of being identified at the appropriate stage of flight. The selection of an IP will be covered
later; first the approach to the target should be considered.

Line of Approach

20. The best line of approach to any target must be decided on an individual basis. However, there
are some general factors which should be considered. Fig 3 and Fig 4 show two typical targets (each
a bridge) which will be used to illustrate some of these factors.

7-30 Fig 3 Bridge Target in Steep Sided Valley

21. The bridge in Fig 3 is aligned north-south, crossing a river which runs east-west. A study of the
contours in the vicinity of the bridge shows that the hills to the north and south of the bridge are steep, ie the
bridge is at the bottom of a steep-sided valley. If an approach were to be made from the north or south the
target could not be seen until the very last moment; indeed there must be considerable doubt as to whether
the target would be seen at all. The village of Alton with its church, and the Alton Towers Leisure Park, would
provide some clues to the position of the bridge but nevertheless the problems of late acquisition make this
an unsatisfactory line of approach. The sensible direction is east-west (or vice versa) along the valley.
Approaching from the east provides a longer stretch of straight valley before the target and is therefore the
preferred option. The valley and the river constitute a line feature leading directly to the target and so
acquisition is unlikely to be difficult once the valley has been identified. There are no similar bridges in the
vicinity; there are a few smaller bridges before the target but the target bridge is directly abeam the village of
Alton with its church and castle. Although the approach from the east has been shown as a straight line in
Fig 3, it would probably be best, in practice, to fly a slightly curved approach in order to follow the line of the
valley more closely. As an alternative, it would be possible to make an approach from the north-west, from
the village of Oakamoor, following the valley and making the turn onto east just prior to the target. This may
be preferable if the target were defended, as the aircraft would not be visible until late in the attack. However,
although the bridge would not be appreciably more difficult to locate, there may be weapon aiming
constraints with such a late turn onto the target.

22. Fig 4 shows another bridge target, this time a railway crossing a river. Both the river and the railway
constitute line features leading directly to the bridge. It is not always necessary, or desirable, to fly along
such line features; instead they can be used to direct the eyes once in the vicinity of the target. Whereas
the previous example was in a steep-sided valley, this bridge is situated on a broad river flood plain in
fairly open ground.

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 AP3456 - 7-30 - Planning

7-30 Fig 4 Rail/River Bridge Street

23. An approach from the south-east would entail crossing the high ground of Bredon Hill. Although,
in this instance, the hill is not hiding the target, it is not generally recommended to approach a target
from high ground as it means that the aircraft is more exposed to any defences. To the north-west of
the target is a disused airfield, and study of the 1:500,000 LFC reveals that this is the site of a High
Intensity Radiation Transmission Area (HIRTA), and so may need to be avoided. Other approach
directions, from the north-east and south-west quadrants, impose no special restrictions. The one
other factor which may need to be considered is the direction of the sun. Where there are no other
constraints, it is normally preferable to approach out of sun, especially when the sun is low on the
horizon. The best line of approach is therefore probably from the south or south-west. Approach lines
from the region of Tewkesbury could put the M5/M50 motorway junction or the church at Strensham
on, or very close to track, thus providing good check features. To aid final visual acquisition, the
railway and river would appear to converge on the target.

24. Although the approach to the target has been discussed in some detail in these two examples, the
departure from the target area should not be neglected. It may well be the case that the optimum line of
approach would involve the aircraft infringing a restricted area beyond the target. More importantly, the
presence of high ground or obstructions immediately beyond the target must be considered. The
example in Fig 3 shows this to an extent; depending upon the height of the aircraft, it may be necessary to
climb or turn to avoid the southern valley wall.

25. One factor which is beyond the scope of this chapter, but may be overriding, is the constraint
imposed by a particular weapon delivery profile.

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 AP3456 - 7-30 - Planning

The Initial Point (IP)

26. The manner in which the transfer between the LFC or UK Special Air Chart and the OS map is
accomplished is by use of an 'Initial Point' (IP), the position of which should be identifiable on both
charts. The ideal IP should exhibit the same characteristics as that of a good visual fix or check-
feature. It should:

a. Be easily found, by dint of being big (or part of a big feature) or offering good contrast to its
surrounds.

b. Be unique or unambiguous within the area.

c. Ideally, have some vertical extent.

27. The ideal IP is rare, and inevitably some compromise will have to be accepted. Although there can be
no hard and fast rule, experience has shown that in most cases the distance from IP to target should be:

a. Fixed Wing Aircraft: Between 30 seconds and 90 seconds.

b. Training Aircraft: A maximum distance of 8 nm to 10 nm, with a 2 minute run-in.

c. Helicopters: A maximum distance of 3 nm to 5 nm, with a run-in of 2 minutes to 3 minutes.

It may be necessary to have a pre-IP some distance from the target in order to locate a less than ideal
IP nearer the target. Short IP to target times allow little opportunity for errors to be corrected; long IP to
target times can lead to unwieldy maps and demand an unnecessarily long period of high
concentration.

28. Although the choice of an IP should be dictated by the most appropriate line of approach to the
target, and not vice versa, the availability of a good IP can be the deciding factor between approaches
which are otherwise equally suitable.

Planning from IP to Target

29. Planning the IP to target part of the mission is not significantly different from planning the route. The
line of intended track should be clearly drawn on the OS 1:50,000 map, although it may be desirable to
omit sections to permit the user to read mapping detail in parts. The map should be clearly annotated
with the track direction from the IP. The track line should be annotated with timing marks, normally every
ten seconds for FW, every minute for RW, together with the total elapsed time from the IP to target. It is
usually advantageous to mark the 'escape' track details, post-target.

30. OS 1:50,000 maps (other than Series GSGS 5215) do not carry any aeronautical information,
therefore any relevant restrictions will need to be transferred from the LFC. It may also be desirable to
highlight any obstructions (eg power lines and masts) and any other significant features.

31. In the normal course of events, once the IP to target has been planned, work can commence on
planning the route. The route should be arranged so that the approach to the IP is on approximately
the same track (within 20º to 30º) as the IP to target. Large turns prior to, or at, the IP almost inevitably
lead to error, and therefore should be avoided.

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 AP3456 - 7-30 - Planning

32. Fig 5 shows the OS map, prepared for the IP to target portion, incorporated into the route shown
at Fig 1. Some notes on this plan are presented below:

7-30 Fig 5 IP to Target Plan (not correct scale)

a. Line of Approach. The target is a 90º bend in a track, adjacent to woods. Visual acquisition
would be poor on approaches from the south, or the north, due to high ground and woods,
respectively. On an approach from the west, the road rises into the target, which is on a slight
ridge. The sun would not present any problem for an approach from the west/south-west, except
in the early morning.

b. IP. There are several possible features for an IP in the area of Leominster. On the chosen
line of approach, the town itself should be clearly visible, with the River Arrow converging from the
left. The selected IP is the bridge where the road, running south from the town, crosses over the
river. There are numerous lines of small pylons in the area, presenting more of an avoidance
problem than an aid to navigation.

c. Features to Assist Tracking. Once the IP is visually identified, the stopwatch is zeroed, to be re-
started directly overhead the IP. Time will then assist with the identification of several features that
can be utilized to maintain the aircraft’s tracking towards the target. These features include a road
junction at 13 seconds, and the leading edge of a wood, left of a hill fort, at 30 seconds. The group
of small lakes at 23 to 26 seconds will assist overall confidence. Also, in several places, portions of
road and disused railway, running close to the planned approach track, could be utilized.

d. Additional Information. The IP to Target map shown at Fig 5 is relatively uncluttered, having
just the bare essential information required during flight. Depending upon requirements, the planner
may wish to highlight extra mapping detail, or annotate further information. Information required by
some operators includes distance-to-go markers in nautical miles (for nav/attack systems), aide
memoirs, or weapons checklists.

Concealed Approaches and Departures (CAD)

33. Support Helicopter (SH) operations often require an approach and departure to be made to a
landing site (LS) whilst flying a profile that will keep the helicopter hidden from enemy ground forces.
This usually requires ultra low flying using terrain, trees and other vertical features to achieve
concealment. Factors to be considered during CAD operations include:

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 AP3456 - 7-30 - Planning

a. Planning. The relative position of the enemy from the pick up point (PUP) or drop point (DP) will
dictate the direction of approach. The planning process is essentially the same as an IP to target run
with one difference; the route is selected by working back from the DP along the lowest ground
towards the IP. The best departure is generally the reciprocal of track, but it is not always the case,
so the departure should be considered separately. Forecast windspeed is an important
consideration as the low groundspeed required for concealed approaches and departures may be
outside the wind/airspeed limits for the helicopter and therefore a compromise track may have to be
selected.

b. Map marking. Contour analysis is the key to good map reading. At 100 ft AGL, a 10 m
contour is significant, whereas at 200 ft AGL such a contour may be invisible. It is vital to study
the contours around the LS; a 10 m contour can hide most helicopters. The procedure is to work
back from the enemy position looking for valley contours and water indications, as water generally
flows in the lowest ground. One point to note is that trees grow along river and stream beds, but
they are not shown on the OS 1:50,000 map; they can aid concealment but may present a
problem if they need to be crossed. If the contours are difficult to see, then highlighting them can
help in visualising the valley shape, but highlighting more than one contour can lead to confusion.
Once the direction of approach is selected, then the map should be marked as shown in Fig 6,
using a dashed track line so that the map detail can be clearly seen. Tracks and timing marks
(appropriate to the planned speed) should be marked, and prominent features highlighted. The
general rule is to fly as fast as possible whilst maintaining the height required to remain
concealed. The aim should be to reduce speed and height as range to the DP reduces, typically 2
kt per 1 ft of height (e.g. 30 kt/15 ft AGL ).

7-30 Fig 6 Concealed Approach and Departure

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 AP3456 - 7-30 - Planning

c. General. Map reading and communication between the crew whilst flying at ultra low level
are obviously problems, but can be overcome by good planning, effective cockpit management
and foresight.

Map Folding

34. Having completed all the planning, the maps require folding so that they can be conveniently
handled in the air. It is not normally a good idea merely to cut out the required portion of the sheet as
the resulting map will be too flimsy for use in the cockpit.

35. A suggested method of folding is outlined below and illustrated in Fig 7:

a. Decide which is the long axis of the route. On a nearly square route this decision will be
arbitrary. Make the first fold, outside of the route, parallel to the long axis.

b. Fold in the two ends at right angles to the long side.

c. Fold over the remaining long side parallel to the long axis. The excess map of this last fold
can be tucked into the pocket formed by the first three folds, having been trimmed if necessary.

7-30 Fig 7 Folding the Map

a Complete Sheet, showing Route with Long Axis and First Fold b Second and Third Folds

Second Fold

Base

Third Fold
Route

First Fold Long Axis

c Final Fold d Reverse Side of Folded Map

Final Fold

Tuck In Final Fold

Chapter 7-30 (Revised Jul 11) Page 12 of 12

 AP3456 – 9-24 - Map Reading and Navigation Techniques

CHAPTER 24 - MAP READING AND NAVIGATION TECHNIQUES

Introduction

1. Modern aircraft avionics systems are quite capable of performing the routine navigation tasks
necessary in a low level mission. However, like all computer systems, they are unable to think, or
automatically instigate changes to a plan when conditions vary from those expected. Moreover,
although reliability is generally high, such systems do occasionally fail or become degraded.
Particularly in the final stages of an attack, it may become necessary to refine the system’s
navigation solution by direct visual reference to the outside world. Furthermore, there are still many
aircraft, especially in the training role, without sophisticated navigation systems. There is, therefore,
a continuing need to develop the skills of low level navigation using the basic aids of map, compass,
stopwatch, eye, and brain.

2. The aim of low level navigation is to get the aircraft to an objective safely and, ideally, undetected.
There is therefore a need to blend accurate navigation, both in space and time, with skilful flying,
sound airmanship, and tactical awareness. The general rules regarding the operation of aircraft in the
low level environment are dealt with in Volume 8, Chapter 19. This chapter will be concerned primarily
with navigation techniques at low level. It complements Volume 9, Chapter 23, which should be read in
conjunction with it.

Map Reading

3. The art of map reading consists of visualizing the physical features represented on the map by
symbols, thus forming a complete mental picture of the ground by relating the features one to
another (this is known as 'map to ground' technique). It is also necessary to perform this analysis in
reverse, ie seeing an arrangement of features on the ground and being able to recognise the
relevant portion of the map ('ground to map' technique). Expertise at low level map reading
demands much practice but there are a number of factors which can make the task easier. The
most important of these are thorough flight planning and pre-flight route study. When in flight,
maintaining track and time should be a prime aim; errors should be recognised and acted upon
early, but concentration on navigation to the detriment of other tasks must be resisted. It is equally
important to keep a good look-out to reduce collision risks, to detect any enemy activity, to be aware
of any potential weather problems, and to manage the aircraft systems. To this end, significant
features (known as 'check features') should be selected at the planning stage at perhaps 3 to 5
minute intervals, and the in-flight technique should be to identify these features as early as possible
and fly with reference to them. Check features need not be exactly on track; a good feature close to
track will usually be better than a poor feature on track, and it is a relatively simple matter to fly the
appropriate distance away from the feature.

4. The Ideal Check Feature. The ideal check feature will have the following properties:

a. Big. The check feature should be big, or be part of a big feature. However, it must not be
so big that a precise point is indistinguishable.

b. Unambiguous. The feature must be selected to ensure that no other similar feature is
nearby.

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 AP3456 – 9-24 - Map Reading and Navigation Techniques

c. Vertical Extent. At low level, a feature such as a hilltop, mast or chimney may well be visible
from several miles away.

d. Easily Identified. The check feature should be seen and identified easily, to minimize time
spent searching for it.

Only rarely will a feature possess all of these attributes and some compromise will be necessary. The
value of any type of feature to navigation will depend on circumstances; minor roads may be poor
features in built-up areas but may become very significant in an otherwise barren landscape.

5. Selection Considerations. The following considerations must be borne in mind when selecting a
check feature:

a. Terrain. Careful map study is necessary to ensure that the feature will be seen. For
example, if crossing a valley at 90º, any feature in the valley may be visible for 5 to 10 seconds. A
feature on the near side of the valley may not be seen until it has been passed.

b. Contrast. A feature that contrasts with its natural surroundings will be easily identifiable.

c. Lead-in Features. The presence of features that lead towards the check feature can be
used to draw the eyes to the area. A lead-in is essential for small check features.

6. Choice of Check Features. Some of the ground features suitable for visual map reading are
discussed below. However, only rarely is any one feature used in isolation; it is the relationship of one
feature to another that provides confident identification:

a. Coastlines. Coastlines generally offer an excellent opportunity for fixing. There is usually
some associated feature such as a river estuary, headland, or inlet to enable position to be fixed
with reasonable accuracy.

b. Water Features. Large rivers, estuaries, canals and lakes normally show up well. However,
they naturally tend to occupy the lowest ground in the area and so may be hidden from view by the
surrounding terrain. This is particularly true of lakes in mountainous regions; it is quite possible to
fly within a mile or two of a mountain lake and not see it. Smaller rivers are often tree-lined; the
trees can assist in locating the line of the river, but can also tend to hide the detail so that
particular features of the river may not be seen.

c. Mountains and Hills. As the observer’s height above ground decreases, the terrain
contours take on considerably more significance. However, the interpretation of topography for
mountains and hills from the map is more difficult than the interpretation of water and man-made
features. Isolated and prominent hills provide the best opportunity for check features. Terrain
which undulates fairly uniformly is extremely difficult to use unless there are additional features
such as significant woods or transmission masts. Wherever there are mountains and hills there
will be valleys and these can be extremely valuable features. They can usually be identified with
confidence from their orientation and from the presence of roads, railways and settlements, and
they provide a line feature for navigation and a route away from the highest ground.

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d. Masts. Masts, with their vertical extent, can provide good visual clues to position at low level.
However, they should not be selected as turning points, as they are difficult to see in poor visibility.
Larger masts often have guide stays, therefore horizontal avoidance is essential.

e. Towns and Villages. Because the over-flight of towns and villages should be avoided at low
level, they cannot be used for accurate pin-pointing on their own. However, they are useful as
general indicators of position and for directing the eyes to suitable features nearby. The identification
of a town or village must normally be done by relating it to other features in the vicinity, e.g. roads,
railways, rivers and hills.

f. Railways. In areas of dense population and industry, the identification of railway lines can
sometimes prove difficult. However, in more rural areas they provide an excellent line feature
and, if there is some unique aspect to the line such as a junction, station, or conspicuous bridge, a
pin-point can be obtained.

g. Roads. The usefulness of roads as check features is extremely variable, depending on the
nature of the surrounding landscape. Motorways can be particularly distinctive if viewed
lengthways or from height, but if approached at 90º at very low level, they can be obscured by
trees or by being located in cuttings. By comparison, a single-track, narrow road might prove
extremely significant in open country, especially over barren mountainous terrain. In general, the
larger the road the more use it is likely to be.

h. Woods. Like roads, woods can vary between excellent and useless. Although woods may
appear to have a particularly distinctive and identifiable shape on a map, this shape will not normally
be apparent from a low level viewpoint. The exception is when the wood is on a facing slope, e.g.
on the far side of a valley. In this situation, woods can prove extremely valuable check features.
Although there can be some change to wood shapes due to felling and afforestation, the impact of
this activity is normally fairly obvious. Nevertheless some care is needed.

i. Miscellaneous Features. Many other features can prove to be satisfactory navigation

checks. Power transmission lines can act as line features, and can provide pin-points where they
cross each other or other line features. Power stations, airfields, transmission masts, lighthouses,
monuments, and follies are all worthy of consideration.

7. Seasonal Variation. The time of the year may affect the appearance of many features:

a. Winter. Lakes may be iced over, and snow cover may hide smaller roads and isolated railway
tracks. Conversely, cleared roads may become more apparent due to their increased contrast with
the surroundings. In the Northern Hemisphere, the sun is lower for longer periods of the day.

b. Spring. Any flooding will change the shape of water features, and indeed, the landscape.

c. Summer. Heavy foliage may obscure roads and railway lines. A period of drought will
change the shape and water level of reservoirs. Rivers in many regions of the world will dry up.

d. Autumn. Deciduous woods may apparently change shape and importance.

8. Accuracy of Map Features. Three types of map detail are always plotted in their correct
geographic positions on maps. These are:

a. Coastlines

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b. River centrelines

c. Tops of Hills (Spot heights/Trig points)

To avoid being superimposed, all other features are likely to have adjusted positions. In making the
adjustments, the cartographer takes care to display the detail correctly relative to adjacent features. Thus,
for example, a mast will always be depicted on the correct side of the motorway even though accurate
plotting would show it in the fast lane. In this case, it is the standard motorway feature which takes up more
space on the map than its actual width demands. Such minor errors in position are unlikely to pose
difficulties in the visual navigation environment, but must be considered during operational planning.

Timing

9. The intelligent use of the watch and stopwatch is perhaps the most valuable aid to low level
navigation. Provided that the correct heading and speed are flown, time will provide a relatively
accurate means of reckoning position, and the refinement of this position by reference to map and
ground will be considerably eased. Time can thus be used to resolve any ambiguity of features. For
low level navigation, several timing methods are available.

10. Continuous Timing. Continuous timing is a simple timing method. It requires the stopwatch and
the route timing marks to be started from zero at the navigation start point (or take-off point), and both to
run continuously to the navigation stop point (or landing). The technique is for the aircraft to be kept as
close as possible to the elapsed time on the map, principally by MDR speed adjustment. Continuous
timing facilitates simple planning for ETA, fuel etc. Where targets are included in the route, it will usually
be preferable to zero the stopwatch, and re-start it overhead each IP (see Volume 9, Chapter 23, Fig 1).
This enables the IP to target run to be navigated as a separate entity and with no accrued errors.

11. Leg Timing. Leg timing is also a simple timing technique. It can be used for routine
navigation, and consists of starting the stopwatch at the beginning of every track (see Volume 9,
Chapter 23, Fig 2). Leg timing requires a degree of certainty of finding the turning points.
Furthermore, leg times must be added together to produce overall planning figures (ETA, etc). Leg
timing can be reverted to if an aircraft is forced off the planned track - the stopwatch is started when
the aircraft leaves track and again whenever a significant feature is found. Thus the technique
provides a means of reckoning aircraft position relative to a series of known 'most recent' fixes.

12. Hack Timing. This method is a variation of continuous timing and can be used when it is
necessary to achieve a 'real' (rather than elapsed) time on target (TOT). At the planning stage, the
elapsed time from take-off to TOT is measured. By subtracting elapsed time from TOT, the take-off
time is determined. The stopwatch is started (hacked) at this calculated take-off time regardless of the
actual aircraft position. The aircraft is then flown to achieve the timing marks on the map. Large errors
should be corrected early by cutting short the route. Smaller residual errors can be corrected by MDR
speed adjustment.

13. Real Time. If the intent is to be overhead a selected point at a precise time, then the marking of real
time against low level timing marks on the chart provides the ultimate comparison of where the aircraft is,
against where it should be. However, operating totally in real time has few other advantages, and indeed
is extremely inflexible. Many operators will therefore employ a combination of stopwatch and real time in
order to achieve a TOT. For example, the stopwatch systems described in paras 10 to 12 can be
augmented by annotating the real time required against each turning point.

14. Selection of Timing Method. Each of these methods has its advantages, disadvantages, and
adherents. Any continuous timing technique works well, particularly if it is necessary to achieve a TOT,

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unless circumstances divert the aircraft off track. If the aircraft is forced off the planned track, the
technique of leg timing can be reverted to. Leg timing is very flexible and lends itself to stopping and
starting in flight as any significant features are noted. It can thus provide very accurate navigation
between fix or turning points as accrued errors are not carried forward, and it lends itself to off-track
navigation. A decision on the timing method to be employed will be made on the basis of the flight
objectives, the probability of staying on track, and on personal preference.

Estimation of Drift and Required TAS or Groundspeed

15. The essence of successful low level visual navigation lies in the ability to stay on track and on
time. To do so, account must be taken of the effect of wind velocity. If the aircraft is equipped with
doppler or inertial systems, a continuous display of track and groundspeed is available and corrections
can easily be made. Without these aids more elementary methods must be employed, normally
employing mental dead reckoning (MDR).

16. Wind Velocity at Low Level. At the planning stage, and initially when airborne, the forecast wind
velocity for the route or area of operation will be relied upon. Refinement of this may be possible by
observing smoke plumes along the route. Generally, smoke blowing almost horizontally indicates a wind
of approximately 25 kt. Smoke at about 60º to the vertical indicates a wind speed of about 15 kt. Given
the wind speed and direction, it is possible to use MDR techniques in order to resolve the velocity into
approximate components of head/tailwind and crosswind. Low level flight is usually not undertaken in
wind speeds greater than 40 knots, therefore the approximate methods are normally adequate.

17. MDR Techniques. MDR techniques are explained fully in Volume 9, Chapter 19. By applying
MDR to the low level wind velocity, it is possible to estimate:

a. The drift on a particular heading.

b. The headwind or tailwind component on a particular heading. This component can then be
used in one of two ways:

(1) If flying to maintain a planned groundspeed, the head/tailwind component can be applied
to the TAS, to derive the required airspeed to fly.

(2) If flying to maintain a constant IAS/TAS, the head/tailwind component can be used to
derive the resulting groundspeed.

Regaining Track

18. Inaccuracies in planning, in wind estimation and in maintaining heading will inevitably cause the
aircraft to deviate from track. It is usually desirable to regain track as soon as possible as this makes
map reading easier and avoids infringing avoidance areas. Regaining track can be achieved by any of
the following methods:

a. By identifying a feature that is on track, and altering heading to fly over it.

b. By following a line feature back to track.

c. By using the Standard Closing Angle (SCA) technique (see Volume 9, Chapter 19).

Regaining Time

19. The same errors that lead to the aircraft deviating from track can lead to deviations in time. The
techniques of dog-legs, cutting corners and pre-computed timing legs outlined in Volume 9, Chapter 17
can be applied to the low level environment. Providing that the speed range of the aircraft permits it,

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and the fuel penalty is acceptable, relatively small timing errors can be corrected by speed changes. A
method of calculating the necessary adjustment, suited to low level, is described in Volume 9, Chapter
19.

20. Helicopters cruise close to their maximum permitted speeds and, although it is easy to lose time,
gaining time along the route by increasing speed can be difficult. If one or more legs of the route are
planned at a speed lower than the normal cruise speed, then time can be gained by flying the 'slow' legs
at normal cruise speed. The amount of time to be gained by this method can be calculated by subtracting
the leg time flown at normal cruise speed from the leg time at the slower speed.

Weather Avoidance

21. Should bad weather be encountered during low level flight, there are four options available; lateral
avoidance, vertical avoidance, turn back, and emergency low level abort. The extent and nature of the
weather, together with the nature of the terrain and the objectives of the flight, will determine which
course of action is appropriate. An early appreciation of impending poor weather will reduce the
chances that the last option has to be resorted to, and provide more thinking time to implement one of
the other options.

22. Lateral Avoidance. Lateral avoidance is by far the preferred method as low level flight is
maintained and the sortie objectives stand a greater chance of being achieved. It may be possible to
follow a valley or line feature that avoids the weather and returns the aircraft on, or close to, track.
Equally, it may be possible to fly from one significant landmark to another, around the weather, and back
to track. If these options are not practicable then a procedural technique, known as the 'dog-leg', can be
used.

23. The Dog-leg. The dog-leg provides a simple procedural technique for avoiding a patch of poor
weather on track whilst ensuring that the aircraft will return back onto, or close to, track. Fig 1
illustrates the principle. The aircraft is turned at a point (A) by an amount sufficient to avoid the
weather. The time is noted, and this heading is maintained until the weather is cleared (B). The time
from A to B is noted and the aircraft is turned back towards track, through twice the original heading
change. This second heading is maintained until time BC equals time AB. At point C, a turn back on
to the original track is made. Although track will be regained, time will be lost due to the greater
distance flown. For a 30º dog-leg, the time lost will be a quarter of the time taken to fly the leg AB; for
a 45º dog-leg it will be about half of the time, and for a 60º dog-leg it will be approximately equal to the
time. A variation on the simple dog-leg technique is to turn back to a track parallel to the planned track
for a period of time, before turning to regain track (Fig 2).

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 AP3456 – 9-24 - Map Reading and Navigation Techniques

9-24 Fig 1 Simple Dog-leg

30o

o
60
Bad
Weather B

Planned
Track 30o

9-24 Fig 2 Dog-leg with Parallel Section

o
45
C

o
45
B2

Bad
Weather

o
45
B1
Planned
Track o
45
A

24. Vertical Avoidance. If the lateral extent of the weather cannot be determined, or if lateral avoidance
is precluded by restricted airspace, it may be necessary to climb on track to maintain VMC or to level at
safety altitude. Position above the planned route can be maintained by flying accurate speeds and
headings, and making turns on time. If the weather clears later, it should be possible to identify a ground
feature and make a return to low level. As the IAS/TAS ratio increases with height, it will be necessary to
adjust the IAS to maintain the planned groundspeed. The simple method is, for every 1,000 ft climbed, to
reduce the IAS by an amount equal to the number of nautical miles travelled in one minute at the desired
TAS. For example, if trying to maintain a TAS of 360 kt, reduce IAS by 6 kt per 1,000 ft height increase.
This approximation is sufficiently accurate up to about 10,000 ft. If it is necessary to fly above cloud for a
lengthy period, then DR accuracy will be degraded and it may be necessary to resort to radio aids, radar
assistance or to discontinue the sortie. Particular attention should be paid to the base altitude or level of

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any controlled airspace that crosses the route. The vertical avoidance option is not always available to
helicopters due to aircraft operating limitations such as icing.

25. Turn Back. If the lateral and vertical extent of the bad weather is such that none of the techniques
described in paras 22 to 24 are practicable, or if climbing on track would mean penetrating controlled
airspace, then the best option is to turn 180º and retrace the track already flown, as this is known to be
clear of bad weather. It is important that the decision to turn back is made early enough so that the turn
can be completed in VMC. It may be possible, once in clear weather, to re-plan in the air to reach a target
or destination, but often the sortie will have to be abandoned. In helicopters, it is first possible to reduce
height and speed to maintain visual contact with the ground before considering a turn back.

26. Emergency Low Level Abort. Should unacceptable weather be flown into, an emergency low
level abort must be carried out. The flying technique will vary with aircraft type but, in essence, it is
necessary to level the wings and then achieve the maximum angle of climb in order to avoid any high
ground or obstructions. The climb will be continued until VMC above cloud, or until safety altitude,
whichever is the lower. If the aircraft is likely to penetrate controlled airspace on climb out, then it is
necessary to squawk emergency and call for assistance on 243 MHz as soon as is practicable. The
low level abort should be a rare occurrence; good look-out and sound airmanship should allow one of
the other options to be executed in good time. The helicopter technique is to perform a quick stop
manoeuvre to bring the aircraft to the hover. If the bad weather precludes a turn back then the
helicopter can be landed to await a weather improvement.

Lost Procedure

27. Thorough planning, careful route study and accurate planning should drastically reduce the
possibility of becoming lost. Among the most common causes of uncertainty are missing a turning
point and flying on regardless, or having to re-route to avoid bad weather. Checking for gross errors in
heading and timing may resolve the problem, but should uncertainty persist, it is important to recognise
the problem as early as possible and take positive remedial action.

28. In peacetime, the first action will be to climb to increase the area of view, and then to fix position
by the best available means; visually, using radio aids, or with radar assistance. Should this not be
possible, then use of the emergency organization will be necessary. An assessment of fuel state and
safety altitude must be made.

29. If it is necessary to remain at low level, or if radio contact cannot be established, then other courses
of action will be needed. It should be possible to deduce an approximate position based on the time and
position of the last known fix, and the speed and heading flown subsequently. Clearly, the accuracy of the
compass system and of the speed flown should be considered, as should the wind velocity in relation to
that expected. Checks of these factors may well reveal the cause of the uncertainty and may give more
clues as to position. The general topography may provide additional information, i.e. is the terrain flat,
hilly, or mountainous; is the region rural or urban? Having established a DR position, a circle of
uncertainty can be drawn around it. A sensible radius for the circle of uncertainty might be equal to 10%
of the air distance flown since the last fix. The technique now should be to maintain visual contact with
the ground and to set heading towards a line feature (e.g. coastline, railway, motorway) outside of the
circle of uncertainty, whilst map reading from ground to map. On reaching the line feature, it can be
followed until a further feature allows a pin-point to be established.

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