Intro.

To Aerospace
Eng. Design

• Communicating Requirements
• Generating Designs
outline

• Importance of requirements
• Documenting requirements
• Developing requirements

February 15, 2019 | 2

Importance of requirements

• Establishing a good specification of requirements is the key to

the success of any project. Requirements ultimately capture an
understanding of what must be done from an engineering
perspective.

February 15, 2019 | 3

Importance of requirements

• Establishing a good specification of requirements is the key to

the success of any project. Requirements ultimately capture an
understanding of what must be done from an engineering
perspective.
• Requirements drive the cost and planning of any project. Poor
requirements are the single biggest cause of project problems.

February 15, 2019 | 4

Requirements drive cost planning

• Ideally 80% of the costs should be committed and 20%

expended by the time a project is in production.

February 15, 2019 | 5

Importance of requirements

• It is essential that we are able to clearly communicate our

problem requirements. Often a requirements specification is
required to allow teams to work concurrently on part of a
larger project.
• Documented requirements may be legally binding!

February 15, 2019 | 6

Importance of requirements

• It is essential that we are able to clearly communicate our

problem requirements. Often a requirements specification is
required to allow teams to work concurrently on part of a
larger project.
• Documented requirements may be legally binding!
• Large organizations (e.g. NASA, ESA) and companies
(Airbus, Boeing) have formal methods for developing,
documenting, and sharing requirements.

February 15, 2019 | 7

Documenting requirements

• For this course, it is sufficient to enumerate or list our design

requirements; however, we should give consideration to
organizing related requirements. Consider how we may cross-
reference related requirements.

February 15, 2019 | 8

Documenting requirements

• For this course, it is sufficient to enumerate or list our design

requirements; however, we should give consideration to
organizing related requirements. Consider how we may cross-
reference related requirements.
• Recall that requirements are determined with respect to design
functions, which we should have already organized into a
hierarchical list. A natural ordering of requirements should
follow from our functional analysis. A function may result in
more than one unique requirement.

February 15, 2019 | 9

Documenting requirements

Borrowing from larger organizations, it is recommended that

each of your requirement have the following characteristics:
• Uniquely identified with a number of a title
• Consist of a single, unique requirement
• Be quantifiable (i.e. hard numbers)
• Be valid, practicable, and verifiable
• Be related to at least one higher level requirement
• Be design independent
• Be concise

February 15, 2019 | 10

Developing requirements

Begin with the result of your functional analysis and examine

each function. As an individual and in groups, question what
design parameters may be associated with the function
• What values can be measured or predicted (prescriptive)
• How should these values be evaluated (Procedural)
• What are the limitations on these values (Performance)
Do not forget to look at the design function from the perspective
of different stakeholders.

February 15, 2019 | 11

Developing requirements

To produce a final design specification

1. Collect the list of all requirements
2. Eliminate or improve any poor requirements (e.g.
qualitative)
3. Eliminate or combine similar requirements.
4. Organize into hierarchy (see functions)
5. Communicate the requirements

February 15, 2019 | 12

outline

• Design spaces
• Morphological charts
• Finding design ideas
• Creativity techniques
• Evaluating design alternatives

February 15, 2019 | 13

Generating and evaluating designs

We have discussed the problem definition phase of a design

process, which involves:
• Developing a problem statement
• Establishing objectives
• Determining metrics
• Identifying constraints
• Completing a functional analysis
• Specifying requirements
We can now focus on the creative process of developing and
evaluating design ideas.
February 15, 2019 | 14
Exploring the design space

• A conceptual design process begins with the generation of

design alternatives. By combining different ideas we can
explore the design space of all possible design solutions. A
design space may offer an infinite number of choices for
comparison, or be limited in scope through constraints.

February 15, 2019 | 15

Exploring the design space

• A conceptual design process begins with the generation of

design alternatives. By combining different ideas we can
explore the design space of all possible design solutions. A
design space may offer an infinite number of choices for
comparison, or be limited in scope through constraints.
• Note that the design space only includes valid design
solutions; those that satisfy the functional requirements of the
problem. Our goal is to locate the solution which best satisfies
our design objectives as evaluated by our established metrics.

February 15, 2019 | 16

Decomposing a design space

• Some design problems are small enough to be handled by a

team, without consideration of many external constraints.
However, some problems such as the design of an aircraft or
the design of space mission involves working within a large
and complex design space.

February 15, 2019 | 17

Decomposing a design space

• For large design problems our only solution is to break the

problem down into smaller design problems (i.e. divide and
conquer). Each smaller design problem can then be handled by
teams with specific expertise. The scope of each sub-problem
design space is limited by external constraints established
through the specification of requirements. Obviously, success
of complex design projects require careful management of the
design process.

February 15, 2019 | 18

Limiting the size of a design space

Depending upon the size and capabilities of our design team, we

may need to limit the scope of our design space. We can make
pragmatic decisions to limit the size of the problem.
• Invoke and apply constraints. Develop additional design
constraints by considering the needs of the user, or external
constraints related to the production of the design.
• Fix the number of free design parameters. Prioritize the design
attributes and use only a subset of the most important.
• Trim the objectives and functions. Design for only the most
important and necessary functions.
• Limit the development of unrealistic design alternatives.
February 15, 2019 | 19
Morphological charts

A useful method for exploring a design space is to create a

morphological chart or morph chart. This is a table of functions
versus possible means of implementation. Note that in
developing a morph chart
• Only valid means are included.
• No comparison of the various means is made.
• Each function may have a different number of means.
• Functions within the chart should all be equal in level.

February 15, 2019 | 20

Morphological charts

• A morphological chart for a cold beverage container

February 15, 2019 | 21

Example

Consider the design of an all-in-one device to make coffee. An

analysis of the design problem may yield the following related
functions
• Produce hot water
• Prepare ground coffee
• Combine hot water and ground coffee
• Filter out grounds
• Dispense coffee

February 15, 2019 | 22

Example

Consider the design of a vehicle hat travels via flight, A related

set of functions could be:
• Produce lift
• Produce thrust
• Control orientation
• Carry passengers

February 15, 2019 | 23

Finding design ideas

While a morph chart is useful for generating ideas from

combinations of means, it requires many ideas for the
implementation of functions. While creative activities may
provide ideas, it is worthwhile to examine what already exists.
Possible sources of existing ideas include:
Competing products: examine product documentation,
benchmark competing products, dissect and reverse-engineer.
Handbooks and catalogues: search catalogues for existing
components which may provide function.
Patent search: USPTO, Google patent search, CIPO

February 15, 2019 | 24

Divergent-convergent thinking

An effective method for creative thinking is to use a

combination of divergent and convergent thinking.
Divergent thinking: beginning with a description of the problem,
many different ideas are captured. Chain ideas to follow
divergent paths of thought past limitations. The purpose of
divergent thinking is to develop many different ideas, free of
immediate evaluation.

February 15, 2019 | 25

Divergent-convergent thinking

An effective method for creative thinking is to use a

combination of divergent and convergent thinking.
Convergent thinking: the ideas produced by divergent thinking
are reviewed, compared, grouped, and evaluated. Any need for
more ideas is identified. A small subset of ideas are selected
based upon the evaluation. Problem solving proceeds with a
converged focus.

February 15, 2019 | 26

Brainwriting

• Based upon the method of brainstorming, brainwriting is a

group of activity for divergent thinking. A group of N
members sit around a table. Each member writes down a list of
3 ideas on a piece of paper in a timed exercise. The written list
is then circulated around the table in N-1 passes. On each pass
the group members read the new list, and adds 3 new ideas as
inspired by the ideas of the other members.

February 15, 2019 | 27

Brainwriting

• The activity is a strictly written exercise. No talking is

allowed. A group of 4 can potentially produce 48 ideas in 30
minutes with 5 minutes per round. This activity can be
complemented by convergent thinking. List all ideas and
evaluate them as a group to a smaller set of ideas.

February 15, 2019 | 28

Collaborative sketching

• Similar to a brainwriting session, a collaborative sketching or

C-sketch activity involves each member drawing or sketching
an idea in a timed exercise. Each sketch is passed around the
table, and each member adds new ideas to the sketch as
inspired by the ideas of others. No evaluation of ideas of
talking occurs.

February 15, 2019 | 29

Collaborative sketching

• Similar to a brainwriting session, a collaborative sketching or

C-sketch activity involves each member drawing or sketching
an idea in a timed exercise. Each sketch is passed around the
table, and each member adds new ideas to the sketch as
inspired by the ideas of others. No evaluation of ideas of
talking occurs.
• This method becomes unwieldy for large groups, but works
well for groups of 3 or 4. This method can be complemented
by reviewing and evaluating the ideas to select ideas for
further development.

February 15, 2019 | 30

Gallery review

• Like the C-sketch method, group members are given a time

limit to produce a drawing or sketch of their ideas. Afterwards,
all ideas are posted on a wall as a gallery of sketches, and the
group discusses all the ideas presented. During this discussion,
questions can be asked, ideas critiqued, and suggestions made.

February 15, 2019 | 31

Gallery review

• Like the C-sketch method, group members are given a time

limit to produce a drawing or sketch of their ideas. Afterwards,
all ideas are posted on a wall as a gallery of sketches, and the
group discusses all the ideas presented. During this discussion,
questions can be asked, ideas critiqued, and suggestions made.
• Following the discussion, each member returns to their sketch
and modifies it in another timed activity. The cycle is repeated
until the group consensus is that no further progress is being
made.

February 15, 2019 | 32

Creativity techniques

• Brainstorming and related activities can be considered an

associative technique for generating ideas. A large number of
ideas are generated by association to other ideas.

February 15, 2019 | 33

Creativity techniques

• Brainstorming ad related activities can be considered an

associative technique for generating ideas. A large number of
ideas are generated by association to other ideas.
• Morphological charts are a systematic technique, as ideas are
methodically created by applying combinations of solutions.

February 15, 2019 | 34

Creativity techniques

• Brainstorming ad related activities can be considered an

associative technique for generating ideas. A large number of
ideas are generated by association to other ideas.
• Morphological charts are a systematic technique, as ideas are
methodically created by applying combinations of solutions.
• The method of synectics uses a confrontational technique to
develop new ideas by force-fitting ideas drawn from analogies.
Synectics allows for the generation of unexpected ideas.

February 15, 2019 | 35

Synectics

1. Reformulate the problem as a single statement

2. Brainstorm immediate ideas and record
3. Think of an analogy for some aspect of the original problem.
Analogies can be of the form of:
• Direct: an unrelated but comparable problem
• Personal: imagine being an element of the problem
• Nature: similar situation in nature
• Fantastic: place the problem in a fairy tale.
• Paradoxical: describe the problem with opposite ideas.

February 15, 2019 | 36

Synectics

4. Think of a solution to the analogous problem.

5. Force-fit the solution to the original problem and draw
connections.
6. Gather ideas on how make the solution work.

February 15, 2019 | 37

Picking a winner

Having followed a creative process to generate design

alternatives, we must assess our choices, and select one design
for further preliminary and detailed design. Keep in mind, for a
design alternative to be valid, it must satisfy the design
requirements (i.e. fulfill the design functions).

February 15, 2019 | 38

Picking a winner

Having followed a creative process to generate design

alternatives, we must assess our choices, and select one design
for further preliminary and detailed design. Keep in mind, for a
design alternative to be valid, it must satisfy the design
requirements (i.e. fulfill the design functions).
This leaves the evaluation of design objectives and related
constraints. While constraints must be satisfied, and metrics can
be evaluated, the selection process may be considered less
rigorous than the satisfaction of design requirements.

February 15, 2019 | 39

Evaluating design alternatives

There are a few techniques by which we compare designs in a

somewhat objective manner:
Numerical evaluation matrix: a comparison using metrics scores
Priority benchmark chart: a weighted ranking of objectives with
binary evaluation of metrics.
Best-of-class chart: a ranking of solutions on an objective-by-
objective basis.

February 15, 2019 | 40

Numerical evaluation matrix

A numerical evaluation matrix for a cold beverage container

design problem.

February 15, 2019 | 41

Priority benchmark chart

• A priority benchmark chart for a cold beverage container

design problem

February 15, 2019 | 42

Best-of-class chart

• For a best-of-class chart, all designs are evaluated for their

satisfaction of an objective, and then ranked in order of metric
score, with the best design receiving a 1 point, the next 2
points, and so on. Ties are allowed, with the tied designs
sharing the available points (tied for second, both score 2.5)

February 15, 2019 | 43

Best-of-class chart

• For a best-of-class chart, all designs are evaluated for their

satisfaction of an objective, and then ranked in order of metric
score, with the best design receiving a 1 point, the next 2
points, and so on. Ties are allowed, with the tied designs
sharing the available points (tied for second, both score 2.5).
• The remaining objectives are evaluated in a similar fashion
and summed for all designs. The design with the lowest
possible score is considered to be the best design choice.

February 15, 2019 | 44

Best-of-class chart

February 15, 2019 | 45