Unit II

Overview of Sensors, Transducers and their Characteristics Specifications

2.1 Specifications related to selection criteria for force, pressure, temperature and
motion.
2.2 Classification and selection of transducers
2.3 Force
2.4 Pressure
2.5 Motion
2.6 Temperature
2.7 Introduction to MEMS and Nano Sensor
2.1 Specifications related to selection criterion for force, pressure, temperature, and motion
(Rotary and Linear)

Compatibility
It is particularly important to ensure compatibility between the pressure or force sensor and the
application in which it is used.
The following should be considered before a sensor selection is made:
(1) material.
(2) chemicals.
(3) concentration.
(4) temperature.
(5) exposure time.
(6) type of exposure.
(7) criteria for failure.
(8) general information such as application environment, protection of the device, and other foreign
substances in the area
Sensitivity temperature shift is the change in sensitivity due to change in temperature. Change in
temperature will cause a change in the slope of the sensor output curve

Figure 1. Sensitivity Shift error

Linearity error is the deviation of the sensor output curve from a specified straight line over a desired
pressure range. One method of computing linearity error is least squares, which mathematically
provides a best fit straight line (B.F.S.L.) to the data points.
 Figure 2. Linearity error
Hysteresis error is usually expressed as a combination of mechanical hysteresis and temperature
hysteresis. MICRO SWITCH expresses hysteresis as a combination of the two effects

Figure 3. Hysteresis
2.2 Classification and selection of transducers
The name of each class is keyed to the transduction mechanism, but its explanation is given along
with the description of the transducer. The instrumentation technologist to select the transducer most
suitable for the measurand of choice. Moreover, cross indexing to the literature in the reference
section is provided, wherever required, to the transducer class-measurand combination.

 Fiberoptic transducers.
 Surface-profiling transducers (SPT).
 Wave-propagation transducers (WPT).
 Intravascular imaging and Doppler transducers.
 Surface acoustic wave (SAW) transducers.
 Acoustooptic (AO) transducers.
 Hall-effect transducers.
 ChemFET transducers.

Selection of Transducers Research and development in the transducer industry has traditionally
been very productive. One of the most successful improvements in transducers is the
incorporation of integrated circuits for signal conditioning, with the basic transducer unit. These
are known as smart transducers.

When selecting a transducer, in addition to the question of cost, careful attention must be given to
the following (i)Sensitivity Output impedance (ii)Range Power requirements (iii)Physical
properties Noise (iv)Atomic and surface profiles (v)Gas concentration and pH (vi)pH and partial
pressures of O2 and CO2in blood (vii)Infrared radiation (viii)Torque (ix)Magnetic fields
(x)Acoustic fields (xi)Medical imaging (xii)Nondestructive testing (xiii)Audio fields and noise
(xiv)Rotation and guidance

2.3 Force
Load Cell
Load cells are transducers intended for measurement of pressure, load and force.

Principle:

Strain gauge load cell measures load in terms of unit strain. The strain gauge load cell consists of a
structure that deforms when subjected to a force and a strain gauge network that produces electrical
signal proportional to this deformation.

Construction:
The important part of the load cell is the bonded -foil strain guage which is extremely sensitive
device, whose electrical resistance in direct proportion to the applied force.

The load cell comprises an elastic element. The element may take many forms such as hollow or solid
column, cantilever, diaphragm or ring. The design element is dependent on the load range, type of
loading and operational requirements.

The gauges are bonded on to the element to measure the strains generated. Multiple gauges are used
to measure true average of strains.

Cantilever Beam type Load cell

Cantilever beam type load cell are used for measuring lower loads upto 10 kg.

A simple cantilever beam serves as the elastic member . Two strain guages on the top surface and two
strain guages on the bottom surface act as sensor.

A force F is applied at a distance L from the fixed end as shown in Figure 4

Figure 4. Cantilever beam load cell

A bending moment proportional to the force is developed in the beam . The tensile strains developed
on the top are sensed by strain guages 1 and 3 while compressive strains developed at the bottom
strains developed at the bottom are sensed by strain guages 2 and 4.

The strain guages are connected into a wheatstone bridge in Figure 5.

Figure 5. Wheatstone’s bridge

2.4 Pressure
Strain Gauge
The strain gauge consists of an insulating flexible backing that supports a metallic foil pattern. The
gauge is attached to the object under stress using an adhesive. The deformation in the object causes the
foil to get distorted which ultimately changes the electrical resistivity of the foil. This change in
resistivity is measured by a Wheatstone bridge which is related to strain by a quantity called, Gauge
Factor.
 Figure 6. Strain Gauge

A strain gauge depends on the electrical resistivity of any conductor. The resistance in any conducting
device is dependent on its length as well as the cross-section area.

Suppose L1 is the original length of wire and L2 is the new length after an external force is applied on
it, the strain (ε) is given by the formula:

ε = (L2-L1)/L1 -------------------(1)

Now, whenever an external force changes the physical parameters of an object, its electrical resistivity

also changes. A strain gauge measures this deformity by using the Gauge Factor formula.

As soon as the force is exerted, the strain gauge is deformed and, this deformation causes a change in

its electrical resistance which ultimately changes the output voltage.

The Gauge Factor is the sensitivity coefficient of strain gauges and, is given by the formula:

GF = [ΔR / (RG * ε)]---------------------(2)

Where,

ΔR = Change in the resistance caused due to strain

RG = resistance of the undeformed gauge

ε = Strain

The output voltage of the Wheatstone Bridge, SV is given by the formula:

SV = {EV x [(GF x ε)/4]}

Where,

EV is the bridge excitation voltage

Figure 7. Wheatstone’s bridge

A Wheatstone Bridge is a network of four resistors with an excitation voltage,Vexthat is applied across
the bridge. The Wheatstone Bridge is the electrical equivalent of two parallel voltage divider circuits
with R1 and R2 as one of them and R3and R4as the other one.

The output of the Wheatstone circuit is given by:

Vo = [(R3/R3+R4) — (R2/R1+2)] * Vex

Whenever R1/ R2 = R4/ R3, the output voltage Vo is zero and the bridge is said to be balanced. Any
change in the values of R1, R2, R3, and R4 will, therefore, change the output voltage. If you replace
the R4 resistor with a strain gauge, even a minor change in its resistance will change the output voltage
Vex which is a function of strain.

Piezoelectric:
 Figure 8. Piezoelectric

Piezoelectric pressure sensors are often constructed in a threaded tube (as shown in the diagram below) to make
it easy to mount them in equipment where pressure is to be monitored. Care is needed when installing these
because over-tightening can affect the output sensitivity.

In some of the typical applications of piezoelectric sensors, they may be exposed to thermal shock (a sudden
change in temperature) caused by either radiant heat or the flow of hot gases or liquids past the sensor.

This can cause changes to the output due to heating of the crystal, the diaphragm or the casing of the sensor.
Note that this is not the same as the static temperature sensitivity of the sensor.

The effects of thermal shock can be minimised by the design of the enclosure and mounting the sensor to
provide isolation.

Because the piezoelectric materials are rigid, only a small deflection of the material is required to get
a usable output signal. This makes the sensors very robust and tolerant of over-pressure conditions. It
also means they respond rapidly to changes in pressure.

The pressure sensor can be affected by any external force on the piezoelectric element, for example,
by forces caused by acceleration or noise.

The output is linear over a wide range, typically 0.7 KPa to 70 MPa (0.1 to 10000 psi) with an accuracy of about
1%.

There may also be a small loss in sensitivity when first exposed to high pressure and temperature. The effects of
this can be avoided by cycling the sensor through the maximum expected pressure and temperature before
deploying them.

The frequency response of a piezoelectric sensor drops off at low frequencies because the generated charge
cannot be retained.
At high frequencies there is a peak corresponding to the resonant frequency of the piezoelectric element. The
sensor is normally used within the flat region of the response curve between these two extremes as shown in the
figure.

Figure 9. Frequency response of photoelectric effect.

Applications

 The robustness, high frequency and rapid response time of piezoelectric pressure sensors
mean they can be used in a wide range of industrial and aerospace applications where they
will be exposed to high temperatures and pressures.
 They are often used for measuring dynamic pressure, for example in turbulence, blast, and
engine combustion. These all require fast response, ruggedness, and a wide range of
operation.
 Their sensitivity and low power consumption also make them useful for some medical
applications. For example, a thin-film plastic sensor can be attached to the skin and used for
real-time monitoring of the arterial pulse. 

2.5 Motion

Rotary and Linear motions:

One method of determining a position, is to use either “distance”, which could be the distance
between two points such as the distance travelled or moved away from some fixed point, or by
“rotation” (angular movement). For example, the rotation of a robots wheel to determine its distance
travelled along the ground. Either way, Position Sensors can detect the movement of an object in a
straight line using Linear Sensors or by its angular movement using Rotational Sensors.

Potentiometer(Linear Sensor)
 Figure 10. Potentiometer
The output signal (Vout) from the potentiometer is taken from the centre wiper
connection as it moves along the resistive track and is proportional to the angular position of the shaft.

Figure 11. Example of a simple Positional Sensing Circuit

The most used of all the “Position Sensors”, is the potentiometer because it is an inexpensive and easy
to use position sensor.

While resistive potentiometer position sensors have many advantages: low cost, low tech, easy to use
etc, as a position sensor they also have many disadvantages: wear due to moving parts, low accuracy,
low repeatability, and limited frequency response.

But there is one main disadvantage of using the potentiometer as a positional sensor. The range of
movement of its wiper or slider and hence the output signal obtained is limited to the physical size of

the potentiometer being used.

For high precision low noise applications conductive plastic resistance element type polymer film or
cermet type potentiometers are now available. These pots have a smooth low friction electrically
linear (LIN) resistive track giving them a low noise, long life and excellent resolution and are
available as both multi-turn and single turn devices. 
Rotary Encoders are another type of position sensor which resemble potentiometers but are non-
contact optical devices used for converting the angular position of a rotating shaft into an analogue or
digital data code. In other words, they convert mechanical movement into an electrical signal.

The output of Rotary Encoder is a series of square wave pulses generated by a photocell arrangement
as the coded disk, with evenly spaced transparent and dark lines called segments on its surface,
moves, or rotates past the light source. The encoder produces a stream of square wave pulses which,
when counted, indicates the angular position of the rotating shaft.

Incremental encoders have two separate outputs called “quadrature outputs”. These two outputs are
displaced at 90o out of phase from each other with the direction of rotation of the shaft being
determined from the output sequence.

Figure 12. Incremental encoder

By using the Arc Tangent mathematical function the angle of the shaft in radians can be calculated.
Generally, the optical disk used in rotary position encoders is circular, then the resolution of the
output will be given as: θ = 360/n, where n equals the number of segments on coded disk.

Then for example, the number of segments required to give an incremental encoder a resolution of
1o will be: 1o = 360/n, therefore, n = 360 windows, etc. Also the direction of rotation is determined by
noting which channel produces an output first, either channel A or channel B giving two directions of
rotation, A leads B or B leads A. This arrangement is shown below.
Proximity sensors Inductive

Figure 13. Inductive proximity sensor

An inductive proximity sensor has four main components; The oscillator which produces the
electromagnetic field, the coil which generates the magnetic field, the detection circuit which detects
any change in the field when an object enters it and the output circuit which produces the output
signal, either with normally closed (NC) or normally open (NO) contacts.
Inductive proximity sensors allow for the detection of metallic objects in front of the sensor head
without any physical contact of the object itself being detected. This makes them ideal for use in dirty
or wet environments. The “sensing” range of proximity sensors is small, typically 0.1mm to 12mm.

Inductive proximity sensors are also commonly used to control the flow of traffic by changing of
traffic lights at junctions and crossroads.

Capacitive Proximity sensors:

Capacitive proximity sensors are non-contact devices that can detect the presence or absence of
virtually any object regardless of material.  They utilize the electrical property of capacitance and the
change of capacitance based on a change in the electrical field around the active face of the sensor.

Figure 14. Capacitive Proximity sensor

A capacitive sensor acts like a simple capacitor.  A metal plate in the sensing face of the sensor is
electrically connected to an internal oscillator circuit and the target to be sensed acts as the second
plate of the capacitor.  Unlike an inductive sensor that produces an electromagnetic field a capacitive
sensor produces an electrostatic field.

The external capacitance between the target and the internal sensor plate forms a part of the feedback
capacitance in the oscillator circuit.  As the target approaches the sensors face the oscillations increase
until they reach a threshold level and activate the output.

There are two categories of targets that capacitive sensors can detect the first being conductive and the
second is non-conductive.  Conductive targets include metal, water, blood, acids, bases, and salt
water.  These targets have a greater capacitance and a targets dielectric strength is immaterial
 The non-conductive target category acts like an insulator to the sensors electrode.  A targets dielectric
constant also sometimes referred to as dielectric constant is the measure of the insulation properties
used to determine the reduction factor of the sensing distance.  

Magnetic Proximity sensors

Magnetic proximity sensors are used for non-contact position detection beyond the normal limits of
inductive sensors. In conjunction with a separate “damping” magnet, magnetic sensors offer long sensing
ranges from a small package size and can detect magnets through walls of non-ferrous metal, stainless
steel, aluminum, plastic or wood.

 Depending on the orientation of the magnetic field the sensor can be damped from the front or from the
side. Since magnetic fields penetrate all non-magnetisable materials, these sensors can detect magnets
through walls made of non-ferrous metal, stainless steel, aluminum, plastic or wood.

Features:

 Detection through plastic, wood, and any non-magnetisable metals

 Small housings with very long sensing ranges up to 70 mm

 Cylinder and rectangular designs satisfy space-dependent applications

 High mechanical stability in case of shock or vibration

 Flush or non-flush installation in non-magnetisable metals

Operating Principle

Magnetic sensors use GMR (Giant Magneto-Resistive Effect) technology. The measuring cell consists
of resistors with several extremely fine, ferromagnetic and non-magnetic layers. Two of these GMR
resistors are used to form a conventional Wheatstone bridge circuit which produces a large signal
proportional to the magnetic field when a magnetic field is present. A threshold value is defined, and
an output signal is switched via a comparator.

Source detectors in optical proximity sensors:

Optical proximity sensors generally cost more than inductive proximity sensors, and about the same as
capacitive sensors. They are widely used in automated systems because they have been available longer and
because some can fit into small locations. These sensors are more commonly known as light beam sensors of
the thru-beam type or of the retro reflective type. Both sensor types are shown below.

Figure 15. Optical proximity sensor

A complete optical proximity sensor includes a light source, and a sensor that detects the light. The light
source is supplied because it is usually critical that the light be "tailored" for the light sensor system. The light
source generates light of a frequency that the light sensor is best able to detect, not generated by other nearby
sources. Infra-red light is used in most optical sensors.

The light sensor in the optical proximity sensor is typically a semiconductor device such as a photodiode,
which generates a small current when light energy strikes it, or more commonly a phototransistor or a photo-
Darlington that allows current to flow if light strikes it.

Light sensors used photoconductive materials that became better conductors, and thus allowed current to pass,
when light energy struck them.  Sensor control circuitry is also required. The control circuitry may have to
match the pulsing frequency of the transmitter with the light sensor.

Control circuitry is also often used to switch the output circuit at a certain light level. Light beam sensors that
output voltage or current proportional to the received light level is available.

Through beam type sensors are usually used to signal the presence of an object that blocks light. If they have
adjustable switching levels, they can be used, for example, to detect whether bottles are filled by the amount of
light that passes through the bottle.

  Retroflective type light sensors have the transmitter and receiver in the same package. They detect targets that
reflect light back to the sensor. Retroreflective sensors that are focused to recognize targets within only a
limited distance range are also available

Comparison of various proximity sensors:

2.6 Temperature

Optical Fibre and its use in temperature measurement

The most prevalent methods are fluorescent and radiation thermometry, also known as pyrometry.
Fluorescent temperature measurement is used for lower-range measurements from -200°C to +450°C.

Pyrometry best covers ranges from100°C to 4,000°C based on the physics of Planck’s black body
radiation equation.

As higher quality in products and tighter process control become critical, so does the production use
of sapphire fiber optic temperature measurement. The use of sapphire light pipes to collect hot-object-
emission is becoming the industry standard for many industrial processes.

Fibre Optic Temperature sensors

Glass fibres are robust, suitable for everyday use and easy to install due to their small diameter. The
systems are superior in situations where the weight or a high level of flexibility counts to reach
inaccessible places or where you need many spots distributed across the fibre. A single fibre,
weighing just a few grams, can therefore contain hundreds of sensors and serve as a signal path at the
same time. Temperature profiles, for example, also provide you with support in

 process monitoring in tube reactors (process engineering)

 core drilling analyses (geodesy)
 detecting leaks in cable shafts or on pipelines (safety engineering, fire protection)

Glass fibers are completely insensitive to electromagnetic radiation such as HF waves or microwaves.
So, unlike electrical systems, they can also be used at high voltage potentials, in potentially explosive
atmospheres and in chemically aggressive environments without any risk.

The single-point sensor, which is located at the tip of the fiber as a low-cost solution, is characteristic
especially for temperature measurement.

Ultrasonic Transducers for applications as position, level, flow measurement. 

Position:

The TDC1000 is ideal for many sensing applications, and some of the most common involve
managing fluids. Figure 5 shows a diagram for detecting fluid level in a container. Ultrasonic sensors
are mounted on the bottom or top of the tank to determine the level of the fluid. The TDC1000,
ultrasonic AFE, excites the non-intrusive transducer with 1 to 31 pulses. The sensor continuously
transmits pulses of high frequencies (typically 1 MHz) into the fluid. Then the TDC1000 reports the
time-of-flight (TOF) that the wave takes to transmit to the liquid surface and reflect back to the
sensor. Referencing the speed of sound in the fluid and using the equation TOF = (2* fluid level) /
(fluid speed of sound), the exact distance of the liquid surface from the sensor can be calculated with
high accuracy. For example, assume that the transducer is mounted at the bottom of a water tank, and
the TDC1000 reports a TOF of 1 ms. Knowing that the speed of sound through water is
approximately 1480 m/s at 25°C, the fluid level can be calculated as:

Figure 16. Fluid level measurement using Ultrasonic.

Level

Fluid ID is the same as fluid level detection, except that the sensor is typically mounted on the side of
the tank, as shown in Figure 6. Again, the TDC1000 excites the sensor, and then it reports the time the
wave takes to transmit and reflect back. Since the exact distance is known, and time-of-flight (TOF) is
measured, the speed of sound through the fluid can be calculated and checked against a look-up-table
to identify the fluid. For example, assume the distance of the tank is 0.1m and TDC1000 reports a
TOF of 134µs, we can calculate the fluid speed of sound as
 Figure 17. Fluid Identification / Concentration using Ultrasonic

Another key application – especially in the energy market – is flow metering.

For this application, the transducers can be mounted non-intrusively side-by-side (Figure 18), or at opposite
angles. The TDC1000 excites both sensors, and reports the difference of the transit time propagating in – and
against – flow direction. Transducer A operates as a transmitter during the upstream cycle and as a receiver
during the downstream cycle, and transducer B operates as a receiver during the upstream cycle and as a
transmitter during the downstream cycle. An ultrasonic flow meter operates by alternating transmit and receive
cycles between the pair of transducers and accurately measuring the time-of-flight (TOF) of both directions.
Accuracy is very important for zero flow measurements, and thus, picosecond time capture is critical. For this
reason, the TDC7200 time-to-digital converter is introduced as a stop watch device. Other applications that do
not require picosecond accuracy can just use an MCU as the time-to-digital converter.

Figure 18. Flow meter using Ultrasonic

Gas/Wind Sensor:
Gyroscope:
Gyroscope sensors are also called as Angular Rate Sensor or Angular Velocity Sensors. These sensors
are installed in the applications where the orientation of the object is difficult to sense by humans.

Measured in degrees per second, angular velocity is the change in the rotational angle of the object
per unit of time.

Gyroscope sensors can also measure the motion of the object. For more robust and accurate motion
sensing, in consumer electronics Gyroscope sensors are combined with Accelerometer sensors.

In this sensor to measure the angular rate, the rotation rate of the sensor is converted into an electrical
signal. Working principle of Gyroscope sensor can be understood by observing the working of
Vibration Gyroscope sensor.

This sensor consists of an internal vibrating element made up of crystal material in the shape of a
double – T- structure. This structure comprises a stationary part in the centre with ‘Sensing Arm’
attached to it and ‘Drive Arm’ on both sides.

This double-T-structure is symmetrical. When an alternating vibration electrical field is applied to the
drive arms, continuous lateral vibrations are produced. As Drive arms are symmetrical, when one arm
moves to left the other moves to the right, thus cancelling out the leaking vibrations. This keeps the
stationary part at the centre and sensing arm remains static.

When the external rotational force is applied to the sensor vertical vibrations are caused on Drive
arms. This leads to the vibration of the Drive arms in the upward and downward directions due to
which a rotational force acts on the stationary part in the centre.

Gyroscope Sensor in Mobile

To facilitate a good user experience nowadays smartphones are embedded with various types of
sensors. These sensors also provide phone information about its surroundings and also helps in
increased battery life.

With the help of gyroscope in the smartphone, we can detect motion and gestures with our phones.
Smartphones usually have an electronic version of the Vibration Gyroscope sensor.
 Figure 19. Gyroscope

Accelerometer:

They have two fundamental parts: A housing attachment to the object whose acceleration we want to
measure, and a mass that, while tethered to the housing, can still move, Here, it's a spring with a
heavy metal ball. If you move the housing up, the ball lags behind stretching the spring. If we measure
how much that spring stretches, we can calculate the force of gravity. You can easily see that three of
these could determine the orientation of a three-dimensional object. While lying with the z-axis
perpendicular to gravity, only the ball on the x-axis spring shows extension. Turn this on its side so
that z-axis points up and only the accelerometer along the spring on that axis stretches.

Rotation of the stationary part leads to the vertical vibrations in sensing arms. These vibrations caused
in the sensing arm are measured as a change in electrical charge. This change is used to measure the
external rotational force applied to the sensor as Angular rotation

Inside the chip, engineers have created a tiny accelerometer out of silicon. It has, of course, a housing
that's fixed to the phone, and a comb-like section that can move back and forth. That's the seismic
mass equivalent to the ball. The spring in this case is the flexibility of the thin silicon tethering to the
housing. If we can measure the motion of this central section we can detect changes in orientation.
Magnetometer

The magnetometer sensor in your tablet or smartphone also utilizes the modern solid state technology
to create a miniature Hall-effect sensor that detects the Earth's magnetic field along three
perpendicular axes X, Y and Z. The Hall-effect sensor produces voltage which is proportional to the
strength and polarity of the magnetic field along the axis each sensor is directed. The sensed voltage is
converted to digital signal representing the magnetic field intensity.  Other technologies used for
magnetometer may include magneto resistive devices which change the measured resistance based on
changes in the magnetic field.

The magnetometer is enclosed in a small electronic chip that often incorporate another sensor
(typically a built- in accelerometer) that help to correct the raw magnetic measurements using tilt
information from the auxiliary sensor. 

Smart Sensors:
A smart sensor is a device that takes input from the physical environment and uses built-in compute
resources to perform predefined functions upon detection of specific input and then process data before
passing it on.

The smart sensor is also a crucial and integral element in the Internet of Things (IoT), the increasingly
prevalent environment in which almost anything imaginable can be outfitted with a unique identifier (UID)
and the ability to transmit data over the Internet or a similar network. One implementation of smart sensors
is as components of a wireless sensor and actuator network (WSAN) whose nodes can number in the
thousands, each of which is connected with one or more other sensors and sensor hubs as well as individual
actuators.
Smart sensors enhance the following applications:
– Self-calibration: Adjust deviation of o/p of sensor form
– Communication: Broadcast information about its own status
– Cloud Support: Access big data analytics and machine learning algorithms.
– Computation: Allows one to obtain the average, variance and standard deviation of the set of
measurements.
– Multi-sensing: A single smart sensor can measure pressure, temperature, humidity, gas flow and
infrared, chemical reaction, surface, acoustic, vapor and more.
– Cost effective: less hardware and reduction of repetitive testing make smart sensors cost effective.

Radiation Sensors:
 Radiation is energy traveling in the form of particles or waves in bundles of energy called photons.
Some everyday examples are microwaves used to cook food, radio waves for radio and television,
light, and x-rays used in medicine.

Radioactivity is a natural and spontaneous process by which the unstable atoms of an element emit or
radiate excess energy in the form of particles or waves. These emissions are collectively called
ionizing radiations. Depending on how the nucleus loses this excess energy either a lower energy
atom of the same form will result, or a completely different nucleus and atom can be formed.

Ionization is a characteristic of the radiation produced when radioactive elements decay. These radiations
are of such high energy that when they interact with materials, they can remove electrons from the atoms in
the material. This effect is the reason why ionizing radiation is hazardous to health and provides the means
by which radiation can be detected.

Figure 20. Gas Filled detector

GAS FILLED DETECTOR:

 This instrument works on the principle that as radiation passes through air or a specific gas,
ionization of the molecules in the air occur.
 When a high voltage is placed between two areas of the gas filled space, the positive ions will be
attracted to the negative side of the detector (the cathode) and the free electrons will travel to the
positive side (the anode).
 These charges are collected by the anode and cathode which then form a very small current in the
wires going to the detector.
 By placing a very sensitive current measuring device between the wires from the cathode and anode,
the small current is measured and displayed as a signal.
 The more radiation which enters the chamber, the more current is displayed by the instrument.
  Many types of gas-filled detectors exist, but the two most common are the ion chamber used for
measuring large amounts of radiation and the Geiger-Muller or GM detector used to measure small
amounts of radiation.

Film sensor

Figure 21. Film Sensor

The thin film sensors introduced are initially based on an electrically insulating layer completely covering
the body. By this layer, an electrical separation of the metallic and therefore electrically conducting
deformation element from the following metallic sensor layer is achieved. If needed, a top layer can be
applied to protect the sensor against environmental influences. The complete film system is depicted in Fig..
To achieve the conductive paths and, thereby, the geometry of the sensor pattern, the second layer (i.e., the
sensor layer) is structured by photolithography. Consequently, there is no need for an adhesive layer and
backing material, as is the case when using foil gauges. This makes the thin film sensor thinner by about 3
orders of magnitude.

IR temperature sensor:
Infrared (IR) temperature sensors enable accurate non-contact temperature measurement in medical
applications. The most common applications for this type of temperature sensor is measuring ear
temperature, forehead temperature, or skin temperature.  The sensing element is composed of multiple
thermocouples on a silicon chip to measure an object's infrared energy. 

2.7 MEMS& Nano Sensors

 Polysilicon springs suspend the MEMS structure above the substrate such that the body of the
sensor (also known as the proof mass) can move in the X and Y axes. Acceleration causes
deflection of the proof mass from its centre position. Around the four sides of the square
proof mass are 32 sets of radial fingers.

These fingers are positioned between plates that are fixed to the substrate. Each finger and
pair of fixed plates make up a differential capacitor, and the deflection of the proof mass is
 determined by measuring the differential capacitance.

This sensing method has the ability of sensing both dynamic acceleration (i.e. shock or
vibration) and static acceleration (i.e. inclination or gravity).
 The differential capacitance is measured using synchronous modulation/demodulation
techniques. After amplification, the X and Y axis acceleration signals each go through a
32KOhm resistor to an output pin (Cx and Cy) and a duty cycle modulator (the overall
architecture can be seen in the block diagram in Figure 3). The user may limit the bandwidth,
and thereby lower the noise floor, by adding a capacitor at the Cx and Cy pin.
 The output signals are voltage proportional to acceleration and pulse-width-modulation
(PWM) proportional to acceleration.
Using the PWM outputs, the user can interface the ADXL2O2 directly to the digital inputs of
a microcontroller using a counter to decode the PWM.

Nanosensor:

Nanosensors are chemical or mechanical sensors that can be used to detect the presence of chemical
species and nanoparticles, or monitor physical parameters such as temperature, on the nanoscale.”
They find use in medical diagnostic applications, food and water quality sensing, and other chemicals.

An analyte, sensor, transducer and detector are the components of a sensor system, with feedback
from the detector to the sensor. Sensitivity, specificity and ease of execution are the main goals in
designing a sensor.

Nanosensors typically work by monitoring electrical changes in the sensor materials.

For example, carbon nanotube-based sensors work in this way. When a molecule of nitrogen dioxide
(NO2) is present, it will strip an electron from the nanotube, which in turn causes the nanotube to be
less conductive.

If ammonia (NO3) is present, it reacts with water vapor and donates an electron to the carbon
nanotube, making it more conductive. By treating the nanotubes with various coating materials, they
can be made sensitive to certain molecules and immune to others.

Like chemical nanosensors, mechanical nanosensors also tend to measure electrical changes. The
nanosensors used in the MEMS systems that car airbags depend upon are monitoring changes in
capacitance. These systems have a miniscule weighted shaft attached to a capacitor. The shaft bends
with changes in acceleration and this is measured as changes in capacitance.

Rotary Optical Encoder 

The optical rotary encoder output is binary; it is either light or dark.
An optical rotary encoder has a moving disk, with concentric tracks etched into the disk. Periodically,
these tracks have an opening, called a window. The windows of every track are offset, so that each
revolution of the optical rotary encoder has a different light/dark pattern.

On the other side of the optical rotary encoder is the mask, which is usually connected directly to a
sensor, to increase the resolution. The mask, like the disk, is also grooved with corresponding tracks
and windows. As the light source shines through the moving disk onto the mask of the optical rotary
encoder, the different, unique light patterns illuminate the sensor.

Each optical rotary encoder track contains one or two sensors. Each sensor outputs its individual
signal, and the sensors outputs are slightly offset from each other, creating slightly offset outputs. The
two offset signals interact differently with the light source, creating a unique optical rotary encoder
pattern. The pattern is the quadrature.

Since each arc revolution has a completely different pattern, an optical rotary encoder can be
exceptionally accurate.

Figure 22. Rotary Optical Encoder.

. 

References:

1. MECHATRONICS: INTEGRATED MECHANICAL ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS

Book by G.K. Vijayaraghavan and K. P. Ramachandran
2. Fundamentals and applications by Clarence W.de Silva, Farbod Khoshnoud.
3. Essentials of mechatronics
Book by J. Billingsley
4. Mechatronics by V S Bhagad.