Short questions

1. What do you mean by organizational behavior?

“Organisational behaviour is a subset of management activities concerned with understanding,
predicting and influencing individual behaviour in organisational setting.”—Callahan, Fleenor and
Kudson.

SIX important employee behaviors that managers are specifically concerned with explaining,
predicting, and influencing include the following:
Employee productivity—a performance measure of both work efficiency and effectiveness. Managers
want to know what factors will influence the efficiency and effectiveness of employees.
Absenteeism—the failure to show up for work. It’s difficult for work to get done if employees don’t
show up. Studies have shown that the total of all major types of absences cost organizations an
average 35 percent of payroll, with unscheduled absences costing companies around $660 per
employee per year.1 Although absenteeism can’t be totally eliminated, excessive levels have a direct
and immediate impact on the organization’s functioning.
Turnover—the voluntary and involuntary permanent withdrawal from an organization. It can be a
problem because of increased recruiting, selection, training costs, and work disruptions. Just like
absenteeism, managers can never eliminate turnover, but it is something they want to minimize,
especially among high-performing employees.

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Organizational citizenship behavior—discretionary behavior that’s not part of an employee’s formal
job requirements, but which promotes the effective functioning of the organization.2 Examples of good
OCB include helping others on one’s work team, volunteering for extended job activities, avoiding
unnecessary conflicts, and making constructive statements about one’s work group and the
organization. Organizations need individuals who will do more than their usual job duties and the
evidence indicates that organizations that have such employees outperform those that don’t.3
However, drawbacks to OCB arise if employees experience work overload, stress, and work-family
conflicts.4
Job satisfaction—an employee’s general attitude toward his or her job. Although job satisfaction is an
attitude rather than a behavior, it’s an outcome that concerns many managers because satisfied
employees are more likely to show up for work, have higher levels of performance, and stay with an
organization.
Workplace misbehavior—any intentional employee behavior that is potentially harmful to the
organization or individuals within the organization. Workplace misbehavior shows up in organizations
in four ways: deviance, aggression, antisocial behavior, and violence.5 Such behaviors can range from
playing loud music just to irritate coworkers, to verbal aggression, to sabotaging work, all of which can
create havoc in any organization.
2. Explain MBIT (Myers-briggs Type Indicator) ?
The Meyers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is an instrument designed to evaluate people and provide
descriptive profiles of their personality types. Based on the theories of psychologist Carl Jung, it is
widely used in the fields of business, education, and psychology.
The MBTI system begins with a test in which participants respond to questions that provide clues about
their basic outlook or personal preferences.
These responses are scored to see where
participants' preferences lie within four sets
of attributes: extroversion/introversion;
sensing/intuiting; thinking/feeling; and
judging/perceiving.

The attributes extroversion (E) and

introversion (I) indicate whether a participant
derives his or her mental energy primarily
from other people or from within. Similarly,
the attributes sensing (S) and intuiting (N)
explain whether a participant absorbs
information best through data and details or
through general patterns. The attributes
thinking (T) and feeling (F) show whether a
participant tends to make decisions based on
logic and objective criteria or based on

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emotional intelligence. Finally, the attributes judging (J) and perceiving (P) indicate whether a
participant makes decisions quickly or prefers to take a more casual approach and leave his or her
options open.

3. Which type of skill is required for manager for smooth functioning of Organization?
Management skills can be defined as certain attributes or abilities that an executive should possess in
order to fulfill specific tasks in an organization. They include the capacity to perform executive duties in
an organization while avoiding crisis situations and promptly solving problems when they occur.
Management skills can be developed through learning and practical experience as a manager. The skills
help the manager to relate with their fellow co-workers and know how to deal well with their
subordinates, which allows for the easy flow of activities in the organization.
Types of Management Skills
According to American social and organizational psychologist Robert Katz, the three basic types of
management skills include:
1. Technical Skills involve skills that give the managers the
ability and the knowledge to use a variety of techniques to
achieve their objectives. These skills not only involve operating
machines and software, production tools, and pieces of
equipment but also the skills needed to boost sales, design
different types of products and services, and market the
services and the products.
2. Conceptual Skills -These involve the skills managers present
in terms of the knowledge and ability for abstract thinking and
formulating ideas. The manager is able to see an entire
concept, analyze and diagnose a problem, and find creative
solutions. This helps the manager to effectively predict hurdles their department or the business as a
whole may face.
3. Human or Interpersonal Skills The human or the interpersonal skills are the skills that present the
managers’ ability to interact, work or relate effectively with people. These skills enable the managers to
make use of human potential in the company and motivate the employees for better results.
4. Explain the term Perception?
Perception can be defined as “the process of receiving, selecting, organizing, interpreting, checking,
and reacting to sensory stimuli or data.”
According to S. P. Robbins, perception can be defined as “the process by which individuals organize
and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environments.”
According to Joseph Reitz; “Perception includes all those processes by which an individual receives
information about his environment—seeing, hearing, feeling, tasting and smelling.”
According to B. V. H. Gilmer, “Perception is the process of becoming aware of situations, of adding
meaningful associations to sensations.”

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Perception not only creates our experience of the world around us; it allows us to act within our
environment.
1. Perception is very important in understanding human behavior because every person perceives the
world and approaches life problems differently. Whatever we see or feel is not necessarily the same as
it really is. When we buy something, it is not because it is the best, but because we take it to be the
best.
2. If people behave on the basis of their perception, we can predict their behavior in the changed
circumstances by understanding their present perception of the environment. One person may be
viewing the facts in one way which may be different from the facts as seen by another viewer.
3. With the help of perception, the needs of various people can be determined, because people’s
perception is influenced by their needs.
4. Perception is very important for the manager who wants to avoid making errors when dealing
with people and events in the work setting. This problem is made more complicated by the fact
that different people perceive the same situation differently. In order to deal with the subordinates
effectively, the managers must understand their perceptions properly.
5. Perception can be important because it offers more than objective output; it ingests an
observation and manufactures an altered reality enriched with previous experiences.
6. Perception builds character (not necessarily good or bad character) that defines different roles
individuals fall into the clown, the hypocrite, the self-righteous, the victim, etc..
7. It is vitally important if we want to get along with Others to try to see things from their
perspective or walk in their shoes for a while. If we walk in their shoes we will gain a new
perspective about things and in that understand the other and also can love and help the other
more appropriately.
Thus, for understanding human behavior, it is very important to understand their perception, that
is, how they perceive the different situations.
People’s behavior is based on their perceptions of what reality is, not on reality itself. The world as
it is perceived is the world that is important for understanding human behavior.
5. what do you mean by Personality?
Personality is defined as the characteristic set of behaviors, cognitions, and emotional
patterns that evolve from biological and environmental factors. The study of the psychology of
personality, called personality psychology, attempts to explain the tendencies that underlie
differences in behavior.
In another words Personality means the "way you speak"" how you behave"" what you think""which
you decide"" when you discuss". It reflects the mannerism and attitude of a person or a woman how
she behaves with the external world or internal world.
External world includes collaegues, friends, persons you deal with daily to earn a living.
Internal world includes family and for me it's only family alone.
Following are the three types of personality
1. Extrovert Personality :- This type has the tendency to live mostly outside the like to live with others.
Those individuals are highly socialized and have contact with outside people in the society. They want

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to join other groups who are more in number. These type of people are drivers, excessive drinkers,
smokers, robbers, thieves, wicked persons etc.
2. Introvert Personality :- Introvert is opposite to extrovert. Those people are always live alone in their
rooms and do not want to go outside. They have their own imaginary world. They are teachers,
scientists, thinkers and philosophers.
3. Ambivert Personality :- Between extrovert and introvert personalities there is a third one type called
ambivert. People belonging to this type enjoy both the groups and attend them. They have middle
mind and want to live in both parties. Sometimes they join outside people but sometimes they live in
their own rooms.
Personality Development Tips
 Should be a better listener
 Good conversation
 Be positive in outlook and attitude
 More reading and building interest
 Should be a good courteous
 Interaction with new people
 Helpful to other people
 Give respect if you want respect
 Confident about yourself
6. Defined the term group.
A group is a collection of individuals who have relations to one another that make them
interdependent to some significant degree. As so defined, the term group refers to a class of social
entities having in common the property of interdependence among their constituent members.
In another word a group can be defined as two or more interacting and interdependent individuals
who come together to achieve particular objectives. A group behavior can be stated as a course of
action a group takes as a family. For example: Strike.
Types of Groups
There are two types of groups an individual forms. They are formal groups and informal groups. Let us
know about these two groups.
Formal Groups
These are the type of work groups created by the
organization and have designated work assignments
and rooted tasks. The behavior of such groups is
directed toward achieving organizational goals. These
can be further classified into two sub-groups −
Command group − It is a group consisting of
individuals who report directly to the manager.
Interest group − It is a group formed by individuals
working together to achieve a specific objective.
Example − A group of workers working on a project
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and reporting to the same manager is considered as a command group. A group of friends chilling out
together is considered as interest group or say members of a club.
Informal Groups
These groups are formed with friendships and common interests. These can be further classified into
two sub-groups −
Task group − Those working together to finish a job or task is known as task group.
Friendship group − Those brought together because of their shared interests or common
characteristics is known as friendship group.
7. Meaning and causes of stress.
Stress is defined as “a state of psychological and physiological imbalance resulting from the disparity
between situational demand and the individual's ability and motivation to meet those needs.”
Dr. Hans Selye, one of the leading authorities on the concept of stress, described stress as “the rate of
all wear and tear caused by life.”
Stress can be positive or negative:
Stress is good when the situation offers an opportunity to a person to gain something. It acts as a
motivator for peak performance.
Stress is negative when a person faces social, physical, organizational and emotional problems.
The major causes of stress at work or in organization:
Career Concern: If an employee feels that he is very much
behind in the corporate ladder, then he may experience
stress. If he seems that there are no opportunities for self-
growth, he may experience stress. Hence, unfulfilled career
expectations are the significant source of stress.
Role Ambiguity: It occurs when the person doesn't know
what he is supposed to do, on the job. His tasks and
responsibilities are not clear. The employee is not sure what
he is expected to do. It creates confusion in the minds of
the worker and results in stress.
Rotating Work Shifts: Stress may occur in those individuals
who work on different work shifts. Employees may be
expected to work on day shift for some days and then on
the night shift. That may create problems in adjusting to the
shift timings, and it can affect not only personal life but also family life of the employee.
Role Conflict: It takes place when people have different expectations from the person performing a
particular role. It can also occur if the job is not as per expectation, or when a job demands a certain
type of behavior that is against the person's moral values.
Occupational Demands: Some jobs are more demanding than others. Jobs that involve risk, and danger
are more stressful. Research findings indicate, job that cause stress needs constant monitoring of
equipments and devices, unpleasant physical conditions, making decisions, etc.

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Lack of Participation in Decision-making: Many experienced employees feel that management should
consult them on matters affecting their jobs. In reality, the superiors hardly ask the concerned
employees before taking a decision. That develops a feeling of being neglected, which may lead to
stress.
Work Overload: Excessive workload leads to stress as it puts a person under tremendous pressure.
Work overload may take two different forms:
Qualitative work overload implies performing a job that is complicated or beyond the employee's
capacity.
Quantitative work overload is a result of many activities performed in a prescribed time.
Work Underload: In this, case, too little work or very easy work is expected on the part of the
employee. Doing less work or jobs of routine and simple nature would lead to monotony and boredom,
which can lead to stress.
Poor Working Conditions: Employees may be subject to poor working conditions. It would include bad
lighting and ventilation, unhygienic sanitation facilities, excessive noise, and dust, presence of toxic
gasses and fumes, inadequate safety measures, etc. All these unpleasant conditions create
physiological and psychological imbalance in humans thereby causing stress.
Lack of Group Cohesiveness: Every group is characterized by its cohesiveness, although they differ
widely in its degree. Individuals experience stress when there is no unity among work group members.
There are mistrust, jealousy, frequent quarrels, etc., in groups and this lead to stress to employees.
Interpersonal and Intergroup Conflict: These conflicts take place due to differences in perceptions,
attitudes, values and beliefs between two or more individuals and groups. Such conflicts can be a
source of stress for group members.
Organizational Changes: When changes occur, people have to adapt to those changes, and this may
cause stress. Stress is higher when changes are significant or unusual like transfer or adoption of new
technology.
Lack of Social Support: When individuals believe that they have the friendship and support of others at
work, their ability to cope with the effects of stress increases. If this kind of social support is not
available, then an employee experiences more stress.
8. What is Grapevine Communication? Types of Grapevine.
Grapevine Communication or Informal communication. If communication is done without maintaining
the formalities prescribed by the organization, it is called informal communication. The basis of
informal communication is personal or informal relationship between the members of a group. It is also
known as grapevine that takes place when the people of an organization or group, especially of same
level or rank gather or meet tighter and discuss informally. It has no definite pattern or direction
though it is largely horizontal in nature. It is a complex web of oral information flow linking all the
members of the organization. Definition of Grapevine Communication, Meaning of Grapevine
Communication, Types of Grapevine discussed below here-
According to Bovee and Others, “Grapevine is an informal interpersonal channel of information not
officially sanctioned by the organization.

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In the opinion of R.W. Griffin, “The grapevine is an informal communication network that can
permeate an organization.”
Newstrom and K. Davis said, “Grapevine is an informal system that arises spontaneously from the
social interaction of the organization.” Business Communication
Patterns or Types of Grapevine
The grapevine does not have any definite pattern or direction, though it is largely horizontal in nature.
It can be effective horizontally, vertically and even diagonally. Prof. Keith Davis, who has done some
research work on the nature of grapevine, has classified it into four basic types-
Single Strand Chain: The single strand chain involves the passing of information through a line of
persons to the ultimate recipient. In the figure, the person A tells B, who tells C, who tells D, and so on,
till the information has reached most of the persons involved or concerned. Grapevine Single Strand
Chain
Gossip Chain: In the gossip chain, one person seeks and tells the information to everyone. This chain is
just like the wheel where one person stays at the centre and the information passes along the spokes
of the wheel to others stationed on the rim. In the following figure, A is at the center and passes the
information to others staying on the rim of the wheel.

Probability Chain: The probability chain is a random

process in which someone transmits the information to
others in accordance with the laws of probability and then
these others tell still others in a similar way. This chain
may also be called random process. The probability chain
is shown below-Grapevine Probability Chain

Cluster Chain: In the cluster chain, a person tells the

information to the selected persons who may in turn relay
(pass) the information to other selected persons. Most of
the information communication follows this chain. Cluster
chain is shown in the following figure-Grapevine Cluster
Chain So we find four major patterns of grapevine
available in different organizations. They are not mutually
exclusive rather than inclusive. There is more information
about What is Horizontal Communication in Business?
Importance.
9. Discus the meaning of Leadership.
Leadership is a process by which an executive can direct, guide and influence the behavior and work of
others towards accomplishment of specific goals in a given situation. Leadership is the ability of a
manager to induce the subordinates to work with confidence and zeal.

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Leadership is the potential to influence behaviour of others. It is also defined as the capacity to
influence a group towards the realization of a goal. Leaders are required to develop future visions, and
to motivate the organizational members to want to achieve the visions.
According to Keith Davis, “Leadership is the ability to persuade others to seek defined objectives
enthusiastically. It is the human factor which binds a group together and motivates it towards goals.”

Characteristics of Leadership
1. It is a inter-personal process in which a manager is into influencing
and guiding workers towards attainment of goals.
2. It denotes a few qualities to be present in a person which includes
intelligence, maturity and personality.
3. It is a group process. It involves two or more people interacting with
each other.
4. A leader is involved in shaping and moulding the behaviour of the group towards
accomplishment of organizational goals.
5. Leadership is situation bound. There is no best style of leadership. It all depends upon
tackling with the situations.
Importance of Leadership
Leadership is an important function of management which helps to maximize efficiency and to
achieve organizational goals. The following points justify the importance of leadership in a
concern.
1. Initiates action- Leader is a person who starts the work by communicating the policies and
plans to the subordinates from where the work actually starts.
2. Motivation- A leader proves to be playing an incentive role in the concern’s working. He
motivates the employees with economic and non-economic rewards and thereby gets the work
from the subordinates.
3. Providing guidance- A leader has to not only supervise but also play a guiding role for the
subordinates. Guidance here means instructing the subordinates the way they have to perform
their work effectively and efficiently.
4. Creating confidence- Confidence is an important factor which can be achieved through
expressing the work efforts to the subordinates, explaining them clearly their role and giving
them guidelines to achieve the goals effectively. It is also important to hear the employees with
regards to their complaints and problems.
5. Building morale- Morale denotes willing co-operation of the employees towards their work
and getting them into confidence and winning their trust. A leader can be a morale booster by
achieving full co-operation so that they perform with best of their abilities as they work to
achieve goals.
6. Builds work environment- Management is getting things done from people. An efficient
work environment helps in sound and stable growth. Therefore, human relations should be
kept into mind by a leader. He should have personal contacts with employees and should listen
to their problems and solve them. He should treat employees on humanitarian terms.

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7. Co-ordination- Co-ordination can be achieved through reconciling personal interests with
organizational goals. This synchronization can be achieved through proper and effective co-
ordination which should be primary motive of a leader.

10. what do you mean by organisational change?

Organizational Change looks both at the process in which a company or any organization changes its
operational methods, technologies, organizational structure, whole structure, or strategies, as well as
what effects these changes have on it. Organizational change usually happens in response to – or as a
result of – external or internal pressures.
It is all about reviewing and modifying structures – specifically management structures – and business
processes. Small commercial enterprises need to adapt to survive against larger competitors.

According to Cambridge Dictionary, organizational change is:

“A process in which a large company or organization changes its
working methods or aims, for example in order to develop and
deal with new situations or markets.”
An organization’s change drivers include:
The economic climate
The term ‘economic climate’ means the state of the overall
economy, i.e., economic conditions. If there is a recession, a
company may have to lay off workers; this requires
restructuring.
A merger or takeover also means total reorganization and
changes in corporate culture. Corporate culture or
organizational culture is a group of internal values and
behaviors within an organization.
Consumer demand & behavior
People’s lifestyles and how they shop, work, and spend their leisure times are forever changing. Since
the advent of the Internet, these changes have been occurring at significantly faster rates.
Benefits of Organizational Change
If you run a business today and hope that the pace of change will slow down, you will be in for a huge
disappointment. Without change, your company will lose its competitive edge. It will also fail to meet
the requirements of what most of us hope will be a growing base of loyal customers.
New technologies
New hi-tech systems and devices have completely changed how commercial enterprises do business
and interact with other entities in the marketplace.
Business models such as virtual collaboration and outsourcing are only possible today thanks to the
Internet and ultra-high-speed communications.

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Without technological change, our business leaders would still be dictating correspondence to human
beings, who would then type them out and arrange for them to be distributed to the relevant people –
wasting an incredible amount of time and resources.
The competitive marketplace
If a new rival comes onto the scene with completely different commercial behaviors, the other players
may have to adapt, especially if that competitor is successful in gaining market share.
Rules and regulations (government policy)
When companies are faced with new legislation or rules imposed by the relevant regulatory
authorities, they need to do two things: 1. Comply with them. 2. Adapt so that they may continue to
thrive

Long question
1. Discuss the challenges faced by manager in the organization.
This article throws light upon the ten main challenges faced by managers in an organisation. The
challenges are:
1. Globalisation: Almost all home companies face the challenge of competition with their international
counterparts. Small retailers, big manufacturers, all are competing with the international products. It
has resulted in greater complexities, greater economic and political risk and uncertainty. The problems
of internationalization are faced in the fields of goods and services, finance, human resource and
advertising. An important question that managers have to answer, therefore, is “Should we focus on
globalisation or regionalism?”
“Globalisation means that activities be managed from an overall global perspective as part of an
integrated system. Regionalism involves managing within each region with less regard for the overall
organisation”. It is observed that most companies manage their finance and manufacturing activities at
the global level and human resource and advertising at the regional level.
2. Quality and Productivity: Companies compete with international competitors with respect to quality
and productivity of goods and services. Successful companies have been able to maintain and enhance
the quality of goods and services with fewer resources (productivity). Managers must, therefore, focus
on producing more and better with fewer resources.
Quality is “the totality of features and characteristics of a product or service that bear on its ability to
satisfy stated or implied needs”. Productivity is “an economic measure of efficiency that summaries the
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value of outputs relative to the value of the inputs used to create them”. Quality and productivity are
important determinants of business that affect its success.
3. Ownership: Another area that concerns managers is ownership. Large foreign investors are buying
stocks of home companies and ownership can be transferred in their hands. Profitability and
productivity, thus, may suffer.
4. Environment: Environment is changing at a fast rate. Organisations have to change with the
competitive environment to maintain their customers. Managers should develop deep understanding
of the internal and external environmental factors and their application to business operations.
5. Strategy Formulation: Just as everything around is constantly changing, business firms must watch
the strategies and strategic management. Strategies keep changing according to environmental
changes.
It keeps managers constantly involved and promotes healthy interaction between the organisation and
the environment. Managers who frame effective strategies will remain in the market and those who
fail to do so will leave the market. Strategy formulation, therefore, requires constant attention of
contemporary managers.
6. Ethics and Social Responsibility: Firms which do not adhere to ethical standards and social
responsibilities are not accepted by the society. It is, therefore, a challenge for managers to define
relationships with the social environment. Organization that violates social expectations has the risk of
legal interference, loss of goodwill and even loss of business.
7. Workforce Diversity: Diversity in the workforce exists when members differ along dimensions like
race, colour, caste, creed, nationality, gender etc. Traditionally, organisations were managed by
workforce with no or very little diversity, like all men, all whites or all Indians but today almost all
organisations experience tremendous change in the composition of workforce. Firms employ people
from diverse sets of cultural, social, economic and ethical backgrounds at almost every organisational
level. Though diversity offers competitive advantage in terms of cost, resource acquisition, marketing,
creativity,
problem-solving and systems flexibility, it also becomes a source of conflict in many organisations.
People native to the organisation may not readily accept to work with people of other cultural
backgrounds.
The organisations, therefore, face the challenge of addressing a variety of issues, opportunities and
problems created by the diverse workforce. In the globalized world, diversity cannot be avoided.
Managers have to radically devise means to overcome the problems of diversity. Though largely it has
been done, problems, if any, have to be overcome.
8. Change: Change is a continuous process. If firms want to compete in the complex, dynamic and
diverse environment as they are facing today, where expectations from managers and their
organisations are on an ever increase, they must accept the changes that confront their every day life.
Firms which do not change their operations with the changing environment (internal and external) may
have to close their operations. Managers have to continuously respond to change and look to future
with hope and optimism.
9. Empowerment: Though management is ‘the art of getting things done through others,’ the
others/subordinates will not do things if they have to merely carry out the orders and instructions of
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managers. Workers want more information about the organisation to perform and control their jobs.
Participative decision-making and formation of groups and work teams help in fulfillment of individual,
group and organisational goals.
The basic requirement, therefore, is to communicate with the external environment and their
workforce. Communication is a major task of managers today. They must convey organisational goals
to individuals and understand their individual goals, in turn. Failure to do so will result in loss of
empowerment. This will affect organisational goals, both quantitative and qualitative.
10. Information Technology: Information technology “refers to the resources used by an organisation
to manage information that it needs to carry out its mission”. Information is an important part of
communication and managers have to be careful in selecting the amount and type of information (out
of the large quantity of information available) for carrying out the business operations. Lack of control
over use of information can result in lack of control over business operations.
2. Explain big five personality trails.
According to Dr. Edwin van Thiel Why do people respond differently to the same situations? In
contemporary psychology, the Big Five traits of personality are five broad domains which define human
personality and account for individual differences.
You might find it helpful to use the acronym OCEAN (openness, conscientiousness, extraversion,
agreeableness, and neuroticism) when trying to remember the big five traits. These five categories are
usually described as follows.
Openness
This trait features characteristics such as imagination and
understanding. People who are high in this trait also tend to have
a broad range of interests. They are curious about the world and
other people and eager to learn new things and enjoy new
experiences. People who are high in this trait tend to be more
adventurous and creative. People low in this trait are often much
more traditional and may struggle with abstract thinking.
High
Very creative
Open to trying new things
Focused on tackling new challenges
Happy to think about abstract concepts

Low
Dislikes change
Does not enjoy new things
Resists new ideas
Not very imaginative
Dislikes abstract or theoretical concepts
Conscientiousness

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Standard features of this dimension include high levels of thoughtfulness, good impulse control, and
goal-directed behaviors. Highly conscientious people tend to be organized and mindful of details. They
plan ahead, think about how their behavior affects others, and are mindful of deadlines.
High
Spends time preparing
Finishes important tasks right away
Pays attention to detail
Enjoys having a set schedule
Low
Dislikes structure and schedules
Makes messes and doesn't take care of things
Fails to return things or put them back where they belong
Procrastinates important tasks
Fails to complete necessary or assigned tasks
Extraversion
Extraversion (or extroversion) is characterized by excitability, sociability, talkativeness, assertiveness,
and high amounts of emotional expressiveness. People who are high in extraversion are outgoing and
tend to gain energy in social situations. Being around other people helps them feel energized and excited.
People who are low in extraversion (or introverted) tend to be more reserved and have to expend energy
in social settings. Social events can feel draining and introverts often require a period of solitude and
quiet in order to "recharge."
High
Enjoys being the center of attention
Likes to start conversations
Enjoys meeting new people
Has a wide social circle of friends and acquaintances
Finds it easy to make new friends
Feels energized when around other people
Say things before thinking about them
Low
Prefers solitude
Feels exhausted when having to socialize a lot
Finds it difficult to start conversations
Dislikes making small talk
Carefully thinks things through before speaking
Dislikes being the center of attention
Agreeableness This personality dimension includes attributes such as trust, altruism, kindness,
affection, and other prosocial behaviors. People who are high in agreeableness tend to be more
cooperative while those low in this trait tend to be more competitive and sometimes even manipulative.
High
Has a great deal of interest in other people
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 Cares about others
Feels empathy and concern for other people
Enjoys helping and contributing to the happiness of other people
Assists others who are in need of help
Low
Takes little interest in others
Doesn't care about how other people feel
Has little interest in other people's problems
Insults and belittles others
Manipulates others to get what they want
Neuroticism
Neuroticism is a trait characterized by sadness, moodiness, and emotional instability. Individuals who
are high in this trait tend to experience mood swings, anxiety, irritability, and sadness. Those low in this
trait tend to be more stable and emotionally resilient.
High
Experiences a lot of stress
Worries about many different things
Gets upset easily
Experiences dramatic shifts in mood
Feels anxious
Struggles to bounce back after stressful events
Low
Emotionally stable
Deals well with stress
Rarely feels sad or depressed
Doesn't worry much
Is very relaxed
3. Elaborate the key element of organizational behavior.
How people behave in an organizational under a given situation is the concern of organizational
behavior. People join an organization to achieve certain objectives. The efforts of the people are co-
ordinate by the structure of authority-responsibility relationships. People use some technology to
produce goods and services to achieve their goals. We can call people, structure and technology as the
internal organizational elements. These elements interact with the external environment and are
influenced by it. The study of organizational behavior, thus, involves four key elements; people.
Structure,technology and the environment in which the organization operates.
Elements of Organizational Behavior
1) People : People make up the internal social system of the organization.
That system consists of individuals and groups, and large groups as well as
small ones. There are unofficial, informal groups and more official, formal

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ones. Groups are dynamic. We must remember that organizations exist to serve people, rather than
people existing to serve organization.
The human organization of today is not the same as it was yesterday, or the day before. In particular,
the workforce has become richly diverse, which means that employees bring a wide array of
educational backgrounds, talents, and perspectives to their jobs. Managers need to be tuned into these
diverse patterns and trends, and to be prepared to adapt to them.
2) Structure: Structure defines the roles and relationships of people in an organization. Different
people in the organization are given different roles and they have certain relationships with others.
Organization structure leads to division of work so that people can perform their duties to accomplish
the organization goals. Under the structure, different duties are to be performed by different people.
Some may be managers others may be supervisors, clerks, peons or workers. All are related to each
other to accomplish the goals in a co-ordinated manner. The structure relates to authority-
responsibility relationships.
3) Technology: Technology provides the resources with which people work and affects the tasks that
they perform. They cannot accomplish much with their hands, so they build building, design machines,
create work processes, and assemble resources. The technology used has a significant influence on
working relationships. The great benefit of technology is that it allows people to do more and better
work, but it also restricts people in various ways. It has costs as well as benefits.
4) Environment: All organizations operate within an internal and external environment. A single
organization does not exist alone. It is part of a large system.
4. Discuss the process of perception in details.
Perceptional Process: Perception is a process consisting of several sub processes. We can take an input
–throughput output approach to understand the dynamics of the perceptual process. This approach
emphasizes that there is input which is processed and gives output. The stimuli in the environment-
objects, events, or people-can be considered as the perceptual inputs. The actual transformation of
these inputs through the perceptual mechanism of selection, organization, and interpretation can be
treated as the throughputs, and the resultant opinions, feelings, attitudes etc. which ultimately
influence our behavior, can be viewed as the perceptual outputs. This simplified process of perception
in fig:

1. Figure is a simplified version of perceptual process. It does not present the whole factors which go in
input-throughout output process of perception. Fig: 2 presents a comprehensive view of process of
perception.

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Figure 2. of perceptual process presents three basic sub processes or elements of perception. These are
existence of stimuli, perceptual mechanism, and perceptual outputs. Perceptual outputs along with
other determinants of human behavior affect and shape behavior. Let us we how perceptual process
works in terms of its three basic elements.
Perceptual Inputs : strictly speaking, perceptual inputs in the form of stimuli are not part of actual
perceptual process through these are necessary for the occurrence of perception. Stimuli may be in the
form of objects, events, or people. Thus everything in the setting where events occur, or which
contributes to the occurrence of events, can be termed as perceptual input. Further the characteristics
of stimuli are important as these affect the extent to which the perceiver is attracted to these which
affects the selection of stimuli for perception along with other variables affecting selection of stimuli
like like perceiver’s characteristics and situational variables. When the perceiver interacts with a
stimulus, sensation takes place which, we have seen earlier starts perceptual process.
Perceptual Mechanism: Perceptual mechanism involves three elements- selection of stimuli,
organization of stimuli, and interpretation of stimuli.
Selection of stimuli: After receiving the stimuli from the environment, some are selected for further
processing while others are screened out because it is possible for a person to selected all stimuli which
he sees in the environment. There are two types of factors which affect selection of stimuli. These are
external and related to stimuli and internal related to the perceiver. These external and internal factors
are of several types. We shall discuss these factors and their impact on the selection of stimuli in the
subsequent section of this chapter dealing with perceptual selectivity.
Organization of Stimuli: After the stimuli are received, these are organized in some form in order to
make sense out of that. The various forms of organizing stimuli are figure-ground perceptual grouping,
simplification, and closer.
Interpretation of Stimuli: The perceptual inputs that have been organized will have to be interpreted
by the perceiver so that he can sense and extract some meaning of what is going on in the situation.
People interpret the meaning of what they have selectively perceived and organized in terms of their
own assumptions of people, things and situation. They also become judgmental as well and tend to
interpret the thing as good/bad, beautiful/ugly and so on which are quite relative terms. In such a
process, there are chances of misinterpretation. Interpretation of stimuli is affected by characteristics
of stimuli, situations under which perception takes place, and characteristics of the perceiver. These
factors also affect the total perceptual process.
Perceptual Outputs: Based on perceptual mechanism which ends with interpretation of stimuli,
perceptual outputs emerge. These outputs may be in the form of covert actions development of
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attitudes, opinions, beliefs, impression about the stimuli under consideration. These outputs along with
other factors affecting human behavior may result in overt behavior. For overt behavior to occur,
perception is not the sole decider though it is important. For example, when a person sees an
advertisement of a product, he may perceive that the product is good. This perception, however, may
not be enough for the person to buy the product (overt behavior). The actual buying may depend on
the availability of the product, perceiver’s need for product and his propensity and capacity to spend
money for buying the product.
5. Explain the classical conditioning theory of Learning with example.
The Classical Conditioning Theory was proposed by a Russian Physiologist Ivan Pavlov. According to this
theory, behavior is learnt by a repetitive association between
the response and the stimulus.

The classical conditioning theory is based on the assumption

that learning is developed through the interactions with the
environment. Also, the environment shapes the behavior and
internal mental state such as thoughts, feelings, emotions do
not explain the human behavior.
Here, an organism learns to transfer response from one
stimulus to a previously neutral stimulus. Classical
conditioning is comprised of four elements:
1. Unconditioned Stimulus (US): Which invariably causes to react in a way.
2. Unconditioned Response (UR): Takes place when the US is presented.
3. Conditioned Stimulus (CS): The object that does not bring about the desired response
4. Conditioned Response (CR): a particular behavior that an organism learns to produce, when the CS is
presented.

Pavlov conducted an experiment on a dog and measured the amount of saliva secreted by a dog, with a
use of a surgical procedure, when it is exposed to different stimulus or object. At first, when Pavlov
presented a piece of meat (US) to the dog, he noticed a great amount of salivation (UR) whereas, in the
second time, when he just rang the bell, he observed there was no effect of a bell on the dog’s
salivation.
After this, Pavlov rang the bell accompanied
with meat and noticed the salivation of a
dog. He repeated this process several times,
and finally, one day he just rang the bell
without meat and observed that dog still
salivated to the bell alone which was
originally a neutral stimulus.
Classical conditioning

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Thus, he found out, that the dog has become classically conditioned (CR) to the sound of the bell (CS).
And every time he rings the bell the dog salivates.

6. Through light on the development stage of groups.

Introduction
Our discussion so far has focused mostly on a team as an entity, not on the individuals inside the team.
This is like describing a car by its model and color without considering what is under the hood. External
characteristics are what we see and interact with, but internal characteristics are what make it work. In
teams, the internal characteristics are the people in the team and how they interact with each other.
For teams to be effective, the people in the team must be able to work together to contribute
collectively to team outcomes. But this does not happen automatically: it develops as the team works
together. You have probably had an experience when you have been put on a team to work on a school
assignment or project. When your team first gets together, you likely sit around and look at each other,
not knowing how to begin. Initially you are not a team; you are just individuals assigned to work
together. Over time you get to know each other, to know what to expect from each other, to know
how to divide the labor and assign tasks, and to know how you will coordinate your work. Through this
process, you begin to operate as a team instead of a collection of individuals.
Stages of Team Development
This process of learning to work together effectively is known as team development. Research has
shown that teams go through definitive stages during development. Bruce Tuckman, an educational
psychologist, identified a five-stage development process that most teams follow to become high
performing. He called the stages: forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning. Team
progress through the stages is shown in the following diagram.
The five stages of team development in a graph: forming, storming, norming, performing, and
adjourning.
Most high-performing teams go through five stages of team development.

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Forming stage :- The forming stage involves a period of orientation and getting acquainted. Uncertainty
is high during this stage, and people are looking for leadership and authority. A member who asserts
authority or is knowledgeable may be looked to take control. Team members are asking such questions
as “What does the team offer me?” “What is expected of me?” “Will I fit in?” Most interactions are
social as members get to know each other.
Storming stage :- The storming stage is the most difficult and critical stage to pass through. It is a
period marked by conflict and competition as individual personalities emerge. Team performance may
actually decrease in this stage because energy is put into unproductive activities. Members may
disagree on team goals, and subgroups and cliques may form around strong personalities or areas of
agreement. To get through this stage, members must work to overcome obstacles, to accept individual
differences, and to work through conflicting ideas on team tasks and goals. Teams can get bogged
down in this stage. Failure to address conflicts may result in long-term problems.
Norming stage :-If teams get through the storming stage, conflict is resolved and some degree of unity
emerges. In the norming stage, consensus develops around who the leader or leaders are, and
individual member’s roles. Interpersonal differences begin to be resolved, and a sense of cohesion and
unity emerges. Team performance increases during this stage as members learn to cooperate and
begin to focus on team goals. However, the harmony is precarious, and if disagreements re-emerge the
team can slide back into storming.
Performing stage :- In the performing stage, consensus and cooperation have been well-established
and the team is mature, organized, and well-functioning. There is a clear and stable structure, and
members are committed to the team’s mission. Problems and conflicts still emerge, but they are dealt
with constructively. (We will discuss the role of conflict and conflict resolution in the next section). The
team is focused on problem solving and meeting team goals.
Adjourning stage :- In the adjourning stage, most of the team’s goals have been accomplished. The
emphasis is on wrapping up final tasks and documenting the effort and results. As the work load is
diminished, individual members may be reassigned to other teams, and the team disbands. There may
be regret as the team ends, so a ceremonial acknowledgement of the work and success of the team
can be helpful. If the team is a standing committee with ongoing responsibility, members may be
replaced by new people and the team can go back to a forming or storming stage and repeat the
development process.

7. what are the strategies which is required for negotiation of conflict in the
organization.
People deal with conflict in a variety of ways, therefore you need different conflict resolution
strategies.
We at Participation Company spend a lot of time talking about conflict resolution through active
listening and training people to resolve conflict using a variety of strategies. This is how the Thomas-
Kilmann measurement instrument and their five conflict resolution strategies came to our attention.
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Kenneth Thomas and Ralph Kilmann developed five conflict resolution strategies that people use to
handle conflict, including avoiding, defeating, compromising, accommodating, and collaborating.
This is based on the assumption that people choose how
cooperative and how assertive to be in a conflict. It suggests
that everyone has preferred ways of responding to conflict,
but most of us use all methods under various
circumstances. It is helpful to understand the five methods,
particularly when you want to move a group forward.
Conflict Resolution Strategy #1: Avoiding
Avoiding is when people just ignore or withdraw from the
conflict. They choose this method when the discomfort of
confrontation exceeds the potential reward of resolution of
the conflict. While this might seem easy to accommodate
for the facilitator, people aren’t really contributing anything
of value to the conversation and may be withholding
worthwhile ideas. When conflict is avoided, nothing is resolved.
Conflict Resolution Strategy #2: Competing
Competing is used by people who go into a conflict planning to win. They’re assertive and not
cooperative. This method is characterized by the assumption that one side wins and everyone else
loses. It doesn’t allow room for diverse perspectives into a well informed total picture. Competing
might work in sports or war, but it’s rarely a good strategy for group problem solving.
Debra wrote an illuminating article on how conflict resolution failure can lead to revolution. It’s what
can happen when people feel like they aren’t being listened to and start being assertive. Conflict
Resolution Strategy #3: Accommodating
Accommodating is a strategy where one party gives in to the wishes or demands of another. They’re
being cooperative but not assertive. This may appear to be a gracious way to give in when one figures
out s/he has been wrong about an argument. It’s less helpful when one party accommodates another
merely to preserve harmony or to avoid disruption. Like avoidance, it can result in unresolved issues.
Too much accommodation can result in groups where the most assertive parties commandeer the
process and take control of most conversations.
Conflict Resolution Strategy #4: Collaborating
Collaborating is the method used when people are both assertive and cooperative. A group may learn
to allow each participant to make a contribution with the possibility of co-creating a shared solution
that everyone can support.
A great way to collaborate and overcome conflict is to reach out and touch them.
Conflict Resolution Strategy #5: Compromising
Another strategy is compromising, where participants are partially assertive and cooperative. The
concept is that everyone gives up a little bit of what they want, and no one gets everything they want.
The perception of the best outcome when working by compromise is that which “splits the difference.”
Compromise is perceived as being fair, even if no one is particularly happy with the final outcome.

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8. Defined communication also explain its process in details.
importance of communication.
The communication process is the steps we take in order to successfully communicate. Components of
the communication process include a sender, encoding of a message, selecting of a channel of
communication, receipt of the message by the receiver and decoding of the message.
The Communication is a two-way process where in the message in the form of ideas, thoughts,
feelings, opinions is transmitted between two or more persons with the intent of creating a shared
understanding.
Simply, an act of conveying intended information and understanding from one person to another is
called as communication. The term communication is derived from the Latin word “Communis” which
means to share. Effective communication is when the message conveyed by the sender is understood
by the receiver in exactly the same way as it was intended.
Communication Process
The communication is a dynamic process that begins with the conceptualizing of ideas by the sender
who then transmits the message through a channel to the receiver, who in turn gives the feedback in
the form of some message or signal within the given time frame. Thus, there are Seven major elements
of communication process:

Sender: The sender or the communicator is the person who initiates the conversation and has
conceptualized the idea that he intends to convey it to others.
Encoding: The sender begins with the encoding process wherein he uses certain words or non-verbal
methods such as symbols, signs, body gestures, etc. to translate the information into a message. The
sender’s knowledge, skills, perception, background, competencies, etc. has a great impact on the
success of the message.
Message: Once the encoding is finished, the sender gets the message that he intends to convey. The
message can be written, oral, symbolic or non-verbal such as body gestures, silence, sighs, sounds, etc.
or any other signal that triggers the response of a receiver.
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Communication Channel: The Sender chooses the medium through which he wants to convey his
message to the recipient. It must be selected carefully in order to make the message effective and
correctly interpreted by the recipient. The choice of medium depends on the interpersonal
relationships between the sender and the receiver and also on the urgency of the message being sent.
Oral, virtual, written, sound, gesture, etc. are some of the commonly used communication mediums.
Receiver: The receiver is the person for whom the message is intended or targeted. He tries to
comprehend it in the best possible manner such that the communication objective is attained. The
degree to which the receiver decodes the message depends on his knowledge of the subject matter,
experience, trust and relationship with the sender.
Decoding: Here, the receiver interprets the sender’s message and tries to understand it in the best
possible manner. An effective communication occurs only if the receiver understands the message in
exactly the same way as it was intended by the sender.
Feedback: The Feedback is the final step of the process that ensures the receiver has received the
message and interpreted it correctly as it was intended by the sender. It increases the effectiveness of
the communication as it permits the sender to know the efficacy of his message. The response of the
receiver can be verbal or non-verbal.
9. Explain the leadership styles which are in function.
There are five basic leadership styles. Understanding which one describes you best can help
you become a better leader. Take a look at icons in the business world, and you’ll see a wide
range of leadership styles. How company leaders guide employees and motivate them to fulfill
directives is as diverse as the leaders themselves.
5 Leadership Styles
While all small-business owners have their own particular method of inspiring employees, most
use one or more of the following five leadership styles. Identifying how you lead can help you
more effectively run your company. Which of the following leadership styles sounds most like
you?

1. Participative Also known as democratic leadership, the participative leadership style

focuses on culling opinions from all employees in order to make a decision that reflects the
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majority’s opinion and desires. While the leader offers guidance and support, the decisions are
primarily consensual among all involved, and the leader makes final decisions based on the
majority’s vote.
The participative leadership style is particularly useful if the leader wishes to encourage
participation and agreement among employees. This democratic method does not work well,
however, if the leader must make a quick decision.
2. Authoritarian Authoritative leaders inform employees of a common vision and goal for the
company and detail employee responsibilities designed to make reaching that goal a reality.
There is a clear division between employees and the employer, and the employees are clear
on the desired result. They are often given guidelines but allowed to fulfill their obligations as
they see fit.
The authoritarian style is particularly useful for those leaders who tend to know more than their
employees, and it works best when there is no time for group decision-making. If employees
are particularly talented and experienced in their own right, this leadership style can be limiting
and stifling for them.
3. Laissez-Faire In French, the term laissez-faire means "let it be," which best describes this
leadership style. Such a method involves leaders delegating decision-making and tasks. They
keep abreast of what is occurring in the company and are available when advice and input are
needed, but take a hands-off approach and let the employees work on their own.
This leadership style can work if the employees are self-motivated, and under the right
circumstances this type of management breeds creativity and job satisfaction. Laissez-faire is
also the best option when employees work remotely. The lack of direction this type of
leadership offers does not work for every company or employee. It can lead to poor
performance and lack of motivation.
4. Transformational The transformational leadership style focuses on the leader that actively
communicates with employees to motivate them to increase productivity and efficiency. The
leader focuses on the big picture for the company, such as corporate goals—leaving the day-
to-day details to management.
Transformational leaders are inspiring, because they expect the best from their employees and
themselves, which leads to productive and positive working environments. For this type of
leadership to work, it’s critical that there are also detail-oriented individuals on the team who
can see to the more practical aspects of running a business.
5. Servant As the name implies, servant leaders tend to stay out of the limelight, often leading
from behind and allowing the focus to be on the employees. Such leaders make service a top
priority and often highly value integrity and generosity. Decision-making tends to be a group
effort in such environments.
The servant leadership model tends to work well for organizations such as nonprofits that are
committed to a particular cause, because the mission becomes the center of attention. Such a
leadership model does not work for all types of businesses—especially those with tight
deadlines.
Given the benefits of the various leadership styles, it makes sense for small-business owners
to adopt traits from each style. The best leaders keep their eye on the corporate vision and
shape their leadership styles to their corporate culture.
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10. Discuss the process of change in details.
Process of Organisational Change:
Understanding the process of change requires careful consideration of the steps in the
change process, employee resistance to change and how this resistance can be overcome.
The management of change requires the use of some systematic process that can be
divided into a few stages or sub-processes. This is the essence of the most representative
model of managing change. It emphasises the role of the change agent who is an
outsider, taking a leadership role in initiating and introducing the process of change.
The process of change must involve the following so as to lead to organisational
effectiveness. Firstly, there is a re-distribution of power within the organisational
structure. Secondly, this redistribution emanates from a developmental change process.
Phases of the Change Process:
Fig.15.5 indicates that the process of change has to pass through six different
phases:

1. Internal pressure: The process of change begins as soon as top management starts
feeling a need of pressure for change from within the enterprise. This is usually caused by some
significant problem(s) such as sharp drop in sales (profits), serious labour trouble, and/or high
labour turnover.
2. Intervention and reorientation: An external agent is often invited to suggest a
definition of the problem and start the process of getting organisation people to focus on

25
it. If internal staff people are competent enough and can be trusted they can also manage
the process of change equally well.
3. Diagnosis and recognition of problem(s):
The change agent and manager start gathering necessary information and analyse it so as
to recognise the more important problems and give attention to these.
4. Invention of and commitment to solutions:
It is important for the agent to stimulate thought and try to avoid using the ‘same old
methods’. Solutions are searched out by creatively developing new and plausible
alternatives. If subordinates are encouraged to participate in the process, they will
developa sense of involvement and are likely to be more committed to the course of
action finally chosen.
5. Experimentation and search for results:
The solutions developed in phase 4 are normally put to tests on a small-scale (e.g., in
pilot programmes) and the results, analysed. If the solution is successful in one unit, or a
certain part of a unit, it may be tried in the organisation as a whole.
6. Reinforcement and acceptance:
If the course of action is found desirable (after being properly tested), it should be
accepted voluntarily by organisation members. Improved performance should be the
source of reinforcement and thus should lead to a commitment to the change.

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