All About Grammar!!!

Table of Contents:
1. Parts of Speech 3
2. Nouns 4
3. Pronouns 5
4. Verb Chart 7
5. Time Chart 8
6. Irregular Verbs 9
7. Active vs Passive 11
8. Passive Voice 12
9. Passive Voice Cojugation 13
10. Gerunds & Infinitives 14
11. Auxiliary/Helping Verbs 16
12. Modal Verbs 17
13. Preposition Chart 19
14. Adjectives 26
15. Adverbs 28
16. Determiners 30
17. Quantifiers 31
18. No vs Not 32
19. Double Negatives 33
20. Basic Sentence Structure 34
21. Sentences: Simple, Compound, Complex 36
22. Relative Clauses 38
23. Linking & Connection Words: Conjunctions 39
24. Linking & Connection Words: Transitions 42
25. Discourse Markers 47
26. Question Types 49
27. Question Tags 51
28. Reported Speech 52
29. Prefixes 53
30. Suffixes 54
 English Grammar: Parts of Speech

A diagram of English categories in accordance with modern linguistic studies

English words have been traditionally classified into nine parts of speech (and are still done so in most
dictionaries):

Noun
any abstract or concrete entity; a person (police officer,Michael), place (coastline, London), thing
(necktie, television), idea (happiness), or quality (bravery)

Pronoun
any substitute for a noun or noun phrase

Verb
any action (walk), occurrence (happen), or state of being (be)

Preposition
any establisher of relation and syntactic context

Adjective
any qualifier of a noun

Adverb
any qualifier of an adjective, verb, clause, sentence, or other adverb

Determiner
indicates whether the noun is referring to a definite or indefinite element of a class, to a closer or more
distant element, to an element belonging to a specified person or thing, to a particular number or quantity

Conjunction
connects words, sentences, phrases or clauses

Interjection
any emotional greeting (or "exclamation")

Words like neigh, break, outlaw, laser, microwave, and telephone might all be either verb forms or nouns.

Although -ly is a frequent adverb marker, not all adverbs end in -ly (-wise is another common adverb
marker) and not all words ending in -ly are adverbs. For instance, tomorrow, fast, very can all be adverbs,
while early, friendly, ugly are all adjectives (though early can also function as an adverb).

Verbs can also be used as adjectives (e.g. "The astonished child watched the spectacle unfold" instead of
the verb usage "The unfolding spectacle astonished the child"). In such cases, the verb is in
its participle form.

In certain circumstances, even words with primarily grammatical functions can be used as verbs or nouns,
as in, "We must look to the hows and not just the whys."

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 Nouns
Nouns are words or groups of words that refer to a person, place, thing or abstract idea. They function as
subjects or objects in sentences.
Gender:
English has a very limited use of gender. Nouns can refer to masculine and feminine ideas, but they do
not generally require any changes to other words.
Masculine Feminine Neuter

he she it
boy girl they
man woman person
husband wife spouse
father mother parent
king queen relative
prince princess baby
uncle aunt cousin
Most nouns indicating occupation have the same form, regardless of gender.
artist, cook, driver, doctor, nurse
Some jobs have different forms, but this is less common now.
actor – actress, waiter – waitress, steward – stewardess

Spelling:
Most plurals end in –s , but the pronunciation can change depending on the final sound of the singular
noun.
Word Ending Spelling Pronunciation Examples

/p/, /f/, /t/, or /k/ sound add -s /s/ stops, giraffes, bats,
cracks
-ce, -ge, -se, -ze add -s /iz/ price – prices
cage - cages
case - cases
gaze - gazes
-ch, -sh, -ss, -x add -es /iz/ church – churches
brush – brushes
kiss – kisses
fox – foxes
-o add -es /z/ tomato – tomatoes
tornado – tornadoes
potato – potatoes
-o (foreign origin) add -s /z/ kimono – kimonos
photo – photos
kilo – kilos
piano - pianos
consonant + y change y to -ies /z/ baby – babies
country – countries
lady – ladies
vowel + y add -s /z/ boy – boys
day – days
guy – guys
-f, -fe (some cases) change -f, -fe to -ves /z/ wife – wives
knife – knives
half - halves

Some plurals are irregular:

foot – feet, man – men, woman – women, tooth – teeth, child – children
*It is a good idea to check a dictionary for spelling to be accurate.

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 Pronouns
Possessive Adjectives and Reflexive
Personal Pronouns
Pronouns Reflexive Pronouns
Pronouns
subject object possessive possessive
form form adjective pronoun
I me my mine myself Who
you you your yours yourself Whoever
he him his his himself Whom
she her her hers herself Whomever
it it its its itself What / Whatever
we us our ours ourselves That
you you your yours yourselves Which
they them their theirs themselves Whichever

Personal Pronouns – Subject Form example: We have got some books.

Personal Pronouns – Object Form example: The books are for us.
Possessive Adjective example: These are our books.
Possessive Pronouns example: These books are ours.
Reflexive Pronouns example: He can carry the bags himself.
Relative Pronouns example: This is the man who lives next door.

Indefinite Pronouns
Singular person Singular person or thing Singular but Singular,
or thing (negatives and questions – no quantity refers to
(unspecified) when no is the expected group
answer)
somebody anybody nobody everybody
someone anyone no one everyone
something anything nothing everything

Examples:
Somebody is knocking on the door.
Does anyone know how to get to the airport?
No one leaves before finishing the test.
Everyone get three chances to win the game.

Who vs. Whom

Rule. Use the he/him method to decide which word is correct.
he = who him = whom

Examples:
Who/Whom wrote the letter?
He wrote the letter. Therefore, who is correct. For who/ whom should I vote?
Should I vote for him? Therefore, whom is correct.

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We all know who/whom pulled that prank.
This sentence contains two clauses: We all know and who/whom pulled that prank. We are interested in the second clause
because it contains the who/whom. He pulled that prank. Therefore, who is correct. (Are you starting to sound like a
hooting owl yet?) We want to know on who/ whom the prank was pulled. This sentence contains two clauses: We want to
know and the prank was pulled on who/whom. Again, we are interested in the second clause because it contains the
who/whom. The prank was pulled on him. Therefore, whom is correct.

Whoever vs. Whomever

Rule 1. To determine whether to use whoever or whomever, here is the rule:
him + he = whoever ; him + him = whomever
Examples:
Give it to whoever/whomever asks for it first.
Give it to him. He asks for it first. Therefore, Give it to whoever asks for it first.
We will hire whoever/ whomever you recommend.
We will hire him. You recommend him. him + him = whomever
We will hire whoever/whomever is most qualified.
We will hire him. He is most qualified.
him + he = whoever

Rule 2. When the entire whoever/whomever clause is the subject of the verb that follows the clause, look inside the
clause to determine whether to use whoever or whomever.
Example:
Whoever is elected will serve a four-year term.
Whoever is elected is the subject of will serve. Whoever is the subject of is. Example: Whomever you elect will serve a
four-year term. Whomever you elect is the subject of will serve. Whomever is the object of you elect.

That vs. Which

Rule 1. Who refers to people. That and which refer to groups or things.
Examples:
Anya is the one who rescued the bird.
Lokua is on the team that won first place.
She belongs to an organization that specializes in saving endangered species.
Rule 2. That introduces essential clauses while which introduces nonessential clauses.
Examples:
I do not trust editorials that claim racial differences in intelligence.
We would not know which editorials were being discussed without the that clause.
The editorial claiming racial differences in intelligence, which appeared in the Sunday newspaper, upset me.
The editorial is already identified. Therefore, which begins a nonessential clause.
Rule 3. If this, that, these, and those have already introduced an essential clause, you may use which to
introduce the next clause, whether it is essential or nonessential.
Examples:
That is a decision which you must live with for the rest of your life.
Those ideas, which we‘ve discussed thoroughly enough, do not need to be addressed again.

Note: Often, you can streamline your sentence by leaving out which.
Example:
Those ideas, which we have discussed thoroughly, do not need to be addressed again.
Better: The ideas we have discussed thoroughly do not need to be addressed again.
Example: That is a decision which you must live with for the rest of your life.
Better: That is a decision you must live with for the rest of your life.
OR You must live with that decision for the rest of your life.

There is / There are…

When you want to focus on the presences of something, you can use an empty subject there to introduce the clause with to
be.
Examples:
There are fifteen people waiting in the room.
There´s a rat outside.

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Chart --- Verb Tenses PAST FUTURE
example verb = cook

Past Present Future

Simple An action that ended at a point in An action that exists, is usual, or A plan for future action.
Infinitive verb the past. is repeated.

the only tense that

doesn´t use an /X/ x x x /X/ x x x /X/
auxiliary verb in
addition to the
main verb.

Rule cooked cook / cooks will cook

Examples* e.g. He cooked YESTERDAY. e.g. He cooks dinner EVERY e.g. He will cook TOMORROW.
Friday.

Progressive An action was happening (past An action that is happening An action that will be happening
be + infinitive verb progressive) when another action now. over time, in the future, when
+ing happened (simple past). something else happens.
The progressive
tenses* give the
idea that an action

during a particular X X X X
time. The tenses
say that an action X X
begins before, is
in progress
during, and
continues after
another time or
action.

Rule was / were cooking am / is / are cooking will be cooking

Examples* e.g. He was cooking WHEN the e.g. He is cooking NOW. e.g. He will be cooking WHENyou
phone rang. come.

Perfect Simple An action that ended before another An action that happened at an An action that will end before
have + infinitive action or time in the past. unspecified time in the past. another action or time in the future.
verb in past
participle

The perfect /X/ X /X/ X /X/ X

simple tenses all
give the idea that
one thing happens
before another
time or event.

Rule had cooked has / have cooked will have cooked

Examples* e.g. He had cooked the dinner e.g. He has cooked MANY e.g. He will have cooked dinner BY
WHEN the phone rang. meals. THE TIME you come.

Perfect An action that happened over time, An action occurring over time An action occurring over time, in
Progressive in the past, before another time or that started in the past and the future, before another action or
have + be + action in the past. continues into the present. time in the future.
infinitive verb + ing

The Perfect
Progressive tense X X X X X X
is used to express
the duration of
the first event. ``A LONG TIME`` ``FOR OVER AN HOUR`` ``ALL DAY``

Rule had been cooking has / have been cooking will have been cooking

Examples* e.g. He had been cooking for a long e.g. He has been cooking FOR e.g. He will have been cooking all
time BEFORE he took lessons. over an hour. day BY THE TIME she gets home.

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 Chart --- Time Clues
There are many words that are time clues; some can be used to indicate a number of tenses, for
instance that something happened in the past or that it will happen in the future. If you learn to
recognize these time clues, you will find them very helpful. Note that some time clues can be used
with more than one verb tense and also that this table is not a complete listing of all the time clues
that can be used with all of the tenses.

Past Present Future

Simple Simple Past Simple Present Simple Future
YESTERDAY EVERY morning / day / etc. TOMORROW
last year/ month/ etc. always tonight
before usually next week/month/etc.
for five weeks/days/etc. frequently soon
one year/ month ago sometimes in the future (in a
in 1990 never year..ect)
the other day normally
often
seldom

Progressive Past Progressive Present Progressive Future Progressive

while NOW WHEN
WHEN right now after
As Long As this week/minute/etc. as soon as
at the moment before
just
just now
Listen!
Look!

Perfect Simple Past Perfect Simple Present Perfect Simple Future Perfect Simple
before until now BY THE TIME you go
already since (somewhere)
by the time ever by the time you do
until then/last week/etc. never (something)
after MANY times/ weeks/years/etc. already
WHEN for three hours/ minutes/etc/ By Monday
just already In a week…
never just
not yet not yet
once so far
until that day up to now

Perfect Past Perfect Present Perfect Progressive Future Perfect

Progressive Progressive Progressive

BEFORE FOR the past year/ month/ etc. BY THE TIME

for one week/hour/etc. for the last 2 months/ for ten days/weeks/etc.
since weeks/etc. by
the whole day up to now the last couple of hours
all day for 6 weeks/hours/etc. all day long
since
all day
how long?
the whole week

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Irregular Verbs List draw(s) drew drawn

This is a list of some irregular verbs in English. dream(s) dreamed/ dreamed/

Of course, there are many others, but these are the dreamt dreamt
more common irregular verbs. drive(s) drove driven
Past drink(s) drank drunk
Present Simple Simple Past Participle
eat(s) ate eaten
awake(s) awoke awoken
fall(s) fell fallen
be (is,am,are) was, were been
feel(s) felt felt
beat(s) beat beaten
fight(s) fought fought
become(s) became become
find(s) found found
begin(s) began begun
fly(ies) flew flown
bend(s) bent bent
forget(s) forgot forgotten
bet(s) bet bet
forgive(s) forgave forgiven
bid(s) bid bid
freeze(s) froze frozen
bite(s) bit bitten

bleed(s) bled bled get(s) got (sometimes

got
gotten)
blow(s) blew blown
give(s) gave given
break(s) broke broken
go(es) went gone
bring(s) brought brought
grow(s) grew grown
broadcast(s) broadcast broadcast
hang(s) hung hung
build(s) built built
have(has) had had
burned/ burned/
burn(s) burnt burnt hear(s) heard heard
buy(s) bought bought hide(s) hid hidden
catch(es) caught caught hit(s) hit hit
choose(s) chose chosen hold(s) held held
come(s) came come hurt(s) hurt hurt
cost(s) cost cost keep(s) kept kept
cut(s) cut cut know(s) knew known
dig(s) dug dug lay(s) laid laid
do(es) did done lead(s) led led

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 learned/ learned/ steal(s) stole stolen
learn(s)
learnt learnt
swim(s) swam swum
leave(s) left left
take(s) took taken
lend(s) lent lent
teach(es) taught taught
let(s) let let
tear(s) tore torn
lie(s) lay lain
tell(s) told told
lose(s) lost lost

make(s) made made think(s) thought thought

mean(s) meant meant throw(s) threw thrown

meet(s) met met understand(s) understood understood

pay(s) paid paid woke woken

wake(s)
put(s) put put wear(s) wore worn

read(s) read read win(s) won won

ride(s) rode ridden write(s) wrote written

ring(s) rang rung

rise(s) rose risen

run(s) ran run

say(s) said said

see(s) saw seen

sell(s) sold sold

send(s) sent sent

set(s) set set

showed/
show(s) showed
shown

shut shut
shut(s)
sing(s) sang sung

sit(s) sat sat

sleep(s) slept slept

speak(s) spoke spoken

spend(s) spent spent

stand(s) stood stood

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 Active Voice vs. Passive Voice
There are two special forms for verbs called voice:

1. Active voice
2. Passive voice

The active voice is the "normal" voice. This is the voice that we use most of the time. You are probably
already familiar with the active voice. In the active voice, the object receives the action of the verb:

active subject verb object

>

Cats eat fish.

The passive voice is less usual. In the passive voice, the subject receives the action of the verb:

passive subject verb object

<

Fish are eaten by cats.

The object of the active verb becomes the subject of the passive verb:

subject verb object

active Everybody drinks water.

passive Water is drunk by everybody.

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 Passive Voice
The passive voice is less usual than the active voice. The active voice is the "normal" voice. But sometimes
we need the passive voice. In this lesson we look at how to construct the passive voice, when to use it and
how to conjugate it.

Construction of the Passive Voice

The structure of the passive voice is very simple:

subject + auxiliary verb (be) + main verb (past participle)
The main verb is always in its past participle form.

Look at these examples:

subject auxiliary verb (to be) main verb (past participle)

Water is drunk by everyone.

100 people are employed by this company.

I am paid in euro.

We are not paid in dollars.

Are they paid in yen?

Use of the Passive Voice

We use the passive when:

 we want to make the active object more important
 we do not know the active subject

subject verb object

give importance to active object President Kennedy was killed by Lee Harvey Oswald.
(President Kennedy)

active subject unknown My wallet has been stolen. ?

Note that we always use by to introduce the passive object (Fish are eaten by cats).

Look at this sentence:

 He was killed with a gun.

Normally we use by to introduce the passive object. But the gun is not the active subject. The gun did not kill
him. He was killed by somebody with a gun. In the active voice, it would be: Somebody killed him with a
gun. The gun is the instrument. Somebody is the "agent" or "doer".

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 Conjugation for the Passive Voice
We can form the passive in any tense. In fact, conjugation of verbs in the passive tense is rather easy, as the
main verb is always in past participle form and the auxiliary verb is always be. To form the required tense, we
conjugate the auxiliary verb.

So, for example:

 present simple: It is made
 present continuous: It is being made
 present perfect: It has been made

Here are some examples with most of the possible tenses:

infinitive to be washed

simple present It is washed.

past It was washed.

future It will be washed.

conditional It would be washed.

continuous present It is being washed.

past It was being washed.

future It will be being washed.

conditional It would be being washed.

perfect simple present It has been washed.

past It had been washed.

future It will have been washed.

conditional It would have been washed.

perfect continuous present It has been being washed.

past It had been being washed.

future It will have been being washed.

conditional It would have been being washed.

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 Gerunds and Infinitives
Verbs can be changed in form to have different functions. Gerunds, for example, are based on verbs, but they
are used as noun phrases. Infinitives are standard form of the verb before inflecting, or changing, it. They can
be used as verbs as well as noun phrases.

GERUNDS:
Gerunds act as nouns in a sentence. They are formed from the bare infinitive + -ing.

USES EXAMPLES

as the subject of a sentence Jogging three times a week is good for you.
short prohibitions or orders No waiting. No smoking.
as the complement of a verb His favorite pastime is fishing.
after prepositions They are only interested in playing games.
after some phrasal verbs We are looking forward to going on holiday.
after certain verbs:
avoid, consider, deny, dislike, enjoy, finish, I can´t imagine living anywhere else.
imagine, keep, like, love, mind, miss, postpone,
practice, prefer, remember, stop, suggest,
understand, try
after a pronoun or a possessive adjective following a I can understand their feeling unhappy.
verb
after certain expressions:
It´s no good….. It´s no good waiting any longer.
There´s no point in…. There´s no point in speaking more slowly.
It´s no use…. It´s no use waiting on the phone all day.
Would you mind…..? Would you mind opening the doorfor me

INFINITIVES:
The infinitive form of the verb is the base form that we use to create other verb forms. Infinitives are
expressed using to. Infinitives without to are called bare infinitives. Infinitives, like gerunds, can act as noun
phrases in a sentence.There are several types of infinitive. Avoid splittling the infinitive by putting any
additional words (negatives, adverbs) before to. This is common in US spoken English, but it is considered
informal.

TYPES EXAMPLES

simple infinitive to eat

continuous infinitive to be eating
perfect infinitive to have eaten
passive infinitive to be eaten
negative form (not comes before to) not to eat

USES EXAMPLES

as the object or complement of a verb He bagan to watch the film.

after these verbs followed by WHERE, WHY, WHICH, They can´t decide whether to study classics or
HOW, WHEN, WHETHER : ask, decide, discover, find modern languages.
out, forget, know, learn, remember, see, say,
think, understand, wonder
after these verbs: agree, arrange, appear, ask, We agreed to have a meeting about it.
attempt, choose, decide, demand, fail, forget,
hope, learn, manage, offer, plan, prepare,
promise, refuse, remember, seem, try
after too and enough They are old enough to drive a car.
as the subject of a sentence To leave now would be silly.
after these verbs followed by an object: advise, The company prefers its staff to dress formally.
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allow, ask, beg, command, enable, encourage,
expect, forbid, help, intend, invite, make, mean,
order, permit, persuade, prefer, remind, request,
teach, tell, want, warn
to express purpose They have bought a new car to replace the old one.
after these verbsshow, teach and tell using how in Can you show me how to use this?
short answers Do you want to go? Yes, I´d love to.
after certain adjectives relating to emotions I´m pleased to meet you.
after superlatives It was the most difficult thing to do.

Some verbs can be followed by both a gerubnd and an infinitive, sometimes with a change of meaning .

a) The meaning does not change with he following verbs:begin, start, continue, can´t bear, hate, like, love,
intend, advise, allow, recommend
It started raining at 4:00. It started to rain at 4:00.

b) Remember and forget: Use the gerund to express the earlier action; use the infinitive to express the later
action.
I remember telling you about the accident.
(The accident happened before I told you.)
She remember to lock he door.
(She remembered advice and then locked the door.)

c) Stop means to finish an action if followed by a gerund and to finish one action in order to do another one if
followed by an infinitive.
They stopped smoking when they begsan jogging.
The train stopped to allow passengers to get off.

d) Try means experiment if followed by a gerund and attempt if followed by an infinitive.

They tried using a knife instead of a key, but it still didn´t open.
They tried to open the door, but it was locked.

e) Be/Get/Become + used to + gerund means accustomed to.

They got used to driving on the right when hey moved abroad.

IMPERATIVES:
Imperative verbs are used to give commands or instructions. Use the bare infinitive of the verb. Use let´s to
make a suggestion, and use don´t for negative instructions.
Drive faster! Let´s run! Don´t cry!

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 Auxiliary / Helping Verbs
Helping verbs are also called "auxiliary verbs".
Helping verbs have no meaning on their own. They are necessary for the grammatical structure of a sentence,
but they do not tell us very much alone. We usually use helping verbs with main verbs. They "help" the main
verb (which has the real meaning). There are only about 15 helping verbs in English, and we divide them into
two basic groups:

Primary helping verbs (3 verbs)

These are the verbs be, do, and have. Note that we can use these three verbs as helping verbs or as main
verbs. On this page we talk about them as helping verbs. We use them in the following cases:

be
to make continuous tenses (He is watching TV.)
to make the passive (Small fish are eaten by big fish.)

have
to make perfect tenses (I have finished my homework.)

do
to make negatives (I do not like you.)
to ask questions (Do you want some coffee?)
to show emphasis (I do want you to pass your exam.)
to stand for a main verb in some constructions (He speaks faster than she does.)

Modal helping verbs (10 verbs)

We use modal helping verbs to "modify" the meaning of the main verb in some way. A modal helping verb
expresses necessity or possibility, and changes the main verb in that sense. These are the modal verbs:
can, could
may, might
will, would,
shall, should
must
ought to

Here are examples using modal verbs:

I can't speak Chinese.
John may arrive late.
Would you like a cup of coffee?
You should see a doctor.
I really must go now.

Semi-modal verbs (3 verbs)

The following verbs are often called "semi-modals" because they are partly like modal helping verbs and
partly like main verbs:
need
dare
used to

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 Modal Verbs
Modal verbs work with main verbs to express several shall, meaning. There are some important differences
between modal verbs and main verbs. The modal verbs are:-
CAN / COULD / MAY / MIGHT / MUST / SHALL / SHOULD / OUGHT TO / WILL / WOULD

Forms:
a) Spelling: no final –s in the third person singular.
I can swim. He can swim.
b) Forms: no infinitives, no participles, and no real past tenses. Modals are followed by the bare infinitive.
You must go now. You ought to go now.
c) Negatives: create the negative with not. We do not use the auxiliary do in the negative.
You must not tell anybody.
d) Questions: we do not use the auxiliary do to form questions. We invert the subject and he modal.
Can they swim? Will she come on time?
e) Short answers: modal verbvs without the main verb can be used in tag questions.
Can he speak English? Yes, he can.
f) Tag questions: modals wihout the main verb can be used in tag questions.
He should arrive soon, shouldn´t he?

Modals Examples Uses

Can They can control their own budgets. Ability / Possibility (present)

We can‘t fix it. Inability / Impossibility

Can I smoke here? Asking for permission

Can you help me? Request

Could Could I borrow your dictionary? Asking for permission.

Could you say it again more slowly? Request

We could try to fix it ourselves. Suggestion

I think we could have another Gulf War. Future possibility

He gave up his old job so he could work for us. Ability in the past
May May I have another cup of coffee? Asking for permission

China may become a major economic power. Future possibility

Might We'd better phone tomorrow, they might be eating their Present possibility

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 dinner now.

They might give us a 10% discount. Future possibility

Must We must say good-bye now. Necessity / Obligation

They mustn‘t disrupt the work more than necessary. Prohibition

Have to You have to get more exercise. Necessity / Obligation
Ought to We ought to employ a professional writer. Saying what‘s right or correct
Shall (More Shall I help you with your luggage? Offer
common in
the UK than Shall we say 2.30 then? Suggestion
the US)
Shall I do that or will you? Asking what to do
Should We should sort out this problem at once. Saying what‘s right or correct

I think we should check everything again. Recommending action

Profits should increase next year. Uncertain prediction

Will I can‘t see any taxis so I‘ll walk. Instant decisions

I'll do that for you if you like. Offer

I‘ll get back to you first thing on Monday. Promise

Profits will increase next year. Certain prediction

Would Would you mind if I brought a colleague with me? Asking for permission

Would you pass the salt please? Request

Would you mind waiting a moment? Request

"Would three o`clock suit you?" - "That‘d be fine." Making arrangements

Would you like to play golf this Friday? Invitation

"Would you prefer tea or coffee?" - "I‘d like tea please." Preferences

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 PREPOSITIONS
Definition: Prepositions are a class of words that indicate relationships between nouns, pronouns and other words in a
sentence. Most often they come before a noun. They never change their form, regardless of the case, gender etc. of the
word they are referring to.

English Time Examples Noun Examples Verb Examples Adjective Examples Adverb Examples of
Preposition Usage of Time Usage of Nouns Usage of Verbs Usage of Adjectives Usage Adverbs
ON Days of on Monday Attached the picture indicates congratulate, In the state Based on; To an Turn the
the week on the wall confidenc count, being keen on operating television on
on my for a place e or depend, plan, active, state
Individual birthday with a river London lies certainty: rely functioning Still on Drive on,
Days on the or Rock on
being on a Thames operating Right on Along,
surface River forwards And so on
Performing It´s on now ! (continuing
for a certain on the table according an action)
side (left, to schedule
right) on the left
Acceptable; In
for a floor in on the first Appropriate continuation,
a house or a floor at length
building Desitined,
on the bus, normally in
for public on a plane the context
transport of a
on foot, on challenge
walking or horseback being
riding on accepted
horseback on TV, on
the radio,
for
television, on 5th
radio Avenue

on a street

IN Months in August Building or in the indicates bump, crash, usually Experianced At home or in Is Mr. Smith
room, kitchen, the object drive, run referring to in; excellent the office in?
Seasons in winter involved ability. in; interested
town or in London in a in Moving to the The man
Time of in the country collision: interior of a walked in.
day morning defined space
Year in 2006 book, paper in the book such as a
building or He wasn´t
After a in an hour entering a in the car, room able to stay
certain car, taxi in a taxi in.
period of Still eligible
time picture in the to play
picture,
world
in the world

AT For night at night meaning next at the door, indicates glance, glare, usually amazed,
to, or by an at the direction: grin, laugh, referring to: astonished,
For at the object station look, point, strong shocked,
weekend weekend shoot, shout, reaction, surprised bad, XXXXXX XXXXXX
for table smile, stare ability. excellent,
A certain at nine pm good,
point of for age at the table hopeless,
time useless;
for events at 45 years

place where at a
you are to do concert,
something
typical at the
cinema, at
school, at
work
SINCE From a since 1980

19
 certain XXXXXX XXXXXX XXXXX XXXXXXX XXXXXX XXXXXXX XXXXXXX XXXXXXX
point of X
time (past
till now)
FOR Over a for 2 years Directed at, For Beth indicates apologize, to specify common,
certain intended to purpose or apply, ask, the person difficult, XXXXX XXXXX
period of belong to reason: leave, look, or the thing easy,
time (past search, wait that quality essential,
till now) Towards The relates to: important
astronauts necessary
headed for possible,
the moon. unnecess
ary
Supporting All those unusual,
(opposite of for the usual
against) motion
raise your
hands
Because of
He
wouldn‘t
apologize,
and just for
that, she
refused to
On behalf of help him

Out of (used I will stand

to indicate a in for him.
fraction, a
ratio) In terms of
base hits,
By the jones was
standards of three for
four on the
day

She is
energetic
for an old
lady.

FROM From a From Matt

XXXXX XXXXXX person XXXXX XXXXXXX XXXXXX XXXXXXX XXXXXXX XXXXXXX
(giver)

With the This wine

source or comes from
provenance France
of or at

With origin, He had

starting point books piled
or initial from floor
reference of to ceiling
or at

With the An
separation, umbrella
exclusion or protects
differential from the
of sun

AGO A certain 2 years ago

time in the XXXXX XXXXXX XXXXX XXXXXXX XXXXXX XXXXXXX XXXXXXX XXXXXXX
past
BEFORE Earlier before 2004 At an earlier I´ve never
than a XXXXXX XXXXXX XXXXX XXXXXXX XXXXXX XXXXXXX time done this
certain before.
point of In advance
time Before we

20
 begin
TO Telling ten to six movement to go to the the complain, usually close, equal, Toward a Please would
the time (5:50) person or cinema listener or explain, referring to: identical, closed, you push the
(before) building reader: listen, say, similarity, related, touching or door to
speak, talk, marriage, similar; engaging
movement to go to write loyalty, married, position Into the wind
a place or London / rank engaged;
country Ireland dedicated, Nautical
devoted, (sailing)
for bed go to bed loyal, and
their
opposites;
junior,
senior.;
PAST Telling ten past six In a direction I saw hi m
the time (6:10) XXXXXX XXXXXX XXXXX XXXXXXX XXXXXX XXXXXXX that passes walk past
(after)
TO / TILL / Marking from
UNTIL the Monday XXXXXX XXXXXX XXXXX XXXXXXX XXXXXX XXXXXXX XXXXXXX XXXXXXX
beginning to/till
and end Friday
of a time
Until
Before a Yesterday
time
(until)

TILL / In the He is on
UNTIL sense of holiday XXXXXX XXXXXX XXXXX XXXXXXX XXXXXX XXXXXXX XXXXXXX XXXXXXX
how long until
something Friday.
is going
to last
BY In the I will be left or right Jane is Indicates He cheated by usually Astonished Along a path I watched as
sense of back by 6 of somebody standing a his own referring to: by, puzzled which runs by it passed by
BY / NEXT at the o‘clock. or something by / next referenced admission strong by, shocked the speaker
TO / latest By 11 to / beside source reaction by, There was a
BESIDE Up to a o'clock, I rise or fall of the car according I avoided the In the cop close by
certain had read something to guards by vicinity, near
time five pages. Profits rose moving Come by
travelling by 10 % Indicates To or at a before you
a means place, as a leave
By car, by of residence or
bus, by place of
bike business

UNDER During The new Below the the bag is (figurative He gave in In a way This dress is
stadium is surface of under the ly) in the under XXXXXX XXXXXXX lower or less under priced
under something table face of; in interrogation than
construction. response something He is under
lower level the boys are to (some (beneath) us
under the attacking In a way
As a subject sheets force) inferior to
of,
subordinate
to He served
under
In a way General
inferior to Bradley

He is under
(beneath)
us

21
BELOW lower in the fish are In a lower Below us is a
XXXXX XXXXXX spatial below the XXXXX XXXXXXX XXXXXX XXXXXXX place secret room
position than surface
On a lower He lives on
lower in the storey the floor
value than temperature below us
is below Further down
south of zero Down below
Texas is Sailing – on you will see a
unsuitable to below the lower gas station
the rank or Oklahoma deck
dignity of Please look
Such petty temperature on the lower
stage behavior is deck
directions below me
(downstage) Temperature
Below the is below zero
sofa is a
low, round
table

OVER Beyond; I am over covered by put a jacket In certain Sales are Finished, The show is Again, once I had to do
past; my limit something over your collocatio down this ended or over. more, another my
exceeding else shirt n, as quarter over concluded time, repeated assignment
; too compared last over
much or meaning over 16 to Thoroughly,
too far more than years of age Six diners in completely, Let me think
While business from that over.
Across or walk over using, clothes relax beginning to
spanning the bridge especially over end He tipped the
while cigarettes bottle over.
overcoming climb over consumin From an
an obstacle the wall g The 2 boys upright I moved over
had a fight position to to make room
On top of, Concernin over whose being for him to sit
above; g or girlfriend was horizontal down
higher than; regarding best
further up Horizontally; Please pass
left to right or that over to
More than; to right to left me
a greater
degree From one Can I sleep
position or over?
Mathematics state to
(divided) another

Finished Over night

with, done (throughout
with; from the night)
one state to
another via a
hindrance that
must be
solved or
defeated

ABOVE higher than a path Farther Idaho is Of heaven, Heaven above Directly It is above the
XXXXX XXXXXX something above the north above Utah heavenly overhead microwave
else, but not lake
directly over Rising, The shelf is Being The Higher in the Above the
it He put his appearing above me located paragraph same page, dish products
coat on out of higher on above the earlier in the
Physically above his reach He was the same last. order as far as
over, on top shirt height- always above page oron a writing
of wise reproach preceding products go
The page.
Higher in president is Figurative The owner Into or from Up above
rank status or above the ly, higher was above heaven, in a
position CEO than, taking more higher place
superior than a token
In addition Above all to in any salary More in Choose a
to,besides things… respect number number above

22
 50
Surpassing in Above a Too proud
number or hundred… to stoop, Temperature Above 35C
quantity disincline
d
ACROSS getting to the walk across From one side She helped
XXXXX XXXXXX other side the bridge XXXXX XXXXXXX XXXXXX XXXXXXX to the other. the blind man
across.
At or near
the far end of It‘s across On the other If we sail at
(a space) the table. side noon, when
will we be
Spanning across?
This poetry
speaks In a particular He leaned
across the direction across for a
centuries book.
Throughout
All across Horizontally I got stuck on
the country, 4 across.
protest
So as to were
intersect or happening.
pass through
or over at an Lay the top
angle. stick across
the bottom
one.

THROUGH From one I went Passing Drive through From one side The arrow
XXXXX XXXXXX side of an through the XXXXX XXXXXXX from one the tunnel to another by went straight
opening to window side of an the way of the through.
the other object to interior.
the other
Entering then I drove From one end Others slept,
later leaving through the Finished; They are to another. he worked
town. Complete through with straight
Surrounded their through
by (while We slogged assignment.
moving) through the To the end. He said he
mud for Value less; After being would see it
hours without a implicated in through
before future the scandal,
giving up he was Completely. Leave the
and turning through as a yarn
By means of. back. politician. overnight so
that the color
This team soaks
believes in No longer She was through.
winning interested through with
( ) to ( ) and through him and their Out into the The
including , intimidatio relationship open. American
with all n. army broke
intermediate Proceeding The through through at St.
values The from origin flight through Louis.
number 1 to Memphis was
through destination the fastest.
100. without
delay due
to change
of
equipment

ABOUT Regarding Its about 7 In a circle So look indicates care, specify a bored, On all side, Tis time to
approxim o´clock. around, all about you; the complain, do, thing content, around look about
ately time around, on do you subject dream, displeased,
every side of, know matter: explain, hear, dissatisfied,
Here and Wandering
on the anyone know, speak, impatient,
there, around, about from
outside of here? talk, think, impressed,
in one place house to
write pleased,
and another house
Near, not far The show is satisfied.
searching for
from, about to

23
 regarding start. food
approximatel
y, on the
One after One about
point or
another, in another in
verge of.
the course of sequence to
events, in the game
Engaged in, I must be
intent on about my succession
business. About as high
Nearly, with as my table
Concerningw He knew close
ith regard to, more about corresponden
on account of what was ce
happening
than To face
anyone else To a reversed about. to turn
order, half one´s self
round, from a about
contrary point
of view

OF indicates hear, know, To specify afraid,

XXXXX XXXXXX who/what a page of facts of speak, talk, the person ashamed, XXXXXXX XXXXXXX
informatio think who has a convinced,
does it the book
n: quality: critical,
belong envious,
To specify frightened,
the cause of jealous,
a feeling: proud, scared,
to what the picture suspicious,
does it terrified, tired
of a brave,
show palace careless,
clever,
generous,
good,
intelligent,
kind, nice,
polite,
sensible, silly,
stupid,
thoughtful,

WITH Against he picked a indicates agree, argue, to specify bored, Along, Do you want
XXXXX XXXXXX fight with someone disagree, side the cause of content, together with to come with?
the class whose a feeling: displeased, others/group
bully. opinion is dissatisfied,
In company the same to specify a impatient,
of, alongside He went or person impressed,
with his different: pleased,
In addition friends satisfied.
to, as an
accessory to
She owns a
In support of motorcycle
with a
sidecar
By means of
(as an We are
instrument) with you all
the way

Cut with a
knife

24
EXCEPTIONS TO THE RULES OF SOME VERBS WITH PREPOSITIONS:

1. Many verbs that are used without an object are normally followed by a prepositional phrase. Some verbs take a particular
preposition:
belong to, consist of, happen to, hint at, hope for, insist on, lead to, listen to, pay for, qualify for, refer to, relate to,
sympathize with.

2. With other verbs that are used without an object, the choice of a different preposition may alter the meaning of the clause:
agree on/with, apologize for/to, appeal to/for, care about/of, complain to somebody about/of, conform to/with,
remind about/of, result from/in, suffer from/with, think about/of.

EXCEPTIONS TO THE RULES OF SOME ADJECTIVES WITH PREPOSITIONS:

1. When you use an adjective after a link verb, you can often use the adjective on its own or followed by a prepositional
phrase.

2. Some adjectives cannot be used alone after a link verb, if they are followed by a prepositional phrase, they must have a
particular preposition:
aware of, accustomed to, fond of, unaware of, unaccustomed to, used to, different from/to, sorry about/for.

3. Some adjectives can be used alone or with different prepositions.

a. Used alone or with an impersonal subject and ‘of’ and the subject of the action, or with a personal subject and ‘to’ and
the object of the action:
cruel, friendly, generous, good, kind, mean, nasty, nice, polite, rude, unfriendly, unkind.
b. Used alone, with ‘about’ to specify a thing or ‗with’ to specify a person:
angry, annoyed, delighted, disappointed, fed up, furious, happy, upset.

25
 ADJECTIVES
ORDER:

a. When more that one adjective is used, place them in the following order:

Size General Shape Color Origin Material Function Noun

small gray furry toy elephant

new square Chinese laptop computer

b. Use a comma to separate adjectives if you could have the word ``and`` between them:

a dark and stormy night = a dark, stormy night

COMPARATIVES:

There are 3 degrees of comparison: positive, comparative, and superlative.

1. Positive comparisons show that two items are equal.

The milk is as cold as ice.

2. Comparative comparisons contrast one item with another.

The milk is colder than wine.

3. Superlative comparisons compare one thing with a group of others.

The milk is the coldest.

FORMS OF COMPARATIVES:

Positive comparisons are made using ``as + adjective + as``.

Canada is as cold as Russia in winter.

Comparative and Superlative comparisons follow the pattern below. Note that comparatives are often
followed by than, and superlatives are preceded by the.

Adjective Spelling Examples

One or Two Syllables Regular Adjective (positive) Long

Add –er (comparative) Longer

Add –est (superlative) Longest

Three or More Syllables Regular Adjective (positive) Beautiful

26
 Use ´´more´´ (comparative) More Beautiful

Use ´´the most`` (superlative) The most Beautiful

Special
Ends in -y
Cases: positive Happy

Change –y to –i and add –er or -est comparative Happier

superlative The Happiest

Ends in -ful Regular

Use ´´more´´
Adjective
(comparative)
(positive) Careful
More careful

Use ´´the most`` (superlative) The most careful

Irregular Forms Bad – –worse

Good better- -the
theworst
best

Little – less – the least

Far – further – the furthest

MODIFYING ADJECTIVES:

a) a lot, much, a little, and farcan be added for more description.

 Mt. Everest is farhigher than Mt. Fuji, but Mt. Fuji is a littleeasier to visit.
b) so and such intensify the adjective. We use so in front of the adjective; such is used with an
adjective and a noun.
 The weather was so much worse than we expected.
 It was suchbad weather that they stayed at home all day.

27
 ADVERBS
Adverbs describe both verb phrases and adjectives.

TYPES OF ADVERBS & SENTENCE POSITION:

Adverbs appear in different positions in a sentence: initial, mid-, or final. This often is connected to the type
of adverb being used. In some cases they canappear in more than one position.
Type of Adverb Examples Position Examples

MANNER well, quickly, easily mid- or final Michael drove quickly.

TIME now, today, then final He´s coming today.

PLACE here, there, near final Don´t go near there.

FREQUENCY always, never, often mid- or final We always arrive on time.

He´s never late.

DEGREE too, very, quite, fairly before adjective It was too sweet.

enough after adjective It wasn´t salty enough.

SEQUENCE first, next, afterwards intial or final Call me first.

INTERROGATIVE where, when, which beginning of clause She knew where it was.

FORMS:
a) Many adverbs of manner are formed by adding –ly to the adjective.
Word ending Spelling Examples

consonant -ly slow – slowly

-y -ily happy – happily

-e -ly strange – strangely

-ic -ally basic - basically

Some exceptions apply to all of these cases: publicly, duly, shyly, responsibly.

b) Some adjective and adverbs have the same form.

Adjective Adverb Examples

hard hard They are hard workers. They work hard.

28
 fast fast The fast car turned the cor ner fast.

early early Pay early to get the early discount.

COMPARISONS:
a) Adverbs for the comparative and superlative with more and the most.
more carefully – the most carefully
b) Irregular Forms;
well – better – the best
badly – worse – the worst
little – less – the least
much – more - the most

MODIFYING ADVERBS:
Several expressions can expand the meaning of the adverb phrase, such as far, fairly, much, really.

She talked much too fast.

We slept fairly well on the train.

29
 DETERMINERS
A, AN, THE: Articles:

a) A is used with singular nouns. Use ``a`` before a consonant sound and ``an`` before a vowel
sound.
a computer
an apple

USES EXAMPLES

before count nouns mentioned for the 1st time You need a visa to visit Russia.
with professions Adam was an actor.
with expressions of quantity a lot if people, a dozen of eggs
with number expressions a hundred, a million

b) The is used with both singular and plural nouns.

USES EXAMPLES

unique items the sun, the moon, the 21st century

repeated items You need a visa to visit Moscow. The visa costs about $90.
superlatives Mt. Elbrus is the highest mountain in Europe.
ordinal numbers This is the second time I´ve met her.
groups of people the poor, the old, the unhappy, the Smiths
geographical names the Gobi Desert, the Himalayas

c) No article is used with singular nouns in some cases. This is sometimes called the zero article.

USES EXAMPLES

languages I speak Russian.

countries She´s moving to Mexico to learn Spanish.
titles of people Dr. Lam will see you now.
meals Do you want to meet for lunch?
professions and fields There are many people studying medicine.
places about town Meet me at Harrods so we can walk to Buckingham Palace.
years Everyone remembers 1984.

30
 QUANTIFIERS:
some, any, none, a few, many, each…
Quantifiers indicate quantity and amount when combined with noun phrases.

QUANTIFIER MEANING USES EXAMPLES

Some Plural of a, an,and one, with affirmative verbs I met some interesting
used for indefinite people at the party.
quantity
In questions when yes Did you make some
answer expected good friends at school?
In offers & requests Would you like some
more wine?
Any Indefinite quantity With negative verbs I didn´t buy any books
when I was in town.
In questions Have you seen any good
films recently?
No, None Lack of quantity With affirmative verbs I have no free time.
A few Range of quantity With nouns There are only a few
people there now.
A little Range of quantity With nouns She likes a little sugar in
her coffee.
A lot of ( lots of ) Range of quantity With nouns There are a lot of people
in São Paulo.
Many With count nouns but There are many people
used the most commonly learning English today. –
in questions & negative I don´t have many
statements. classes available.
Much With non- count nouns She doesn´t show much
but used the most interest in studying. –
commonly in questions How much do the
& negative statements. classes cost?
Each To highlight individual Emphasizes individual Each ticket is numbered.
items item
Every To highlight individual No specific emphasis Every school has a
items library.

**IMPORTANT NOTE: Much and many are not often used, in modern spoken English, in affirmative
statements; but they are very commonly used in interrogative and negative contexts. Rule of Thumb: don't
use much or many in affirmative statements.**

31
 NO vs NOT

No:
 No answers a yes/no question.
"No, the president wasn't surprised by the results of the election."

 No precedes a noun that has no article.

The company had no worthy rivals in the industry.

 No can be used before a noun that is preceded by an adjective, as in the preceding example, but it is
not used before any, much, many, or enough.
Jim has no argument with which to continue the discussion.
The manager had no reason to support his request for a raise.

Not:
 Not precedes a noun that has an article.
The virus is not the source of the outbreak.

 Not precedes any, much, many, or enough.

Not many amateur astronomers can afford the equipment necessary to study the nova.
There is not much budget left for another trial.

 Not makes a verb negative.

They do not want to proceed with the experimental study.

Note: No and not are never used in the same sentence.

CORRECT INCORRECT

The politician had no time left for in- The politician did not have no time
depth research. left for in-depth research.

The planner does not have any time The planner no has any time today
today to go over your suggestions. to go over your suggestions.

The doctor does not have a minute to The doctor not has a minute to lose
lose for a succesful operation. for a succesful operation.

32
 DOUBLE NEGATIVES
A double negative is the nonstandard usage of two negatives used in the same sentence so that they cancel
each other and create a positive. In Shakespeare's day, double negatives were considered emphatic, but today,
they are considered grammar mistakes.

Remembering that two negatives form a positive will help you to avoid the "double negative" grammar
problem:

Negative + Negative = Positive

Negative + Positive = Negative

Negative Words

The following list contains words that are regarded as negative. If you use them in your sentences once, your
statements will be negative.
no
nobody
not
no one
none
hardly
nothing
scarcely
nowhere
barely
neither

Using the rule explained above in the box and the list of negative words given, study the following examples:

Sentence Meaning
Positive Construction I hardly have none. I have some.
negative + negative
I don't want nothing. I want something.

Negative Construction I hardly have any. I have few.

negative + positive I don't want anything. I want nothing.

Note: the usage of double negatives is not considered proper or standard in English. On some occasions,
mostly when speaking, the use of double negatives is accepted; however, you must remember that the
meaning of these expressions will always be positive.

33
 Basic Sentence Structure
There are five basic patterns around which most English sentences are built.* They are as follows:

S-V Subject-Verb John sleeps.

Jill is eating.

Jack will arrive next week.

S-V-O Subject-Verb-Object I like rice.

She loves her job.
He's eating an orange.

S-V-Adj Subject-Verb-Adjective He is funny.

The workers are lazy.

Karen seems angry.

S-V-Adv Subject-Verb-Adverb Jim is here.

Flowers are everywhere.

No one was there.

S-V-N Subject-Verb-Noun She is my mom.

The men are doctors.

Mr. Jones is the teacher.

At the heart of every English sentence is the Subject -Verb relationship. Other elements can be added to make
a sentence more interesting, but they are not essential to its formation.

The following sentences are examples of the S-V pattern.

She sleeps. Core sentence

She sleeps soundly. An adverb is added to describe how she sleeps.

She sleeps on the sofa. A prepositional phrase is added to tell where she sleeps.

She sleeps every afternoon. A time expression is added to tell when she sleeps.

She is sleeping right now. Verb tense is changed, but S-V relationship remains the same.

Mary will sleep later. Subject is named and another tense is used.

The dogs are sleeping in the garage. New subject may require a different form of the verb.

Note: Any action verb can be used with this sentence pattern.

The following sentences are examples of the S-V-O pattern.

34
They like rice. Core sentence

The people like rice. Specific subject

The friendly people like rice. Subject modified with an adjective

The people in the restaurant like rice. Subject modified with an adjective

The people like boiled rice. Object modified with an adjective

The people like hot, white rice. Object modified with more than one adjective

Note: Only transitive action verbs can be used with this sentence pattern.

The following sentences are examples of the S-V-Adj pattern.

He is fine. Basic sentence with "be" verb

He seems happy. Basic sentence with another linking verb

Jordan is tall, dark and handsome. Series of adjectives

He appears very comfortable. Adverb or intensifier added

George became sick last night. Different tense and linking verb

Note: Only linking verbs can be used with this sentence pattern.

The following sentences are examples of the S-V-Adv pattern.

The teacher is here. Basic sentence

The teacher is over there. Using an adverb phrase

Teachers are everywhere. Plural noun and verb used

The teachers are in the lobby. Prepositional phrase functioning as adverb

Note: Only linking verbs can be used with this sentence pattern.

The following sentences are examples of the S-V-N pattern.

The man is a doctor. Basic sentence

The women are doctors. Using plural noun and verb

My father is a nice guy. Modified subject and complement

My grandparents are senior citizens. Modified plural subject and complement

Note: Only linking verbs can be used with this sentence pattern.

35
 Sentences: Simple, Compound, and Complex
Experienced writers use a variety of sentences to make their writing interesting and lively. Too many simple
sentences, for example, will sound choppy and immature while too many long sentences will be difficult to
read and hard to understand.

This page contains definitions of simple, compound, and complex sentences with many simple examples. The
purpose of these examples is to help the learner to identify sentence basics.

SIMPLE SENTENCE

A simple sentence, also called an independent clause, contains a subject and a verb, and it expresses a
complete thought.

A. Some students like to study in the mornings.

B. Juan and Arturo play football every afternoon.
C. Alicia goes to the library and studies every day.

The three examples above are all simple sentences. Note that sentence B contains a compound subject, and
sentence C contains a compound verb. Simple sentences, therefore, contain a subject and verb and express a
complete thought, but they can also contain a compound subjects or verbs.

COMPOUND SENTENCE

A compound sentence contains two independent clauses joined by a coordinator. The coordinators are as
follows: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so. (Helpful hint: The first letter of each of the coordinators spells
FANBOYS.) Except for very short sentences, coordinators are always preceded by a comma.

A. I tried to speak Spanish, and my friend tried to speak English.

B. Alejandro played football, so Maria went shopping.
C. Alejandro played football, for Maria went shopping.

The above three sentences are compound sentences. Each sentence contains two independent clauses, and
they are joined by a coordinator with a comma preceding it. Note how the conscious use of coordinators can
change the relationship between the clauses. Sentences B and C, for example, are identical except for the
coordinators. In sentence B, which action occurred first? Obviously, "Alejandro played football" first, and as
a consequence, "Maria went shopping. In sentence C, "Maria went shopping" first. In sentence C, "Alejandro
played football" because, possibly, he didn't have anything else to do, for or because "Maria went shopping."
How can the use of other coordinators change the relationship between the two clauses? What implications
would the use of "yet" or "but" have on the meaning of the sentence?

COMPLEX SENTENCE - SUBORDINATOR

A complex sentence has an independent clause joined by one or more dependent clauses. A complex sentence
always has a subordinator such as because, since, after, although, or when or a relative pronoun such as that,
who, or which.

A. Whenhehanded in his homework, he forgot to give the teacher the last page.
B. The teacher returned the homework after she noticed the error.
C. The students are studying because they have a test tomorrow.
D. After they finished studying, Juan and Maria went to the movies.
E. Juan and Maria went to the movies after they finished studying.

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When a complex sentence begins with a subordinator such as sentences A and D, a comma is required at the
end of the dependent clause. When the independent clause begins the sentence with subordinators in the
middle as in sentences B, C, and E, no comma is required. If a comma is placed before the subordinators in
sentences B, C, and E, it is wrong.

Note that sentences D and E are the same except sentence D begins with the dependent clause which is
followed by a comma, and sentence E begins with the independent clause which contains no comma. The
comma after the dependent clause in sentence D is required, and experienced listeners of English will often
hear a slight pause there. In sentence E, however, there will be no pause when the independent clause begins
the sentence.

COMPLEX SENTENCES – RELATIVE PRONOUNS

Finally, sentences containing adjective clauses (or dependent clauses) are also complex because they contain
an independent clause and a dependent clause. In these sentences, the independent clauses are also underlined.

A. The woman who called my mom sells cosmetics.

B. The book that Jonathan read is on the shelf.
C. The house which Abraham Lincoln was born in is still standing.
D. The town where I grew up is in the United States.

37
 Defining Relative Clauses
Use:
Use defining relative clauses to give information about a noun in a sentence. The listener or reader NEEDS
this information to understand the sentence.
A doctor is a person who cures sick people.
The girl who sits next to me at work has a bag just like yours.

Form:
 Use who to give more information about a person.
An architect is a person who designs buildings.
 Use which or that to give more information about a thing.
A corkscrew is a thing which you use to open bottles.
The book that you gave me for my birthday is really interesting.
 Use where to give more information about a place.
That’s the place where we got married.
The town where my uncle lives is a few miles from here.
 Because non-defining relative clauses give essential information, no commas (,) are needed.
 If the noun which the relative clause describes (usually at the beginning of the sentence) is the OBJECT
of the sentence, you can delete which, that or who.
The man who is wearing the blue suit is my brother.
The man is the subject of the sentence. You cannot delete who.
The man (who) George is talking to is my brother.
George is the subject of the sentence.
The man is the object of the sentence.
(The sentence can be rewritten: George is talking to a man. The man is my brother). So youcan delete who.
The book you lent me is really good.
You is the subject of the sentence.
The book is the object of the sentence.
(The sentence can be rewritten: You lent me a book. The book is really good. Which / that isnot necessary.)
The book which is on the table is really good.
The book is the subject of the sentence. (The sentence can be rewritten: The book is on the table. It’s really
good. Which / that is necessary.)

38
 Linking & Connection Words :Conjunctions
Cohesive Devices

A variety of useful English Conjunctions exists, which complete this list of the most used Cohesive
Devices. Together, they can help to express a cohesive view and easy understandable and readable texts.

Definition
Words that link two parts of a sentence are called conjunctions (see "to conjoin"). The most common
ones are 'and', 'or' and 'but'. There are three basic types of conjunctions:
coordinating conjunctions

used to connect two independent clauses

subordinating conjunctions
used to establish the relationship between the dependent clause and the rest of the sentence

correlative conjunctions
used to join various sentence elements which are grammatically equal
Conjunctions

Coordinating Conjunctions
Comes usually in the middle of a sentence, and a comma is used before the conjunction (unless both
clauses are very short). They join individual words, phrases, andindependent clauses.
Whereas coordinating conjunctions join parts of a 'sentence', the purpose of transitional words and
phrases usually is to join two 'sentences'.

Examples:
We can draw lessons from the past, but we cannot live in it.
The purpose of most computer languages is to lengthen your resume by a word and a comma.

And, but, for, nor, or, so, and yet — are the seven coordinating conjunctions. To remember them,
the acronym FANB OYS can be used.
1. F = for
2. A = and
3. N = nor
4. B = but
5. O = or
6. Y = yet
7. S = so

Subordinating Conjunctions
Also called subordinators, introduce a dependent clause. These adverbs that act like conjunctions
are placed at the front of the clause - and a comma is needed at the end of the adverbial phrase when
it precedes the main clause.

Examples:
If the only tool you have is a hammer, you tend to see every problem as a nail.
Some people make headlines while others make history.
Conjunctions Concession
 though  even though
 although  while

39
Conjunctions Condition
 if  until  even if
 only if  provided that  in case (that)
 unless  assuming that  lest

Conjunctions Comparison
 than  whether  whereas
 rather than  as much as

Conjunctions Time
 after  now that  when
 as long as  once  whenever
 as soon as  since  while
 before  till
 by the time  until

Conjunctions Reason
 because  so that  why
 since  in order (that)

Relative Adjective
 that  whatever  whichever
 what  which

Relative Pronoun
 who  whom  whose
 whoever  whomever

Conjunctions Manner
 how  as though  as if

Conjunctions Place
 where  wherever

Correlative Conjunctions
They are always used in pairs and denote equality; and show the relationship between ideas
expressed in different parts of a sentence - and thus make the joining tighter and more emphatic.
When joining singular and plural subjects, the subject closest to the verb determines whether the
verb is singular or plural.

 as . . . as  either . . . or  whether . . . or
 just as . . . so  neither . . . nor  not only . . . but also
 both . . . and  if . . . then  no sooner . . . than
 hardly . . . when  not . . . but  rather . . . than
 scarcely . . . when  what with . . . and

Conjunctive Adverbs
They are often used as a linking device between ideas. They show logical relationships expressed in
clauses, sentences or paragraphs.
Conjunctive adverbs are very emphatic, so they should be used sparingly.

Similar to And
 also  furthermore  moreover
 besides  likewise

40
Similar to But
 however  still  otherwise
 nevertheless  conversely  rather
 nonetheless  instead

Similar to So
 accordingly  meanwhile  thus
 consequently  then
 hence  therefore

41
 Linking & Connection Words: Transitions
Transitions and Word Phrases
This structured list of commonly used English transition words — approximately 200, can be considered as
quasi complete. It can be used (by students and teachers alike) to find the right expression. English transition
words are essential, since they not only connect ideas, but also can introduce a certain shift, contrast or
opposition, emphasis or agreement, purpose, result or conclusion, etc. in the line of argument.
The transition words and phrases have been assigned only once to somewhat artificial categorie s, although
some words belong to more than one category.
There is some overlapping with preposition and postposition, but for the purpose of clarity and completeness
of this concise guide, I did not differentiate.

Agreement / Addition / Similarity

The transition words like also, in addition, and, likewise, add information, reinforce ideas,
and express agreement with preceding material.

in the first place equally important too

not only ... but also by the same token moreover
as a matter of fact again as well as
in like manner to together with of
in addition and course likewise
coupled with also comparatively
in the same fashion then correspondingly
/ way
equally similarly
first, second, third
identically furthermore
in the light of
uniquely additionally
not to mention
like
to say nothing of
as

Opposition / Limitation / Contradiction

Transition phrases like but, rather and or, express that there is evidence to the contraryor point
out alternatives, and thus introduce a change the line of reasoning (contrast).

although this may on the other hand even so / though

be true
on the contrary be that as it may
in contrast
at the same time then again
different from
in spite of above all
of course ..., but

42
 in reality albeit conversely
after all besides otherwise
but as much as however
(and) still even though rather
unlike although nevertheless
or instead nonetheless
(and) yet whereas regardless
while despite notwithstanding

Cause / Condition / Purpose

These transitional phrases present specific conditions or intentions.

in the event that seeing / being that lest

granted (that) in view of in case
as / so long as If ... then provided that
on (the) condition unless given that
(that)
when only / even if
for the purpose of
whenever so that
with this intention
while so as to
with this in mind
because of owing to
in the hope that
as inasmuch as
to the end that
since due to
for fear that
while
in order to

Examples / Support / Emphasis

These transitional devices (like especially) are used to introduce examples as support, to
indicate importance or as an illustration so that an idea is cued to the reader.

in other words that is to say most compelling

evidence
to put it differently with attention to
must be
for one thing by all means remembered
as an illustration important to point often
realize overlooked
in this case
another key point to point out
for this reason
first thing to
to put it another on the positive /
remember negative side
way

43
 with this in mind markedly for example
notably especially for instance
including specifically to demonstrate
like expressively to emphasize
to be sure surprisingly to repeat
namely frequently to clarify
chiefly significantly to explain
truly in fact to enumerate
indeed in general such as
certainly in particular
surely in detail

Effect / Consequence / Result

Some of these transition words (thus, then, accordingly, consequently, therefore, henceforth) are
time words that are used to show that after a particular time there was aconsequence or an effect.

Note that for and because are placed before the cause/reason. The other devices are placed before
the consequences or effects.

as a result for thus therefore

under those because the thereupon
circumstances
then forthwith
in that case
hence accordingly
for this reason
consequently henceforth
in effect

Conclusion / Summary / Restatement

These transition words and phrases conclude, summarize and / or restate ideas, or indicate a
final general statement. Also some words (like therefore) from the Effect / Consequence category
can be used to summarize.

as can be seen given these points in summary

generally speaking as has been noted in conclusion
in the final analysis in a word in short
all things for the most part in brief
considered
after all in essence
as shown above
in fact to summarize
in the long run

44
 on balance by and large all in all
altogether to sum up Obviously
overall on the whole Ultimately
ordinarily in any event Definitely
usually in either case

Time / Chronology / Sequence

These transitional words (like finally) have the function of limiting, restricting, and definingtime.
They can be used either alone or as part of adverbial expressions.

at the present time finally henceforth

from time to time after whenever
sooner or later later eventually
at the same time last meanwhile
up to the present until further
time
till during
to begin with
since in time prior
in due time
then to forthwith
as soon as
before straightaway
as long as
hence by the time
in the meantime
since whenever
in a moment
when until now
without delay
once now that
in the first place
about instantly
all of a sudden
next presently
at this instant
now occasionally
first, second
formerly
immediately
suddenly
quickly
shortly

Many transition words in the time category (consequently; first, second, third; further; hence;
henceforth; since; then, when; and whenever) have other uses.

Except for the numbers (first, second, third) and further they add a meaning of time in expressing
conditions, qualifications, or reasons. The numbers are also used to add information or list
examples. Further is also used to indicate added space as well as added time.

45
Space / Location / Place

These transition words are often used as part of adverbial expressions and have the function to
restrict, limit or qualify space. Quite a few of these are also found in the Timecategory and can be
used to describe spatial order or spatial reference.

in the middle next wherever

to the left/right where around
in front of from between
on this side over before
in the distance near alongside
here and there above amid
in the foreground below among
in the background down beneath
in the center of up beside
adjacent to under behind
opposite to further across
here beyond
there nearby

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 Discourse Markers
Discourse markers (words like 'however', 'although' and 'Nevertheless') are referred to more commonly as
'linking words' and 'linking phrases', or 'sentence connectors'. They may be described as the 'glue' that binds
together a piece of writing, making the different parts of the text 'stick together'. They are used less frequently
in speech, unless the speech is very formal. Without sufficient discourse markers in a piece of writing, a text
would not seem logically constructed and the connections between the different sentences and paragraphs
would not be obvious. Care must also be taken, however, to avoid over-use of discourse markers. Using too
many of them, or using them unnecessarily, can make a piece of writing sound too heavy and 'artificial'. They
are important, but must only be used when necessary.
There are many discourse markers that express different relationships between ideas. The most common types
of relationship between ideas, and the sentence connectors that are most often used to express these
relationships, are given in the table below. The discourse markers in the table are generally used at the start
of a phrase or clause. (a clause is a minimal grammatical structure that has meaning in its own right, and
consists of a subject and verb, and often an object too). Sentence connectors do not always begin a completely
new sentence; they may be separated from the previous idea with a semi-colon.

Type of relationship Sentence connectors Position within

clause/sentence
Adding something Moreover; In addition; Additionally; Initial position
Further; Further to this; Also;
Besides; What is more.
Making a contrast between two However; On the other hand; In Initial position
separate things, people, ideas, etc. contrast; Yet.
Making an unexpected contrast Although; Even though; Despite the Initial position
(concession) fact that; In spite of the fact that; Starts a second/ subordinate
Regardless of the fact that. clause
Saying why something is the case Because; Since; As; Insofar as. Initial position
Starts a second/ subordinate
clause
Saying what the result of Therefore; Consequently; In Initial position
something is consequence; As a result;
Accordingly; Hence; Thus; For this
reason; Because of this.
Expressing a condition If; In the event of; As long as...; So Initial position
long as...; Provided that...; Starts a second/ subordinate
Assuming that...; Given that.... clause
Making what you say stronger On the contrary; As a matter of fact; Initial position
In fact; Indeed.

There are two particular features of the sentence connectors indicated above :
 Sentence connectors can be used to begin a new sentence or a new clause that follows a semi-colon.
 Some sentence connectors can be placed in different positions within the sentence: initial position
(e.g. Because he is ill, he needs to rest.) and 'mid-way position' at the start of another clause (e.g. He
must rest, because he is ill).

How can sentence connectors be replaced in order to increase variety in writing?

In your writing, you will want to spend some time ensuring that your work has a sense of variety. In order to do
this, you might think of the following :

Use conjunctions as well as/instead of sentence connectors. A conjunction is a word like and, but, etc, which
is used to join two ideas together into a complex sentence. Unlike sentence connectors such as 'However', etc, a
conjunction cannot be used at the beginning of a sentence and must come at a mid-point, at the end of one
clause and the beginning of another. It is usually possible to rephrase a pair of sentences that use a sentence

47
connector by using a conjunction instead. For example, instead of saying 'He studied French; however, his wife
studied Physics', it might actually be more natural to say 'He studied English but his wife studied Physics'.
Similarly, instead of saying 'English is hard; therefore, one must spend a lot of time practising it', we can say:
'English is hard so one must spend a lot of time practising it.' These are simple examples, but the principle of
paraphrase can be extended to other, more complex sentences.

Use conjunctions at least some of the time. Words like and and but may seem boring, but they help to lighten
the style of your writing. This in turn helps the writing to sound less pompous and formal. And in any case, in
writing, it is often helpful to use a variety of structures rather than just saying things in one way.

It can also be helpful to omit discourse markers if they do not serve any useful purpose. Knowing when to
omit the discourse marker is a subtle aspect of language use and comes with more practice and wider reading.

Try joining two clauses together by making one subordinate to the other. If we go back to the sentence 'He
studied English but his wife studied Physics', we can rephrase this as follows : 'He studied English whereas his
wife studied Physics', or 'He studied English while his wife studied Physics.' The clause beginning
with while/whereas is subordinate. this means that it is used to qualify/add extra information to the sentence,
but cannot stand on its own.

Remember, it can be tedious to read a piece of writing which has too many discourse markers. The
writing can seem pedantic, heavy and over-pompous. You are ideally seeking a light, flowing style, not a
heavy or forced one.

How are paragraphs linked together?

In much the same way that ideas within a paragraph are linked, a new paragraph must be linked in some way
with the previous one. This, too, necessitates the use of discourse markers.
Here are some different ways in which the opening of a paragraph can link back to what has happened before.
The three basic types of paragraph-paragraph relationship are : reinforcement of idea; contrast of idea; and
concession. Indicating these relationships builds a 'bridge' between paragraphs and makes reading the text
easier.
Relationship with previous paragraph Possible linguistic formula
Reinforcement of idea a) A further example of this phenomenon can be
seen in Foucault's work.
b) Jones (1999) further demonstrates this point in
his most recent research.
Contrast of ideas a) Jones, meanwhile/on the other hand, expresses
this notion as 'self-defence'.
b) This argument is not, however, accepted by all
critics. For instance, Smith (1999) holds that....
Concession a) Although the ideas of Jones (1999) are interesting
and useful, they do not take account of the growing
problems of identity theft.
b) While Roberts (2006) emphasises the importance
of Foucault's notion of the panopticon, the opposite
view is held by other commentators. For example,...

In your own writing, it is useful to consider the following points :

 Do my paragraphs serve a definite purpose?
 What is the exact link between the paragraph I have written and the previous paragraph? Is that link
clear?
 Are my paragraphs laid out strategically, in order to help me to organise my materials to best effect?
 Do my paragraphs help me to build up my ideas in a logical and gradual fashion?

48
 Question Types
There are 3 types of question:

1. Yes/No Questions (the answer to the question is "Yes" or "No")

2. Choice Questions (the answer to the question is "in the question")
3. Question Word Questions (the answer to the question is "Information")

1. Yes/No Questions
Answer
auxiliary verb subject main verb
Yes or No

Do you want dinner? Yes, I do.

Can you drive? No, I can't.

Has she finished her work? Yes, she has.

Did they go home? No, they didn't.

Exception! verb be simple present and simple past

Is Anne French? Yes, she is.

Was Ram at home? No, he wasn't.

2. Choice Questions
Answer
auxiliary verb subject main verb OR
In the question

Coffee, please.
Do you want tea or coffee?
Will we meet John or James? John.

Did she go to London or New York? She went to London.

Exception! verb be simple present and simple past

Is your car white or black? It's black.

Were they $15 or $50? $15.

3. Question Word Questions

Answer
question word auxiliary verb subject main verb
Information

Where do you live? In Paris.

When will we have lunch? At 1pm.

Who(m) did she meet? She met Ram.

Who has run out? Ati has run out.

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Who* ran out? Ati ran out.

Why hasn't Tara done it? Because she can't.

Exception! verb be simple present and simple past

Where is Bombay? In India.

How was she? Very well.

*When who is subject there is normally no auxiliary verb in past simple and present simple.

Question Words Table

Question Words Uses Examples

Who people Who is the man over there?

Whose possession Whose are these shoes?
What things What is that?
What + like descriptions What is your brother like?
What + time time What time does the show begin?
Which clarification or decisions Which do you prefer coffee or tea?
Where places Where does your grandma live?
When times and dates When is your birthday?
How method How do you get to the post office?
How many numbers How many days are there in January?
How much quantity and price How much does milk costs?
How old age How old are you?
How often frequency How often do you study English?

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 Question Tags
Use:
Use question tags in two situations.
1) You are not sure if something is true, so you want to check. In this case, your voice should rise when
you say the question tag.
↗
You’re not going now, are you?

2) You know something is true. You want to include/involve another person in the conversation. In this
case, your voice should fall when you say the tag. It does not sound like a question.
↘
He doesn’t live here now, does he?

Form:
Question tags are either:
1) positive statements with short, negative questions at the end.
These tags check something that you believe is true.
It’s Monday today, isn’t it?
2) negative statements with short, positive questions at the end.
These tags check something that you believe is false.
It’s not raining, is it?

Make question tags this way:

1) If there is an auxiliary verb or a modal verb, write it in the opposite form (positive or negative) at the
end of the sentence. Then write the subject pronoun of the sentence.
Ian’s nice, isn’t he?
Laura hasn’t arrived yet, has she?
I can’t do anything to help, can I?
We won’t be late, will we?

CAUTION:
1) Use aren ’ t with I’m in questions
tags.
I’m a bit careless, aren’t I? NOT I’m a bit careless, am not I?
2) In present and past simple sentences, use do, does or did in the question tag.
Brian and Cathy don’t eat meat, do they?
Your dad lives abroad, doesn’t he?
Your friends enjoyed themselves, didn’t they?
3) Use a positive question tag after never.
Miles never goes out, does he?

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 Reported Speech
Use reported speech to talk about what another person said in the past.
Eve: ‗I went to the party on Friday night‘.
James: ‗Eve said that she had gone to the party on Friday night‘.

Use:
1) When reporting speech, the verb in the sentence may shift to a past tense.
am / is / are changes to was / were

―I am fine.‖ She said that she was fine.

present simple changes to past simple

present continuous changes to past continuous

―I like it.‖ He said he liked it.
―She’s sleeping.‖ He said that she was sleeping.

―I’ll be there.‖ You said that you‘d be there.

will changes to would

―I can come to the meeting.‖ You said that you could come to the meeting.
can changes to could

―I did the shopping.‖ Tom said that he had done the shopping.
past simple changes to past perfect
present perfect changes to past perfect

―I’ve read that book.‖ I told him that I‘d read the book.

past continuous changes to past perfect continuous

―She was walking home alone.‖ He said that she had been walking home alone.

present perfect continuous changes to past perfect continuous

―I’ve been working,‖ I told him that I‘d been working.

2) To report speech, use He / She / I said (that) ...

You can also use He / She told me (that)...; I told him / her (that)...
3) Don’t use quotation marks (“) when reporting speech.
4) References to times in the past also may need to change when using reported speech, if that time is no
longer the same.

this morning / week / month → that morning / week / month

yesterday → the previous day

last week / month → the previous week / month

ago → earlier / previously

tomorrow → the following day

next week / month → the following week / month

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 Prefixes
Are often used to give adjectives a negative meaning but they can also give an idea of something.

-in / -un / -dis: these prefixes give adjectives a negative meaning

convenient similar just
inconvenient dissimilar unjust
comfortable edible loyal
uncomfortable inedible disloyal

in- turns to im- with words beginning with M or P

Mature Immature Partial Probable Migration
Patient Impatient Impartial Improbable Immigration

in- turns to ir- with words beginning with R and il- with words beginning with L

Replaceable Reversible Legal Illegal Literate Illiterate

Irreplaceable Irreversible Legible Illegible

in- prefix can also give the idea of inside or into

Internal Income Insert

Inside Import

un- and dis- not only can be used for negative content but also form the opposite fo verbs

Agree – Disagree, Bend – Unbend, Approve – Disapprove, Do – Undo, Believe – Disbelieve, Dress -Undress
Connect – Disconnect, Fold – Unfold, Credit – Discredit, Load – Unload, Like – Dislike, Lock – Unlock,
Mount – Dismount, Veil – Unveil, Prove – Disprove, Wrap – Unwrap, Qualify – Disqualify, Zip - Unzip

Prefix Meaning Examples

Anti against anti-war, anti-social, antibiotic

Auto of / by oneself autograph, auto-pilot, autobiography
Bi two, twice bicycle, bi-monthly, biannual
Ex- former ex-spouse, ex-president, ex-student
Ex out of extract, exhale, excommunicate
Micro small microscopic, microwave, micro-computer
Mis badly / wrongly mistranslate, misinform, misunderstood
Mono one / single monologue, monogamous, monotonous
Multi- many multi-racial, multi-national, multi-purpose
Over too much overdo, overslept, overeat
Post after postwar, postgraduate, post-revolutionary
Pro in favor of protest, progovernment, pro-life
Pseudo- false pseudo-scientific, pseudo-intellectual, pseudo-accidental
Re again / back reimburse, retype, replace
Semi half semicircular, semi-final, semi-detached
Sub under subway, submarine, subdivision
Under not enough undercooked, underwear, underused

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 Meeting the Most Often Used Suffixes
Some suffixes are used so frequently in the English language that you may not even think of them —
much less recognize them — as suffixes. These include -d/-ed, which are used to indicate tense on a verb,
and -s/-es, which are used to indicate number. Other suffixes are easy to identify, but you see them so
often that they merit mention right up front.

Picking favorites: -ment, -ence/-ance, -able/-ible, and -ion

Who's to say which suffixes are most important? Sure, some folks support -ness, -ity, and -ful, and
certainly -ate, -less, and -ly have their fans. Nonetheless, there are good reasons to be especially fond of
the suffixes -ment, -ence/-ance, -able/-ible, and -ion. You'll find these suffixes exceedingly useful for
deciphering unfamiliar words. Table 1 shows what these suffixes mean and gives examples of their use.

Table 1: Suffixes -ment, -ence/-ance, -able/-ible, and -ion

Suffix Meaning Example Speech Definition
-ment an action, process, or act of encouragement (en-kur- noun the act of encouraging; helpfulness
a speciied kind ij-ment)

argument (ahr-gyoo- noun the act of arguing or discussing; a

ment) dispute

-ence/ quality or state; an action or conference (kon-fur- noun a meeting; the process of conferring
-ance process uhns)
reverence (rev-er-ens) noun Deep respect mingled with awe; the
state of being revered

clearance (klear-uhns) noun giving the go-ahead; instance of

clearing

-able/ capable or worthy of, fit for; manageable (man-ij-uh- adj. submitting to control; capable of
-ible tending to, causing, given bul) being managed
to, or liable to
sustainable (suh-stayn- adj. tolerable; able to be sustained
uh-bul)

lovable (luv-uh-bul) adj. worthy of love

peaceable (pee-suh-bul) adj. tranquil; given to peace
collectible (kuh-lek-tuh- adj./nou desirable; worthy of collecting
bul) n
forcible (for-suh-bul) adj. vigorous; given to force;
accomplished by force
-ion act, result of an act, or state ablution (ab-loo-shun) noun act of washing
or condition

affirmation (af-er-may- noun act of agreeing

shun)
rebellion (rih-bel-yuhn) noun act of resisting
convocation (kon-voh- noun act of coming together
kay-shun)

The difference between the suffix -able/-ibleand the other suffixes in the table is that -able/-iblecreates
adjectives. The other suffixes create nouns. Another suffix that creates nouns is -age, which means "place

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 of" (orphanage, a place of orphans), "an act of" (breakage, the act of breaking), and "charge for"
(postage, charge for post).

Showing action: -ate, -en, -ite, and -ize

The suffixes -ate, -en, -ite, and -ize all mean "to make or do." Examples of words using these suffixes
include alienate, liberate, weaken, moisten, unite, ignite, visualize, and sanitize. As you may have
noticed, each of these words is a verb (a word that conveys action).Like just about every other word
element in English, suffixes have multiple meanings and can change the d efinition of a word. For
example, the suffix -ite, when it means "to make" or "do," creates verbs. However, -ite can also mean
"one who." In this case, the suffix creates a noun (socialite, for example). Always examine the word in
context, and if you're not sure, consult a dictionary.

Changing tense: -d/-ed and -ing

Suffixes can change a word's tense (or time). For example, adding the suffix -d or -ed to the end of a verb
changes it from present tense to past tense. Adding the suffix -ing changes a present-tense verb into a
present participle, or gerund. Table 2 shows the past tense, present participle, and gerund forms of several
verbs.

Table 2: Suffixes and Verb Tenses

Word Past Tense Present
Participle/Gerund

live lived living

fasten fastened fastening

run ran running

walk walked walking

Notice that the past tense of "run" is not formed with -d or -ed. Many verbs, such as am/was,buy/bought,
and sell/sold, form irregular past tenses. The suffix -ing, however, works for all verbs.
Tense is a form of a verb that shows time, action, or state of being. Verbs are the only words in English
that can show tense. English verbs have six tenses: present (walk), past (walked), future (will walk),
present perfect (have walked), past perfect (had walked),future perfect (will have walked). Adding a
suffix to a word to change its tense is called conjugating the verb. For four of the six tenses you also add a
"helping verb" such as have or will.

Adding amounts: -s, -es, and others

How many of a certain thing do you have? One?More than one? To indicate number, you use suffixes. In
particular, you use the following suffixes: -s and -es. By attaching these suffixes to a singular noun
(house, tree, boat, and box, for example), you make the noun plural (houses, trees, boats, and boxes).
Of course, not all English plurals are made by adding a simple -s or -es. Sometimes the ending of the
word is changed in other ways. Child, for example, becomes children.Ox becomes oxen. And then you
have the ever-popular Latin words that retain their Latin plurals: Radius becomes radii (ray-dee-eye), and
alumna (uh-lum-nuh) becomes alumnae (uh-lum-nee).
Suffixes can show amount or number — something that can come in handy in your daily conversation
and writing when you want to explain how many or how much.
Don't forget the suffixes that produce adjectives that show amount in a more subtle fashion: -ful, -ose/-
ous, and -y all mean "full of."

 -y produces risky (full of danger) and wily (full of sly tricks).

 -ful gives you healthful (full of physical well-being) and cheerful (full of gladness).
 -ose/-ous leads to morose (full of sadness) and perilous (full of danger).

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 SUFFIXES CHART
Suffix Meaning Example Speech

-ment An action, process, or act of a Encouragement Noun

specified kind
Argument

-ence / ance Quality or state, an action or Conference Noun

process
Reverence

Clearance

-th a suffix forming nouns of action or Birth; Noun

abstract nouns denoting quality or
condition depth; length; warmth

-tion / sion Act, result of an act or state or Affirmation Noun

condition
Rebellion

-er / or persons from the object of their Writer Noun

occupation or labor, or from
their place of origin or abode, or Worker
designating either persons or
Shopper
things from some special
characteristic or circumstance Teacher

Bottle-opener

Projector

-ee denote a person who is the Employee Noun

object or beneficiary of the act
specified by the verb recent Addressee
formations now also mark the
Payee
performer of an act

-ist / ism often corresponding to verbs apologist; dramatist; Noun

ending in -izeor nouns ending in machinist; novelist; realist;
-ism, that denote a person who socialist; Thomist
practices or is concerned with
something, or holds certain
principles, doctrines, etc.:.

-ness a native English suffix attached darkness; goodness; Noun

to adjectives and participles, kindness; obligingness;
forming abstract nouns denoting preparedness.
quality and state (and often, by
extension, something
exemplifying a quality or state):

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-ing used primarily in two closely Leaning is fun. Noun
related ways:As a verb to
indicate the progressive aspect,
as in "I am learning about
English grammar" or As a
corresponding noun, as in
"Learning is fun"

-ity a suffix used to form abstract jollity; Abstract

nouns expressing state or
condition: civility; Noun

Latinity.

-hood a native English suffix denoting childhood; likelihood; Abstract

state, condition, character, knighthood; priesthood . Noun
nature, etc., or a body of persons
of a particular character or class,
formerly used in the formation
of nouns:

-ship native English suffix of nouns clerkship; friendship; Abstract

denoting condition, character, statesmanship. Noun
office, skill, etc.:

-ive a suffix of adjectives (and nouns corrective; destructive; Adjective

of adjectival origin) expressing detective; passive; sportive.
tendency, disposition, function,
connection, etc.

-al a suffix with the general sense autumnal; natural; pastoral , Adjective
―of the kind of, pertaining to, accidental; seasonal; tribal.
having the form or character of‖ familiarand familial.
that named by the stem,
occurring in loanwords from
Latin and productive in English
on the Latin model, usually with
bases of Latin origin Originally,
-AL 1 was restricted to stems not
containing an -l- ( compare ar-1
); recent lapses in this rule have
produced semantically distinct
pairs, as

-ous asuffix forming adjectives that covetous; glorious; nervous; Adjective

have the general sense wondrous; atrocious;
―possessing, full of‖ a given contiguous; garrulous;
quality -ousand its variant - obvious; stupendous.
ioushave often been used to

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 Anglicize Latin adjectives with
terminations that cannot be
directly adapted into English.

-ful a suffix meaning ―full of,‖ beautiful; careful; wakeful; Adjective

―characterized by‖ ―tending to,‖ harmful; spoonful.
―able to‖ ―as much as will fill‖

-less an adjectivesuffix meaning childless; peerless , resistless; Adjective

―without‖and in adjectives tireless. (opposite)
derived from verbs, indicating
failure or inability to perform or
be performed

-able / ible Capable or worthy of, fit for, Manageable Adjective

lending to, causing, given to, or
liable to Lovable

Forcible

-ish asuffix used to form adjectives British; Danish; English; Adjective

from nouns, with the sense of Spanish babyish; girlish;
―belonging to‖ ; ―after the bookish; freakish fiftyish;
manner of,‖ ―having the sevenish
characteristics of,‖ ―like‖;
―addicted to,‖ ―inclined or
tending to‖ ; ―near or about‖.

-some a native English suffix formerly quarrelsome; burdensome. Adjective

used in the formation of
adjectives:

-ify variant of -fy after a consonant: intensify. Verb

-ise / ize a verb-forming suffix occurring baptize; barbarize; Verb
originally in loanwords from
Greek that have entered English actualize; fossilize; sterilize;
through Latin or French within Americanize;
English, -izeis added to
computerize;hospitalize;
adjectives and nouns to form
terrorize; oxidize;
transitive verbs with the general
winterizecrystallizeapologize;
senses ―to render, make‖ (), ―to
moralize; tyrannize
convert into, give a specified
economize; philosophize;
character or form to‖ ―to subject
theorize.
to (as a process, sometimes
named after its originator)‖).
Also formed with -izeare a more
heterogeneous group of verbs,
usually intransitive, denoting a
change of state (), kinds or
instances of behavior), or
activities

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-ly The suffix-ly in English is Criminally Adverb
usually a contraction of -like,
similar to the Anglo-Saxon lice Mysteriously
and German lich. Though the
origin of the suffix is Germanic, Magically
it may now be added to
adjectives of Latin origin, as in
publicly.

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