Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach, 6th Edition

Yunus A. Cengel, Michael A. Boles

McGraw-Hill, 2008

Chapter 4
ENERGY ANALYSIS OF
CLOSED SYSTEMS
Ummi Kalthum Binti Ibrahim
Faculty of Chemical Engineering
UiTM Malaysia
MOVING BOUNDARY WORK
Moving boundary work (P dV work): Quasi-equilibrium process:
The expansion and compression work A process during which the system
in a piston-cylinder device. remains nearly in equilibrium at all
times.
Wb is positive  for expansion
Wb is negative  for compression

The work associated

with a moving
boundary is called
A gas does a boundary work.
differential
amount of work
Wb as it forces
the piston to
move by a
differential
amount ds. 3
 Polytropic, Isothermal, and Isobaric processes
Polytropic process: C, n (polytropic exponent) constants
Polytropic
process

Polytropic and for ideal gas

When n = 1
(isothermal process)

Constant pressure process

What is the boundary

work for a constant-
volume process?

The boundary
work done during Schematic and
a constant- P-V diagram for
volume process is a polytropic
always zero process. 5
 Class Activity
A piston–cylinder device initially contains 0.07 m3 of nitrogen gas at 130 kPa
and 120°C. The nitrogen is now expanded polytropically to a state of 100 kPa
and 100°C. Determine the boundary work done during this process.
Answer: 1.86 kJ

A mass of 5 kg of saturated water vapor at 300 kPa is heated at constant

pressure until the temperature reaches 200°C. Calculate the work done by the
steam during this process. Answer: 165.9 kJ

A mass of 2.4 kg of air at 150 kPa and 12°C is contained in a gas-tight,

frictionless piston–cylinder device. The air is now compressed to a final
pressure of 600 kPa. During the process, heat is transferred from the air
such that the temperature inside the cylinder remains constant. Calculate the
work input during this process. Answer: -272 kJ

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ENERGY BALANCE FOR CLOSED SYSTEMS
Energy balance for any system
undergoing any process

Energy balance
in the rate form

The total quantities are related to the quantities per unit time is

Energy balance per

unit mass basis
Energy balance in
differential form

Energy balance
for a cycle

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Energy balance when sign convention is used (i.e., heat input and work
output are positive; heat output and work input are negative).

Various forms of the first-law relation

For a cycle E = 0, thus Q = W. for closed systems when sign
convention is used.
The first law cannot be proven mathematically, but no process in nature is known
to have violated the first law, and this should be taken as sufficient proof.
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 Energy balance for a constant-pressure
expansion or compression process
General analysis for a closed system For a constant-pressure expansion
undergoing a quasi-equilibrium or compression process:

U  Wb  H
constant-pressure process. Q is to the
system and W is from the system.

An example of constant-pressure process

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 Class Activity

A piston–cylinder device contains 5 kg of refrigerant-134a at 800 kPa and

70°C. The refrigerant is now cooled at constant pressure until it exists as a
liquid at 15°C. Determine the amount of heat loss and show the process on a
T-v diagram with respect to saturation lines. Answer: 1173 kJ

2 kg of saturated liquid water at 150°C is heated at constant pressure in a

piston-cylinder device until it is saturated vapor. Determine the heat transfer
required for this process. Answer: 4228 kJ

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 SPECIFIC HEATS
Specific heat at constant volume, cv: The energy required to raise
the temperature of the unit mass of a substance by one degree as
the volume is maintained constant.
Specific heat at constant pressure, cp: The energy required to raise
the temperature of the unit mass of a substance by one degree as
the pressure is maintained constant.

Constant-
volume and
constant-
Specific heat is the energy pressure specific
required to raise the heats cv and cp
temperature of a unit mass (values are for
of a substance by one helium gas).
degree in a specified way. 11
• The equations in the figure are valid for any substance undergoing any
process.
• cv and cp are properties.
• cv is related to the changes in internal energy and cp to the changes in
enthalpy.
• A common unit for specific heats is kJ/kg · °C or kJ/kg · K. Are these units
identical?

Formal definitions of cv and cp.

The specific heat of a substance

changes with temperature.

True or False?
cp is always greater than cv.
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 Class Activity

Neon is compressed from 100 kPa and 20°C to 500 kPa in an isothermal
compressor. Determine the change in the specific volume and specific
enthalpy of neon caused by this compression. Answer: Δu = −0.966 m3 /kg,
Δh = 0 kJ/kg

Determine the internal energy change u of hydrogen, in kJ/kg, as it is heated

from 200 to 800 K, using (a) the empirical specific heat equation as a
function of temperature (Table A–2c), (b) the cv value at the average
temperature (Table A–2b), and (c) the cv value at room temperature (Table
A–2a). Answers: (a) 6194 kJ/kg, (b) 6233 kJ/kg (c) 6110 kJ/kg

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INTERNAL ENERGY, ENTHALPY,
AND SPECIFIC HEATS OF IDEAL GASES

Joule showed
using this
experimental Internal energy and
apparatus that For ideal gases,
enthalpy change of
u=u(T) u, h, cv, and cp
an ideal gas
vary with
temperature only.
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Internal energy and enthalpy change when
specific heat is taken constant at an
average value

(kJ/kg)

For small temperature intervals, the

specific heats may be assumed to vary
linearly with temperature.

The relation  u = cv T
is valid for any kind of
process, constant-
volume or not.
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Three ways of calculating u and h
1. By using the tabulated u and h data.
This is the easiest and most
accurate way when tables are
readily available.
2. By using the cv or cp relations (Table
A-2c) as a function of temperature
and performing the integrations. This
is very inconvenient for hand
calculations but quite desirable for
computerized calculations. The
results obtained are very accurate.
3. By using average specific heats.
This is very simple and certainly very
convenient when property tables are
not available. The results obtained Three ways of calculating u.
are reasonably accurate if the
temperature interval is not very
large.

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 Specific Heat Relations of Ideal Gases
The relationship between cp, cv and R

dh = cpdT and du = cvdT On a molar basis

Specific
heat ratio

• The specific ratio varies with

temperature, but this variation is
very mild.
• For monatomic gases (helium,
argon, etc.), its value is essentially
constant at 1.667.
The cp of an ideal gas can be
determined from a knowledge of • Many diatomic gases, including air,
cv and R. have a specific heat ratio of about
1.4 at room temperature.
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 Class Activity

A mass of 15 kg of air in a piston–cylinder device is heated from 25 to

77°C by passing current through a resistance heater inside the cylinder.
The pressure inside the cylinder is held constant at 300 kPa during the
process, and a heat loss of 60 kJ occurs. Determine the electric energy
supplied, in kWh. Answer: 0.235 kWh

A piston–cylinder device contains 0.8 kg of nitrogen initially at 100 kPa

and 27°C. The nitrogen is now compressed slowly in a polytropic
process during which PV1.3 = constant until the volume is reduced by
one-half. Determine the work done and the heat transfer for this process.
Answers: W = 54.8 kJ and Qb = 13.6 kJ

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INTERNAL ENERGY, ENTHALPY, AND
SPECIFIC HEATS OF SOLIDS AND LIQUIDS
Incompressible substance: A substance whose specific volume
(or density) is constant. Solids and liquids are incompressible
substances.

The specific volumes of The cv and cp values of

incompressible substances incompressible substances are
remain constant during a identical and are denoted by c.
process.
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Internal Energy Changes

Enthalpy Changes

The enthalpy of a
compressed liquid
A more accurate relation than 21
 Class Activity

An ordinary egg can be approximated as a 5.5 cm diameter sphere. The

egg is initially at a uniform temperature of 8°C. Taking the properties of the
egg to be ρ = 1020 kg/m3 and c = 3.32 kJ/kg·°C, determine how much heat
is transferred to the egg by the time the average temperature of the egg
rises to 80°C. Answer: 21.2 kJ

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