GEOPHYSICS, VOL. 67, NO. 1 (JANUARY-FEBRUARY 2002); P. 77–88, 10 FIGS.

10.1190/1.1451353

IP interpretation in environmental investigations

Lee D. Slater∗ and David Lesmes‡

ABSTRACT and surface chemistry. Laboratory and field experiments

The induced polarization (IP) response of rocks and were performed to determine the dependence of the
soils is a function of lithology and fluid conductivity. standard IP parameters and the normalized chargeabil-
IP measurements are sensitive to the low-frequency ca- ity on two important environmental parameters: salin-
pacitive properties of rocks and soils, which are con- ity and clay content. The laboratory experiments illus-
trolled by diffusion polarization mechanisms operating trate that the chargeability is strongly correlated with
at the grain-fluid interface. IP interpretation typically is the sample resistivity, which depends on salinity, poros-
in terms of the conventional field IP parameters: charge- ity, saturation, and clay content. The normalized charge-
ability, percentage frequency effect, and phase angle. ability is shown to be independent of the sample resistiv-
These parameters are dependent upon both surface po- ity and it is proportional to the quadrature conductivity,
larization mechanisms and bulk (volumetric) conduction which is directly related to the surface polarization pro-
mechanisms. Consequently, they afford a poor quantifi- cesses. Laboratory-derived relationships between con-
cation of surface polarization processes of interest to the ductivity and salinity, and normalized chargeability and
field geophysicist. A parameter that quantifies the mag- clay content, are extended to the interpretation of 1-D
nitude of surface polarization is the normalized charge- and 2-D field-IP surveys. In the 2-D survey, the ap-
ability, defined as the chargeability divided by the resis- parent conductivity and normalized chargeability data
tivity magnitude. This parameter is proportional to the are used to segment the images into relatively clay-free
quadrature conductivity measured in the complex resis- and clay-rich zones. A similar approach can eventually
tivity method. For nonmetallic minerals, the quadrature be used to predict relative variations in the subsurface
conductivity and normalized chargeability are closely clay content, salinity and, perhaps, contaminant concen-
related to lithology (through the specific surface area) trations.

INTRODUCTION and Waxman, 1984), the detection of both inorganic contam-

inants (Cahyna et al., 1990; Ruhlow et al., 1999) and organic
In recent years, the induced polarization (IP) method has contaminants (Olhoeft, 1984, 1985, 1992; Vanhala et al., 1992),
seen increasing use in environmental applications (Ward et al., and permeability estimation (Knoll et al., 1994; Borner et al.,
1995). IP measurements are sensitive to the low-frequency ca- 1996; Sturrock et al., 1999). Although IP methods are being
pacitive properties of rocks and soils that result from diffusion- used more frequently in environmental investigations, they are
controlled polarization processes at the interface between min- not as widely used as other electrical methods [e.g., dc resis-
eral grains and the pore fluid. Previous workers have shown tivity, electromagnetic (EM) methods, and ground-penetrating
that these surface polarization mechanisms can be very sen- radar], and their full potential has yet to be realized.
sitive to changes in the lithology and pore fluid chemistry A number of factors have contributed to the underutiliza-
(Vacquier et al., 1957; Marshall and Madden, 1959; Bodmer tion of IP methods in environmental investigations. First, IP
et al., 1968; Ogilvy and Kuzmina, 1972; Pelton et al., 1978; data acquisition is difficult and time consuming, requiring sen-
Klien and Sill, 1982). Environmental examples of the successful sitive nonpolarizing electrodes and careful layout of wiring in
use of IP include saline intrusion mapping (Seara and Granda, order to prevent unwanted EM coupling effects. Second, 2-D
1987), the detection of clay units (Iliceto et al., 1982; Vinegar and 3-D inversion codes have not been available to facilitate

Manuscript received by the Editor November 29, 1999; revised manuscript received April 4, 2001.
∗
Formerly University of Southern Maine, Department of Geosciences, Gorham Maine 04038; presently University of Missouri–Kansas City,
Department of Geosciences, 5100 Rockhill Road, Kansas City, Missouri 64110. E-mail: [email protected].
‡Boston College, Department of Geology and Geophysics, 140 Commonwealth Avenue, Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts 02167. E-mail: [email protected].
°c 2002 Society of Exploration Geophysicists. All rights reserved.

77
78 Slater and Lesmes

interpretation. Finally, and most fundamental, the physiochem- or as a frequency-dependent resistivity (frequency-domain
ical interpretation of IP parameters is not well established or measurement). A measure of the magnitude of the IP effect
fully understood. Recent developments of sophisticated and in the time domain is the chargeability M (e.g., Schön, 1996,
automated IP field instruments, and powerful 2-D and 3-D 458),
inversion codes have significantly improved our capabilities Z tf
for performing high-quality IP field surveys (LaBrecque, 1991; Vs dt
Oldenburg and Li, 1994; Weller et al., 1996; Shi et al., 1998). ts 1
M= , (1)
However, a definitive physiochemical model or explanation Vp 1t
for the IP response of rocks and soils has not been established
where Vs is a residual voltage integrated over a time window
(Ward et al., 1995). Therefore, interpretation of the various IP
defined between times ts and t f after termination of an applied
parameters is still qualitative and, to a large degree, subjective.
current, V p is the measured voltage at some time during appli-
A better understanding of the relation between the IP parame-
cation of the current, and 1t equals the length of the integrated
ters and subsurface lithological and fluid properties is required
time window. Units of chargeability are typically quoted as mil-
in order to increase the effectiveness of IP interpretation in
livolts per volt (mV/V). In the frequency domain, the IP effect
environmental investigations.
can be measured by the percentage frequency effect (PFE),
A number of field parameters were adopted during the de-
velopment of IP for mineral exploration. These include the σ (ω1 ) − σ (ω0 )
time domain chargeability M, percentage frequency effect PFE = × 100, (2)
σ (ω0 )
(PFE), and the phase angle φ (all defined below). These pa-
rameters were developed as a result of instrumentation limita- where σ (ω1 ) and σ (ω0 ) are the formation conductivity magni-
tions and the way the IP effect was traditionally measured. The tude measured at frequencies ω1 and ω0 (ω1 > ω0 ), respectively.
field IP parameters (φ, PFE, M) are sensitive to both the bulk In complex resistivity surveys, the phase angle (φ) at a partic-
conduction and surface polarization properties of a material. ular frequency is typically used to express the IP properties of
Weighting the field IP parameters by the measured conduc- the formation. For small phase angles, which are typically ob-
tivity (or dividing by resistivity) yields the following normal- served in nonmetallic environments, the phase is equal to the
ized IP parameters: quadrature conductivity (σ 00 ), metal factor ratio of the imaginary conductivity (σ 00 ) to the real conductivity
(MF), and a normalized chargeability (MN), which was called (σ 0 ),
µ ¶
a “specific capacity” by Keller (1959). These normalized IP pa- σ 00 (ω) ∼ σ 00 (ω)
rameters are independent of the bulk conduction effects and φ(ω) = tan−1 = 0 . (3)
σ 0 (ω) σ (ω)
they are much more sensitive to the surface chemical proper-
ties of the material (Lesmes and Frye, 2001). Since the surface Nonmetallic polarization results from diffusion controlled
chemical properties are very sensitive to changes in geochem- polarization processes at the interface between the mineral
ical and microstructural parameters, the use of normalized IP surfaces and the pore solution. This surface-controlled polar-
parameters should improve the effectiveness of IP surveys in ization can be represented by a complex surface conductivity,
environmental investigations. ∗ 0 00
The objective of this paper is to use laboratory and field σsur f (ω) = σsur f (ω) + iσsur f (ω). (4)
data to demonstrate pore-fluid and lithologic controls on the
The large surface area associated with clay minerals enhances
IP parameters. We also discuss the implications of these lab-
the magnitude of polarization in sediments and rocks. How-
oratory and field studies for the interpretation of IP data in
ever, polarization effects are also significant and measurable
environmental investigations. Our laboratory results substan-
even in clay-free unconsolidated material (e.g., Keller, 1959;
tiate the findings of Lesmes and Frye (2001). We find that that
Marshall and Madden, 1959; Vinegar and Waxman, 1984;
the normalized chargeability is closely related to lithologic fac-
Vanhala, 1997).
tors and helps to distinguish IP effects due to lithology from IP
In simple terms, the IP response reflects the degree to which
effects due to salinity. The field studies show that the normal-
the subsurface is able to store electrical charge, analogous to
ized chargeability, as proposed by Keller (1959) and adopted
a capacitor. At high frequencies, the intrinsic capacity of the
by Lesmes and Frye (2001), is a valuable parameter in the inter-
material is primarily determined by the high-frequency dielec-
pretation of field-scale IP surveys for environmental purposes.
tric constant (k∞ ). The high-frequency imaginary conductivity
The format of this paper is as follows. First, the IP method is 00
response is given by σ∞ = ωk∞ ε0 , where ε0 is the permittivity
reviewed and the significance of the various IP parameters is
of vacuum. At low frequencies (f ≤ 1000 kHz), where IP phe-
discussed in terms of volumetric conduction and surface po- 00
nomenon are typically measured in the field, ωκ∞ ε0 ¿ σsurf (ω),
larization mechanisms. Next, laboratory results illustrating the
and the low-frequency complex conductivity response of the
IP dependence on fluid conductivity and structural properties
sample is given by,
are presented. The laboratory studies are then used to inter-
pret field IP surveys in terms of the effective salinity and clay σ ∗ = (σbulk + σsur
0 00
f (ω)) + iσsur f (ω), (5)
content. Finally, the broader significance of our findings is dis-
cussed in terms of potential applications of the IP method in where σbulk is a bulk conduction term. In this frequency range,
environmental applications. the imaginary component of the conductivity can be consid-
ered a function of the surface conductivity, whereas the real
IP MODEL AND RELATION TO FIELD IP PARAMETERS component of the conductivity is a function of both the bulk
and surface conductivity mechanisms. The simple equivalent
The IP effect manifests itself as a residual voltage following circuit model in Figure 1, which represents the low-frequency
termination of an applied current (time-domain measurement) electrical properties of the sample, contains a purely conductive
 IP Interpretation in Environmental Investigations 79

flow pathway in parallel with a frequency dependent complex- primarily indicative of the surface polarization mechanisms at
∗
conductivity element (σsurf ). The complex surface-conductivity the grain-solution interface.
element represents a diffusion-controlled electrochemical po- The proportionality between φ, PFE, and M is both the-
larization pathway at the grain surface–fluid interface. An im- oretically and experimentally well established (Marshall and
portant aspect of this model is that low-frequency capacitive Madden, 1959; Seigel, 1959; Madden and Cantwell, 1967;
properties of the sample depend on the electrochemical surface Collett and Katsube, 1973; Shuey and Johnson, 1973; Van
phase, whereas the low-frequency conductive properties of the Voorhis et al., 1973; Vinegar and Waxman, 1984; Wait, 1984).
sample depend on the bulk conduction and surface conduction Similar to the phase response, PFE and M describe the strength
mechanisms: of the polarization process relative to ohmic conduction. The
PFE is the ratio of the conductivity dispersion to the formation
σr00ock (ω) = σsur
00
f (ω), (6) conductivity, which is primarily determined by the bulk rock
properties. Since the low-frequency conductivity dispersion is
and, only a function of the surface properties, the PFE response can
be written as,
σr0ock (ω) = σbulk
0 0
+ σsur f (ω). (7) 0 0
σsur f (ω1 ) − σsur f (ω0 )
Both the real and imaginary parts of the complex surface PFE = 0 × 100. (11)
σbulk
conductivity are functions of the specific surface area, the sur-
face charge density, and the surface ionic mobility (Lesmes and Pelton et al. (1978) defined the chargeability in terms of two
Morgan, 2000; Lesmes and Frye, 2001). In general, the surface parallel conduction paths, which can be thought of as a bulk
charge density and the surface ionic mobility will depend upon 0 0
conductivity (σbulk ) and a surface conductivity (σsurf ). In the
the pore fluid composition and concentration. The bulk con- case that the bulk conductivity is much greater than the surface
ductivity can be expressed by Archie’s Law (Archie, 1942), conductivity, the chargeability is proportional to the ratio of the
surface conductivity to the bulk conductivity effects:
0
σbulk = σw 8m S n , (8) 0 0
σsur σsur
M∝
f ∼
=
f
. (12)
0 0 0
where σw is the solution conductivity, 8 is the porosity, S is the σbulk + σsur f σbulk
saturation, and m and n are the cementation and saturation
exponents, respectively. Based upon the parallel circuit model, Equations (8), (9), and (10) show that the field IP parameters φ,
the phase response of the rock will be given by PFE, and M are relative measures of the surface polarization,
00 which tend to decrease with increasing sample conductivity.
σsur f (ω)
φ(ω) = 0 0 . (9)
σbulk + σsur f (ω)
NORMALIZED IP PARAMETERS

If the bulk conductivity is much greater than the surface con- Weighting of the field IP parameters φ, PFE, and M by the
ductivity, typically the case at high salinity, then, measured conductivity (or dividing by resistivity) yields the
00 following normalized IP parameters: quadrature conductivity
σsur f (ω) (σr00ock ), metal factor (MF), and normalized chargeability (MN).
φ(ω) ∼
= 00 . (10)
σbulk (ω) The quadrature conductivity is given by

As bulk conduction increases with increasing solution conduc- σr00ock = σr0ock tan(φ) ∼
= σr0ock φ. (13)
tivity, porosity, or saturation, the phase response will decrease
in magnitude. Therefore, in terms of the interpretation of com- The metal factor, as defined by Marshall and Madden (1959),
plex resistivity (CR) surveys, it is advantageous to separate the is given by
field data into the real and imaginary conductivity components.
The real component will be primarily indicative of conduction MF = aσ (ω0 )PFE = a(σ (ω1 ) − σ (ω0 )), (14)
processes, which, in the case of low clay content, can be mod-
where a is an arbitrary unitless constant, taken to be equal
eled using Archie’s Law. The imaginary component will be
to 2π × 105 by Madden and Marshall (1959). The normalized
chargeability is given by

MN = σr0ock M. (15)
Equations (10)–(15) show that the normalized IP parameters
are directly related to the complex surface-conductivity pa-
∗
rameter σsurf (ω). We note that normalization of chargeability
as in equation (13) is not a new concept. Keller (1959) formu-
lated this parameter and referred to it as the “specific capacity.”
However, despite its direct relation to the surface polarization
mechanisms as outlined above, we see little evidence of its use
as a parameter in IP interpretation.
FIG. 1. Simple equivalent circuit model for low-frequency
(≤1000 kHz) electrical current flow in nonmetallic rocks and Figure 2 illustrates the relationships between the field IP pa-
∗
sediments; σbulk is a bulk (volume) conduction term, and σsurf rameters (φ, PFE, and M) and the normalized IP parameters
is a complex surface conduction term. (σ 00 , MF, and MN) for Berea sandstone. In this figure, adopted
80 Slater and Lesmes

from Lesmes and Frye (2001), the field and normalized IP pa- are placed out of the immediate current flow path, to min-
rameters are plotted as a function of the solution conductivity. imize unwanted electrode polarization effects (Vinegar and
In these experiments, the salinity of the saturating solution Waxman, 1984; Vanhala and Soininen, 1995).
was varied from 24 to 8000 mS/m NaCl (pH ∼ = 8). The field IP Time-domain measurements were made using an 8-s wave-
parameters decrease with increasing solution conductivity, as form. Chargeability was measured on ten consecutive windows
predicted by equations (8)–(10). The normalized IP parameters of 100-ms length, the first window starting 100 ms after the cur-
increase with increasing salinity, up to a solution concentration rent is switched off. The total chargeability as determined in this
of 1000 mS/m, at which point they then decrease with increas- work is taken as the average of the values measured on these
ing salinity. Similar responses were observed in the complex ten time windows. Accuracy of the instrumentation, as deter-
conductivity measurements of shaly sands made by Vinegar mined from measurements on capacitor-resistor networks with
and Waxman (1984). They interpreted the maximum in the a known IP response, is of the order of 1 mV/V. Measurements
quadrature conductivity versus salinity response as a trade- on soil and sediment samples repeat to within 1–2 mV/V, de-
off between increasing surface charge density and decreasing pending on the quality of the nonpolarizing electrodes.
surface ionic mobility with increasing solution concentration.
These results illustrate the sensitivity of the normalized IP pa- Effect of fluid conductivity
rameters to the surface chemical properties of porous media.
As previously discussed, Lesmes and Frye (2001) investi-
LABORATORY MEASUREMENTS gated the influence of pore fluid chemistry on the spectral IP
Instrumentation response of Berea sandstone cores. These well-constrained ex-
periments are not representative of typical field geophysical
Time-domain IP measurements were made using the investigations. In the current study, therefore, a simple labora-
Phoenix V5 geophysical receiver (Figure 3). A ±5 V test sig- tory experiment was performed to illustrate the effect of fluid
nal is used to generate a low-current time-domain IP wave- conductivity as expected from a saline intrusion or industrial
form suitable for laboratory measurements. Current injection contamination problem, reflecting the use of the IP method
into the sample is via stainless steel mesh electrodes at ei- in previous environmental studies (Seara and Granda, 1987;
ther end. The variable shunt resistor R1 controls the current, Ruhlow et al., 1999). A simple flow-through experiment was
and the current density in the sample is prevented from ex- designed in which a sediment sample was saturated with saline
ceeding 10 mA/m2 . The resistivity and chargeability are mea- water and then flushed with clean water. The objective was to
sured across two nonpolarizing Ag-AgCl electrodes and refer- observe the dependence of the IP parameters on fluid conduc-
enced to the signal received across the precision resistor R2 . tivity in a dynamic hydrological environment.
An AD620 pre-amplifier is used to boost the input impedance For this experiment a sand sample was initially de-aired and
on the sample channel to ∼80 M-ohm, preventing any current saturated with distilled water (σw = 1 mS/m). Structural prop-
leakage through the instrumentation. The potential electrodes erties and sample dimensions are summarized in Figure 4b.

FIG. 2. Dependence of field IP parameters (left axes) and normalized IP parameters (right axes) on fluid conductivity (σw ) for a
Berea sandstone core (after Lesmes and Frye, 2001).
 IP Interpretation in Environmental Investigations 81

FIG. 3. Laboratory time-domain IP system based on the Phoenix V5 receiver.

FIG. 4. (a) Dependence of resistivity (|ρ|), chargeability (M), and normalized chargeability (MN) during tracer injection into a
sediment column. (b) Sediment physical properties. (c) M and MN versus |σ |.
82 Slater and Lesmes

The sample was flushed with 33 pore volumes of a NaCl solu- The ρ data show no clear correlation with clay content. The M
tion (σw = 220 mS/m), followed by reintroduction of 37 pore data closely follow the ρ data, again showing no clear corre-
volumes of distilled water. Measurements of resistivity and lation with clay content. Given the expected relationship be-
chargeability were primarily performed during reintroduction tween cation exchange capacity (CEC) and IP effect (Vinegar
of the distilled water (Figure 4a). As expected, the bulk resis- and Waxman, 1984) a positive correlation between clay con-
tivity decreases with the introduction of the saline solution and tent and MN would be expected. The normalized chargeability
recovers upon flushing with the distilled water. The chargeabil- does display such a relationship to clay content with R2 (the
ity increases with fluid resistivity and, hence, bulk resistivity. goodness of fit of the line) equal to 0.97 (Figure 5a).
In fact, the chargeability curve is a near perfect expression of In this experiment, in-situ fluid conductivity (σw ) varied after
the resistivity curve, illustrating the overwhelming influence saturation with tap water. Fluid conductivity was affected by
of bulk conduction on chargeability. However, the normalized ion dissolution, particularly from the bentonite. The amount
chargeability shows a significant decrease with increasing re- of dissolution varied probably as a function of the time that
sistivity (i.e., MN increases with increasing conductivity). The the pore solution had to equilibrate with the sample. In addi-
data are replotted as MN against bulk conductivity |σ |, to com- tion, the porosity (not measured) of the sand/clay samples may
pare with the plot of MN versus σw (Figure 2c) plotted by have a complex relation to clay content (Knoll, et al., 1994).
Lesmes and Frye (2001). Given the formation factor of 6.3, These factors control the resistance of the electrolytic conduc-
which is the ratio σw /σ 0 , our equivalent range of fluid con- tion pathway, which has a strong effect on M. The important
ductivity is from 2 to 230 mS/m. The shape of our data set result of this simple experiment is the strong correlation ob-
agrees with that of Lesmes and Frye (2001) over the inves- served between MN and clay content. Changes in structural
tigated range. The significant clay content in the investigated properties (clay content) are clear in the response of MN but
sandstone core causes the larger values of MN in Figure 2c. unclear in the response of M. This is particularly relevant to
The increase in MN is considered the response of an increased the interpretation of field studies, where changes in the fluid
surface charge density with increasing solute concentration, as conductivity, saturation, and porosity are generally unknown.
postulated by Lesmes and Frye (2001). Vinegar and Waxman
(1984) observed the same surface conductivity response for FIELD MEASUREMENTS
measurements of complex conductivity on shaly sandstones.
Example 1: Crescent Beach State Park, Maine

Effect of lithology (clay content) A time-domain IP survey was used to investigate the struc-
ture of the freshwater-saltwater interface at Crescent Beach
The value of the normalized chargeability parameter MN in State Park, near Portland, Maine (Slater and Sandberg, 2000).
the interpretation of IP data in environmental investigations is Figure 6a shows apparent resistivity (ρa ), apparent chargeabil-
further demonstrated in the results of a simple laboratory ex- ity (Ma ), and apparent normalized chargeability (MNa ) pseu-
periment designed to determine the IP response of sand/clay dosections for a dipole-dipole survey line extending from 20 m
mixtures with varying percentages by weight of bentonite clay. above the high tide mark to 60 m below the high tide mark.
Sand/clay mixtures were prepared and placed in a laboratory Measurements were made using a Phoenix V5 receiver; elec-
sampler for resistivity and IP measurements. Sample properties trode separation was 1 m with measurements made to n = 6 lev-
and dimensions are given in Figure 5b. In each case, the sample els. The data were inverted using a 2-D regularized algorithm
was saturated with tap water (σw = 9.0 mS/m). Figure 5a shows based on LaBrecque (1991). The forward problem is solved
the ρ, M, and MN parameters plotted versus the clay content. using the finite element method, and a resistivity/IP solution is

FIG. 5. (a) Dependence of resistivity (|ρ|), chargeability (M), and normalized chargeability (MN) on percentage clay content for
sand-bentonite mixtures. (b) Physical properties of the clean sand.
 IP Interpretation in Environmental Investigations 83

found using an iterative least-squares approach. The algorithm ing the Phoenix V5 resistivity/IP system. This sounding was
minimizes a combination of data fit and model roughness to ar- performed at a site where good borehole control exists. Re-
rive at a geologically reasonable (smooth) model (LaBrecque sults of pulled array resistivity and transient EM soundings
et al., 1996). The chargeability M is calculated from the pre- indicate that a 1-D layered earth model is a fair approximation
dicted subsurface resistivity model, in a linear step, after the at the location of this sounding. The resistivity and IP data were
definition of Seigel (1959). Oldenburg and Li (1994) compared simultaneously inverted using the interpretation program EIN-
this approach with two other (theoretically more robust) ap- VRT6 (Sandberg, 1996). The resulting 1-D resistivity/IP model
proaches to IP inversion and found that, in the absence of very is compared to resistivity and gamma (γ ) logs obtained at the
high chargeabilities, the method performed well. Inverted val- center of the sounding in Figure 7.
ues of MN were obtained from normalizing the inverted M From the resistivity and γ logs, an important boundary be-
parameters by the inverted ρ parameters (multiplication by tween a clay-containing (low ρ, high γ count) layer and a
σ ), using equation (15). The inverted models are shown in deeper clay-reduced (high ρ, low γ count) zone occurs at ∼9 m.
Figure 6b. This boundary is defined in the electrical model at 9.4 m. The
The freshwater-saltwater interface is revealed as the sharp γ log indicates additional smaller clay lenses at ∼10 m and
resistivity transition immediately up beach from the high tide 12–16 m, which are not resolved in the modeling. The resis-
mark (Figure 6). Two auger holes were drilled (through uni- tivity increases by a factor of ∼4 across this boundary (from
form fine sand) to a depth of 0.5 m to confirm the fluid con- layer 3 to layer 4), reflecting the ohmic conduction contribu-
ductivity change across this interface. Water samples indicate a tion due to the clay in layer 3. The chargeability is relatively
factor of 100 change in fluid conductivity across this interface. insensitive to this boundary, increasing by a factor of 2 from
The Ma pseudosection and the M inversion display a change in layer 4 to layer 3. In contrast, the normalized chargeability is
chargeability across this interface. Immediately downbeach of 7 times greater in layer 3 relative to layer 4, reflecting the en-
142 m, the chargeability is effectively zero because of the high hanced surface polarization caused by the presence of the clay
salinity and consequent dominance of the electrolytic conduc- in layer 3. This field example substantiates the laboratory data
tion pathway. Upbeach of 142 m, the chargeability increases shown in Figure 5 and further illustrates how the MN param-
up to a maximum of 9.6 mV/V in the inversion (Figure 6b). eter helps resolve lithological changes in field IP surveys. The
However, both the MNa pseudosection and the inverted MN insensitivity of the basic chargeability M to this boundary again
model are uniform across this interface. reflects the strong control of the ohmic conduction pathway on
A second chargeable zone, strongest at higher n levels, is ob- this field IP parameter.
served between 160 and 190 m, downbeach of the freshwater-
saltwater interface. This feature is not removed in the MNa DISCUSSION
pseudosection or the MN inversion. Although the ρ inversion
reveals an increase in resistivity in this region, the MN inver- Our experiments illustrate the value of the normalized
sion illustrates that this resistivity increase is not the cause of chargeability parameter MN in improving interpretation of
the high chargeability (Figure 6b). This indicates a change in IP anomalies. Laboratory and field results demonstrate how
surface conduction (i.e., polarization properties) due to a litho- MN assists in distinguishing IP effects due to predominantly
logic control. The polarizability of this zone has a strong effect electrolytic controls from effects due to structural (primarily
on the chargeability, but a small effect on the resistivity, which clay content) variation. Laboratory results reveal the expected
is primarily determined by the properties of the electrolyte. To increase in MN associated with increasing polarizability due
investigate the cause of this chargeable zone, a trial pit was dug to increasing clay content in sand/clay mixtures saturated with
at the location shown in Figure 6. Glacial till was encountered tap water. The strong near-linear relationship between MN and
at a depth of 1 m. Laboratory measurements on sand and till percent clay content is similar to the relationships observed be-
samples from around Maine have shown the chargeability of tween σ 00 and specific surface area or cation exchange capac-
till to be typically an order of magnitude greater than clean ity presented by other workers (Vinegar and Waxman, 1984;
sand. The slight resistivity increase may be due to the lower Knight and Nur, 1987; Borner and Schon, 1991; Sturrock et al.,
porosity of the till. Figure 6b hence illustrates how the MN 1999).
parameter assists in identification of IP signatures related to The field IP parameters (φ, PFE, M) are also related to the
structural changes from IP signatures related only to changes clay content, although in a nontrivial manner. Our laboratory
in the electrolyte conductivity. experiments show that the chargeability is strongly correlated
with the sample resistivity, but poorly correlated with the clay
Example 2: Beder aquifer, Aarhus County, Denmark content (Figure 5). Previous investigators have observed simi-
lar nonlinear relationships between chargeability and clay con-
Over the last 10 years, Danish scientists have concentrated tent, with maximum IP effects observed at clay contents be-
on the geophysical characterization of the unconsolidated tween 3% and 8% (Vacquier et al., 1957; Marshall and Madden,
sands and clays that cover much of Denmark and contain/ 1959; Ogilvy and Kuzmina, 1972; Klien and Sill, 1982). The op-
protect important water supply aquifers. The data presented timal clay content, corresponding to the peak chargeability,
in Figure 7 were collected as part of an effort to investigate the depends upon clay type (cation exchange capacity). It is rela-
value of IP in characterizing these sand/clay units in Aarhus tively low for montmorillonite, but higher for illite and kaoli-
County. The field data and 1-D inversion results for a Schlum- nite (Telford et al., 1990). The nonlinear relationship between
berger resistivity/IP sounding conducted at Beder, Aarhus chargeability and clay content generally results from a trade-
County, Denmark, are shown. Measurements were made us- off between increasing polarization and decreasing resistivity
84 Slater and Lesmes

with increasing clay content. Since the resistivity is a function ability (Olorunfemi and Griffiths, 1985). However, if sufficient
of the salinity, porosity, and surface conductivity, which all vary water is available to establish an electrochemical surface phase,
with clay content, the relationship between chargeability and then the surface polarization and the normalized IP parame-
clay content can be highly variable (as observed in Figure 5). ters should be relatively insensitive to the effects of partial sat-
The laboratory data from the salinity and the clay experi- uration (Knight and Nur, 1987; Vanhala and Soininen, 1995).
ments (Figures 4 and 5) are replotted in Figure 8 as the nor- Therefore, partially saturated samples containing clay should
malized chargeability versus the sample conductivity. In this be characterized by high MN values and low conductivity, as
figure, the clay-containing sands from the “clay experiment” shown in Figure 9.
are distinct from the clean sands of the “salinity experiment.” We assume that, at low frequencies, the imaginary conduc-
The only overlap occurs for the 0% clay content sample from tivity is only a function of the surface polarization, which is con-
the clay experiment, as expected. A conceptual description trolled by the microgeometry and the surface chemical prop-
of the relationships between the field IP parameters and the erties of the sample. The surface chemistry is a function of
normalized IP parameters is presented in Figure 9. This plot the mineralogy and the pore fluid chemistry. In this experi-
again illustrates how the normalized IP parameters help dis- ment, we measured the complex conductivity of relatively clean
tinguish between salinity and clay content effects. Generally, sand as a function of the pore fluid salinity. We also measured
clean sands will have low MN values, and clayey sands will have the complex conductivity response of the sand with varying
high MN values. There is some salinity dependence on the MN clay content when saturated with tap water. These results in-
00
values, but the clay effects dominate the salinity effects. Partial dicated that the affects of varying clay content on σsurf were
saturation, which was not investigated in this study, is expected more significant than the affects of varying salinity. However,
to lower the conductivity and therefore enhance the charge- pore fluid concentration can significantly affect the surface

FIG. 6. (a) Pseudosections of apparent resistivity (ρa ), apparent chargeability (Ma ), and apparent normalized chargeability (MNa ),
Crescent Beach State Park, Maine. (b) 2-D inversions of resistivity (ρ), chargeability (M), and normalized chargeability (MN),
Crescent Beach State Park, Maine. TP1 marks the location of a trial pit, and A marks the location of auger holes where the water
salinity was measured. (Continued).
 IP Interpretation in Environmental Investigations 85

properties and microgeometry (through swelling) of clay min- more, the 1-D Beder inversion produced a result that compares
erals (Vinegar and Waxman, 1984; Samstag and Morgan, favorably with borehole logs.
1991; J. Roberts, 2000, personal communication). The data of In our field examples, IP structure resulting from electrolytic
Vinegar and Waxman (1984) suggest that the effects of vary- controls is absent in the MN inversions, whereas effects due
00
ing salinity on σsurf become more pronounced with increasing to structural changes are either maintained or enhanced. This
clay content. Improved physiochemical models, which account does not detract from the potential use of IP in the explo-
for both grain and membrane polarization mechanisms, should ration for zones of saline intrusion (see for example, Seara and
be developed in order to better understand the coupled effects Granda, 1987). The characteristic IP response due to saline
of varying clay content and pore fluid chemistry on the complex intrusion is low normalized chargeability associated with low
electrical properties of rocks and soils. This understanding is resistivity. The value of the IP measurement is that it helps
particularly important for the effective interpretation of field to distinguish saline zones from clay-rich zones, which exhibit
IP data where clay content and pore fluid chemistry can be low resistivity but relatively high chargeability. The source of
expected to vary simultaneously. IP anomalies is conveniently determined by plotting the nor-
One-dimensional and two-dimensional IP modeling is of- malized chargeability parameter.
ten performed using the conventional IP parameters (M, PFE, In Figure 10a, the inverted model parameters from the Cres-
and φ). It therefore seems appropriate to divide the inverted cent beach data are plotted as (left) M against |σ |, and (right)
chargeability (M) parameters by the resistivity (ρ) parameters MN against |σ | (as in Figures 8 and 9). Comparison of the
to obtain normalized IP (MN) parameters. This approach was two plots again illustrates how MN discriminates between po-
applied to the interpretation of the 2-D Crescent Beach data set larization and bulk conduction effects. The large chargeabili-
and the 1-D sounding data from the Beder site. The Crescent ties caused by high resistivities in the freshwater zone are of
beach data set indicates that the normalization is appropriate comparable magnitude to the chargeabilities associated with
to both pseudosection data and inverted model parameters. It the till/clay. However, in the plot of MN versus |σ |, the po-
is encouraging that the MN model is devoid of structure across larizable till is clearly identified from the low polarizability
the freshwater-saltwater interface, in agreement with the MNa sand. Figure 8 suggests that MN is generally more sensitive to
pseudosection calculated from the Ma and ρa data. Further- clay content than to electrolyte conductivity. The increase in

FIG. 6. (Continued).
86 Slater and Lesmes

MN with |σ |, observed in the laboratory salinity experiments lithologies in an IP survey. However, variations in salinity are
(Figure 4c), is also observed in the field data. However, because a complication that we did not fully address in this study. An
the salinity effect is much smaller than the clay content effect, improved understanding of the physiochemical mechanisms
it is not resolvable on the scale of Figure 10. controlling the IP response should enhance the usefulness of
We characterized the spatial distribution of lithology at this interpretation method.
Crescent Beach based on the graph of MN versus |σ | in
Figure 10a. MN values less than 0.25 mS/m are considered rep-
resentative of sand, whereas values greater than 0.25 mS/m are
considered representative of till. The inverted data are then
assigned a binary value to indicate either clay or till. This bi-
nary image is plotted in Figure 10b with blue representing sand
and red representing till. We believe the image is a good rep-
resentation of the sand/till thickness between 175 and 190 m,
as the imaged till interface agrees with the depth to till (1 m)
obtained at the trial pit location. The near-surface till zones be-
tween 155 and 167 m are probably artifacts of the inversion and
relatively simple image processing applied here. Although only
a simple form of image processing was appropriate here, the
example illustrates the value of MN in subsurface lithological
characterization. FIG. 8. Plot of normalized chargeability (MN) versus conduc-
In this study, crossplots of normalized chargeability versus tivity (|σ |), showing how MN assists identification of clayey
conductivity magnitude are useful for discriminating between samples from clean sands.

FIG. 7. Result of resistivity-IP sounding at Beder, Aarhus County, Denmark. (a) Model result with borehole log and lithologic
interpretation shown for comparison. (b) Resistivity and IP model curves compared to field data.
 IP Interpretation in Environmental Investigations 87

CONCLUSIONS the cause of IP anomalies and leads to stronger relationships

between structural properties (primarily clay content) and IP
The IP method is a valuable geophysical tool in environ-
measurements. The normalized parameters are closely related
mental investigations as it provides unique information on the
to the low-frequency dielectric constant or quadrature conduc-
strength of low-frequency polarization occurring in the sub-
tivity. Surface polarization processes at the grain-fluid interface
surface. Understanding of the significance of the IP response
control the normalized IP parameters. The magnitude of this
due to surface polarization effects has been hindered by the
surface polarization, and hence the normalized chargeability,
dependency of the conventional IP parameters on both elec-
depends on the specific surface area, surface charge density,
trolytic and structural properties. The adoption of the normal-
and surface ionic mobility. Fluid conductivity exerts an indi-
ized (by resistivity) IP parameter assists in the clarification of
rect control on normalized chargeability through its effect on
surface charge density and surface ionic mobility.
In this paper, laboratory and field examples illustrate the
contrasting effects of electrolytic and structural factors on the
IP method and how they were conveniently resolved using
normalized IP parameters, such as the normalized chargeabil-
ity MN. We used plots of MN against bulk conductivity |σ |
to identify distinct responses from two lithologic zones (sand
and till). Segregation of inverted model parameters into these
zones allowed a simple form of image processing, resulting in
a 2-D section of lithologic variability. In most environmental
applications of IP, the intention is likely to be the determi-
nation of changes in structural parameters and how they re-
late to such fundamental properties as hydraulic conductivity.
Modification of surface polarization due to organic chemical
interaction with clay minerals is another promising application
(Olhoeft, 1985). Normalized IP parameters, which are a direct
measure of surface polarization processes, are obtainable from
currently available time-domain and frequency-domain field
instruments. Consequently, the IP method is a powerful and
practical tool for imaging subsurface geochemical and hydro-
FIG. 9. Conceptual relationship between IP parameters, fluid logical environments, and it will see wider use as interpretation
conductivity, clay content partial saturation. techniques continue to improve.

FIG. 10. (a) Plots of chargeability (M) and normalized chargeability (MN) versus conductivity (|σ |) for inverted Crescent Beach
survey parameters. Parameters with MN > 0.25 mS/m are defined as till/clay, and those with MN < 0.25 mS/m are defined as sand.
(b) Binary lithological image at Crescent Beach based on the zoning in (a).
88 Slater and Lesmes

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Marshall, D. J., and Madden, T. R., 1959, Induced polarization, a study
of its causes: Geophysics, 24, 790–816.
This work was partially supported by U.S. Department of Ogilvy, A. A., and Kuzmina, E. N., 1972, Hydrogeologic and engine-
ering-geologic possibilities for employing the method of induced
Energy and The Maine Science and Technology Foundation potentials: Geophysics, 37, 839–861.
via Cooperative Agreements 98-01 and by U.S. Department of Oldenburg, D. W., and Li, Y., 1994, Inversion of induced polarization
the Interior: Geological Survey 00401921. Stewart Sandberg data: Geophysics, 59, 1327–1341.
Olhoeft, G. R., 1984, Clay-organic interactions measured with complex
(University of Southern Maine) assisted with the field studies, resistivity: 54th Ann. Internat. Mtg., Soc. Expl. Geophys., Expanded
provided 1-D resistivity-IP software, interpreted the sounding Abstracts, 356–358.
data, and provided general encouragement for this project. Lee ——— 1985, Low-frequency electrical properties: Geophysics, 50,
2492–2503.
Slater thanks Kurt Sorensen (Geophysical Laboratory, Earth ——— 1992, Geophysical detection of hydrocarbon and organic chem-
Sciences, Aarhus University, Denmark) for providing the bore- ical contamination: Proc. Symp. on the Application of Geophysics
to Engineering and Environmental Problems, 587–594.
hole log for the Beder field site. University of Southern Maine Olorunfemi, M. O., and Griffiths, D. H., 1985, A laboratory investiga-
intern students Stacy Towne, Dan Glaser, Al French, Bryant tion of the induced polarization of the Triassic Sherwood Sandstone
Vandervelde, and Tony Robinson assisted with field data col- of Lancashire and its hydrogeological applications: Geophys. Prosp.,
33, 110–127.
lection. David Lesmes thanks Dale Morgan for sharing with Pelton, W. H., Ward, S. H., Hallof, P. G., Sill, W. R., and Nelson, P. H.,
him his insights on IP and surface chemistry. He also acknowl- 1978, Mineral discrimination and removal of inductive coupling with
edges the contributions of Kevin Frye and John Sturrock to multifrequency IP: Geophysics, 43, 588–609.
Ruhlow, A., Tezkan, B., and de Lima, O. A. L., 1999, dc resistivity and
the IP research project at Boston College, which was par- time-domain induced polarization survey for the study of ground-
tially funded by DOE grant number DE-FG07-96ER14714. water contamination in Bahia, Brazil: Eur. J. Environmental Eng.
Geophys., 3, 143–160.
The review comments provided by Jeff Roberts (Lawrence Samstag, F. J., and Morgan, F. D., 1991, Induced polarization of shaly
Livermore National Laboratory) and an anonymous Geo- sands: Salinity domain modeling by double embedding of the effec-
physics editor helped to improve the quality of this paper. tive medium theory: Geophysics, 56, 1749–1756.
Sandberg, S. K., 1996, Inverse modeling software for resistivity, induced
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Bodmer, K., Ward, S. H., and Morrison, H. F., 1968, On induced elec- resistivity sounding for delineating sea-water intrusions in some
trical polarization and groundwater: Geophysics, 33, 805–821. coastal areas of the northeast of Spain: Geoexploration, 24, 153–
Borner, F. D., and Schon, J. H., 1991, A relation between the quadrature 161.
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Borner, F. D., Schopper, J. R., and Weller, A., 1996, Evaluation of Shi, W., Rodi, W., and Morgan, F. D., 1998, 3-D Induced polarization
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in developing geophysical techniques: Geophysics, 38, 76–91. timation using spectral induced polarization measurements: Proc.
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Ed., Overvoltage research and geophysical applications: Pergamon Prospecting for ground water by induced electrical polarization:
Press; 92–111. Geophysics, 22, 660–687.
Klien, J. D., and Sill, W. R., 1982, Electrical properties of artificial clay- Vanhala, H., 1997, Mapping oil-contaminated sand and till with the
bearing sandstone: Geophysics, 47, 1593–1605. spectral induced polarization (SIP) method: Geophys. Prosp., 45,
Knight, R. J., and Nur, A., 1987, The dielectric constant of sandstones, 303–326.
60 kHz to 4 MHz: Geophysics, 52, 644–654. Vanhala, H., and Soininen, H., 1995, Laboratory technique for mea-
Knoll, M. D., Knight, R. J., and Brown, E., 1994, Can accurate esti- surement of spectral induced polarization response of soil samples:
mates of permeability be obtained from measurements of dielectric Geophys. Prosp., 43, 655–676.
properties?: Proc. Symp. on the Application of Geophysics to Engi- Vanhala, H., Soininen, H., and Kukkonen, I., 1992, Detecting organic
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Expl. Geophys., Expanded Abstracts, 413–416. Van Voorhis, G. D., Nelson, P. H., and Drake, T. L., 1973, Complex
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Lesmes, D. P., and Morgan, F. D., 2000, Dielectric spectroscopy of sed- Ward S. H., Sternberg B. K., LaBrecque D. J., and Poulton M. M., 1995,
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GEOPHYSICS, VOL. 66, NO. 1 (JANUARY-FEBRUARY 2001); P. 137–147, 15 FIGS.

Mapping of induced polarization using natural fields

Erika Gasperikova and H. Frank Morrison∗

dipole separation and with conductivity and frequency (Dey

ABSTRACT and Morrison, 1973). For deep exploration, the dipoles and
their separation must be large; hence, the operational fre-
The observed electromagnetic response of a finite body quency must be low to avoid EM coupling. Unfortunately, the
is caused by induction and polarization currents in the natural EM field spectrum rises steeply below 1.0 Hz. Achiev-
body and by the distortion of the induction currents in ing an adequate signal-to-noise ratio therefore requires exces-
the surrounding medium. At a sufficiently low frequency, sive power or costly attempts to reduce contact resistance at the
there is negligible induction and the measured response current electrodes. Even for exploration at shallow depths, the
is that of the body distorting the background currents need to inject current reduces the usefulness of the technique
just as it would distort a direct current (dc). Because in many situations in which it is difficult to achieve low contact
this dc response is not inherently frequency dependent, resistances.
any observed change in response of the body for fre- There has been great interest in making IP measurements
quencies low enough to be in this dc limit must result by using EM methods (Hohmann et al., 1970; Flis et al., 1989),
from frequency-dependent conductivity. Profiles of low- and especially in using natural EM fields for this purpose. EM
frequency natural electric (telluric) fields have spatial methods can achieve greater depth of penetration with geo-
anomalies over finite bodies of fixed conductivity that metrically smaller configurations than resistivity arrays, and
are independent of frequency and have no associated because they need not contact the ground, surface resistivity
phase anomaly. If the body is polarizable, the electric is not a factor. Furthermore, there is the tantalizing possibility
field profile over the body becomes frequency depen- that the IP effect might be measured with an airborne system.
dent and phase shifted with respect to a reference field. The use of natural fields is particularly attractive for deep ex-
The technique was tested on data acquired in a stan- ploration because the problems alluded to above for standard
dard continuous profiling magnetotelluric (MT) survey IP surveys would be avoided. The increasing natural field spec-
over a strong induced polarization (IP) anomaly previ- trum, that is, noise in the traditional IP surveys, would become
ously mapped with a conventional pole-dipole IP survey. the desirable signal source in a natural field method. At the
The extracted IP response appears in both the apparent John S. Sumner Memorial International Workshop on Induced
resistivity and the normalized electric field profiles. Polarization, held at the University of Arizona in October 1994,
the general topic of measuring IP with EM methods was as-
signed a high priority for future research and development
INTRODUCTION (Ward et al., 1995).
Flis et al. (1989) demonstrated the conditions under which
The standard field technique for mapping IP relies on the the IP phenomenon could be observed in time-domain EM
use of grounded electrodes, most commonly in the dipole- (TEM) surveys. Basically, the observed response from a con-
dipole or pole-dipole configuration. A current is introduced ducting polarizable body is caused by induction currents in the
into the ground through two current electrodes, and poten- body, the distortion of induction currents in the surrounding
tial difference is measured between two potential electrodes medium, and polarization currents. In the absence of induction
located at some distance from the current electrodes. In the currents, the polarization currents are governed by dc relation-
frequency domain, the apparent resistivity, or the impedance ships. In the time domain, all currents are present in varying de-
phase, is measured at frequencies low enough that any elec- grees, but if the decay rate of the polarization currents is lower
tromagnetic (EM) coupling is either negligible or predictable. than the decay rate of the induced currents, then the polariza-
EM coupling increases with the receiving dipole length and tion currents dominate at some time, the observed magnetic

Manuscript received by the Editor November 9, 1998; revised manuscript received May 12, 2000.
∗
University of California at Berkeley, Engineering Geoscience, 1 Cyclotron Road, MS 90-1116, Berkeley, California 94720. Email: erika.gasperikova
@alum.calberkeley.org; [email protected].
c 2001 Society of Exploration Geophysicists. All rights reserved.

137
138 Gasperikova and Morrison

fields can reverse in sign, and the IP effect therefore can be block is a rectangular prism, 100 m × 100 m in a cross-section
recognized. located in a half-space of 100 ohm-m. The depth to its top
A more basic statement is that if the EM response of a body is 30 m. The TM apparent resistivity (ρa ) cross-section for a
in the ground is in the dc limit, then the IP effect is separable bandwidth of 0.001 Hz to 100 Hz is shown in Figure 2a. This re-
from the induction response. This simply means that at some sponse clearly shows what is called the static limit; below about
frequency, no induction in the body occurs; the external re- 1.0 Hz, the section becomes invariant with frequency. It also
sponse is that of the body distorting the background currents should be noted that the phase shown in Figure 2b becomes
just as it would distort a dc current. Because this dc response is essentially constant for frequencies below about 0.1 Hz. The
not inherently frequency dependent, any observed change in actual value of the phase is dictated by the volume of the back-
response of the body for frequencies low enough to be in this dc ground medium wherein induction is present. For this model,
limit must result from frequency-dependent conductivity. The the phase asymptotes to the uniform half-space value of −135◦ .
difficulty that must be anticipated in implementing this concept If the body shown in Figure 1 had a frequency-dependent re-
is that the size and conductivity of the target must be identified sistivity for frequencies at which the inductive response was
first so as to distinguish changes in its response from the con- negligible (in which the apparent resistivity and phase have
tinuum of the EM induction response from the surrounding reached the static dc limit), then the profiles of the electric
medium. Target dimension and conductivity information are fields at two such frequencies would reveal the IP response of
important for calculating a skin depth that helps to define a the body.
frequency range and profile length necessary for recovering IP The MT forward models used in this simulation were run
response from the data. by using the numerical algorithm developed by Wannamaker
Ware (1974) first recognized that the process of conduc- et al. (1987), which was modified to include a frequency-
tor identification and consequent separation of IP and in- dependent conductivity for any region within the discretization
ductive responses might be simplest for natural field plane- mesh. The resistivity was specified by a generalized Cole-Cole
wave sources such as those used for magnetotellurics (MT).
He found that for the mode in which the electric field (E)
is perpendicular to strike, now called the TM mode, the re-
sponse of a simple 2-D body indeed reached a dc limit at some
frequency, f c , below which the change in EM response was
negligible. Thus, any observed changes in the electric profile
for frequencies below f c would be caused by the intrinsic re-
sistivity change of the body. Ware concluded that for models
representing typical exploration targets, the IP response will
predominate over the EM induction response for frequencies
of 0.1 Hz and lower. He did several numerical simulations using
realistic frequency-dependent resistivities and showed that the
effect should be measurable. In a field experiment, however, he
discovered that the resolution of the measurement equipment
at that time was not sufficient for the task.

MODEL STUDY

To illustrate asymptotic dc behavior, we have simulated the

MT response for a 2-D model shown in Figure 1. The 10 ohm-m

FIG. 2. (a) Apparent resistivity cross-section for the TM mode

FIG. 1. Two-dimensional model of a 10 ohm-m block, for the model of Figure 1. (b) Phase cross-section for the TM
100 × 100 m, at a depth of 30 m in a 100 ohm-m half-space. mode for the model of Figure 1.
 Mapping of Induced Polarization 139

representation (Pelton, 1977)

 
1
ρ(ω) = ρ0 1−m 1− (1)
(1 + (iωτ )c )a

with ρ0 the low-frequency resistivity asymptote, m the charge-

ability, and τ the time constant. The exponents a and c control
the frequency dependence. If exponent c is equal to 1, this
becomes a Cole-Davidson representation.
In this study, the parameters were chosen to replicate the
frequency dependence reported by Van Voorhis et al. (1973).
They used an empirical mathematical model called the Drake
model, which is a special case of the Cole-Davidson representa-
tion for m = 1. The values of target resistivity and phase used in
the block model of Figure 1 are shown in Figure 3. Parameters
used for this calculation are ρ0 = 10 ohm-m, m = 1, τ = 318.3,
c = 1, and a = 0.0969. The response was calculated for the fre-
quency range of 0.0001 to 10 Hz. Van Voorhis et al. (1973)
define the percent frequency effect (PFE) as

ρ(ω) − ρ(Aω)
PFE = 100 (2)
ρ(ω)
PFE = 100(1 − A−a ) (3)

where the constant A specifies the spread between measure-

ment frequencies. The above parameters produce a 20% PFE.
Profiles of apparent resistivity and phase at 0.01 and 0.1 Hz
are shown in Figures 4a and 4b, respectively, and a profile of
the percent frequency effect (PFE) calculated from the curves
at those frequencies is shown in Figure 4c. The apparent PFE
over the target is 16%. For this model, the phase anomalies
are less than 3◦ , but probably are detectable in good-quality
data.
The above modeling example is oversimplified because there
are no competing frequency-dependent effects from adjacent
bodies or structures. Such effects, in practice, might make it
difficult to separate the frequency dependence seen over the
target body. The model shown in Figure 5 is representative of
a more complex geology encountered in the field experiment
described below. A highly chargeable thermal contact zone
is located on the flank of a porphyry intrusive surrounded by
marine sediments. The surrounding near-surface sediments are
unconsolidated valley fills, and these overlie a more resistive FIG. 4. (a) Profiles of apparent resistivity at 0.01 and 0.1 Hz for
the model of Figure 1. (b) Profiles of phase at 0.01 and 0.1 Hz
basement. In the highly schematic model of Figure 5, the for the model of Figure 1. (c) Percent difference between the
polarizable body has a dc resistivity of 5 ohm-m. It is displaced apparent resistivity profiles at 0.01 and 0.1 Hz for the model of
from the major porphyry intrusive (100 ohm-m) and is in a host Figure 1.

FIG. 3. The generalized Cole-Cole apparent resistivity and phase-versus-frequency dependence for the target block in Figure 1.
140 Gasperikova and Morrison

medium of 20 ohm-m. At the extreme right of the section lies depart from the half-space value of −135◦ to −146◦ at 0.1 Hz.
a conductive nonpolarizable (5 ohm-m) section of valley-fill Similarly, the apparent resistivities asymptote to different val-
sediments. For this model, a 20% intrinsic PFE has been used. ues for each frequency over the uniform layered structures at
The parameters m, τ , a, and c used in this calculation had the the ends of the model. No deep large-scale structure is incorpo-
same values as in the previous model. rated into the model, and the 100 ohm-m medium essentially
The profiles of apparent resistivity and phase at frequencies becomes a background medium for the whole profile at the
of 0.1 and 0.01 Hz are shown in Figures 6a and 6b. The phase depth of 4400 m. Hence, both ends of the profile are in the
anomaly in the field data from a conventional pole-dipole sur- static dc limit for frequencies below 0.1 Hz, and the change of
vey over the target conductor is about 50 milliradian (mrad), or resistivity with frequency, dρ/df , is the same at both ends of
2.8◦ , which compares to an intrinsic value of 3.5◦ at 0.01 Hz. In the profile.
this model, strong variations occur in the apparent resistivity, Note that if one wants to use phase for detection of the IP
caused by the conductive sediments on the right and the resis- effect, it should be done in two steps. First, the large-scale
tive intrusive on the left of the target zone. The apparent resis- variations in the inductive response (regional trend) should
tivity and phase profiles reflect the large-scale variations in the be identified. Second, small changes (i.e., a few degrees) from
inductive response determined mainly by the lateral contrast that background value coinciding with the spatial extent of the
between the intrusive and the sediments. This is particularly ev- anomalous body should be found.
ident in the phase plots for 0.01 and 0.1 Hz, which progressively To observe the IP effect, the resistivity profiles must be
shifted in the ordinate direction, because their ratios in the dc
limit must be one. In Figure 6c, the profiles at 0.1 and 0.01 Hz
have been shifted vertically to coincide over the right and left
ends of the section (where it is clear that the dc limit has been
achieved). Although the profiles themselves are much more
complex than those for the single target block (Figures 2a
and 2b), the separation in apparent resistivity that occurs be-
tween stations 2000 and 3000 is very clear. This separation,
expressed as a percent difference between the 0.1 and 0.01 Hz
FIG. 5. Two-dimensional resistivity model representative of the profiles, is shown in Figure 6d on an expanded scale. The max-
geologic cross-section of the field survey site. imum difference is more than 15% over the target.

FIG. 6. (a) Profiles of apparent resistivity at 0.01 and 0.1 Hz for the model of Figure 5. (b) Profiles of phase at 0.01 and 0.1 Hz for
the model of Figure 5. (c) Profiles of apparent resistivity at 0.01 and 0.1 Hz for the model of Figure 5, vertically shifted to coincide
on the right and left ends of the profile. (d) Percent difference between the apparent resistivity profiles at 0.01 and 0.1 Hz for the
model of Figure 5 after having been shifted.
 Mapping of Induced Polarization 141

We have described the IP effect in terms of the apparent electric field at a site without IP, the reference site, can reveal
resistivity used in MT. This approach increases the resistiv- the position of the IP target. Figure 7b shows the imaginary part
ity anomalies because the apparent resistivity varies with the of the normalized electric field for the body of Figure 1. The
square of the electric field. In the next section, we describe imaginary part of the normalized electric field below 1.0 Hz
a method of extracting the IP effect by using profiles of the clearly identifies the position of the IP structure.
electric fields themselves. The same procedure was applied to the model of Figure 5.
Profiles of the real and imaginary parts of the electric field at
EXTRACTION OF THE IP RESPONSE
0.01 Hz for the structure, with and without IP, are shown in
Figure 8a. Both components coincide over the area without
In the telluric method, the electric field measured by a IP, while there is a significant difference in the response be-
traversing dipole is normalized by the field at a fixed or refer- tween stations 2000 and 3000 where the IP structure is located.
ence dipole on the line. This transfer function depends on rela- Figure 8b shows a cross-section of the imaginary part of the
tive changes in the conductivity beneath the traversing dipole. normalized electric field for the same model. As before, the
As we saw in the previous model studies, this transfer function normalization is done with the electric field values at the right
becomes frequency independent when the conductivity struc- extreme of the section. The lightly shaded “dike,” extending
ture beneath the traversing dipole is in the dc limit. Any ob- below 0.1 Hz between stations 2000 and 3000, clearly identifies
served frequency dependence at low frequencies is indicative the position of the IP structure.
of IP. The lateral resolution of a feature displaying an IP effect is
The telluric method has been used mainly as a low-cost quite good, but there is little vertical resolution. Only if the
method for determining the structure of sedimentary basins, polarization can be logically (geologically) associated with a
with most of the pioneering work in this field done in France, conductivity contrast (as in the case of the Figure 1 body) can
Germany, and the former Soviet Union. After a few attempts the vertical bounds and intrinsic IP effect be determined.
to test the applicability of the telluric method in geothermal ar-
eas (e.g., Beyer, 1977), it was concluded that the conductivity
anomalies did not lend themselves to quantitative interpre-
tation (Goldstein, 1988). Slankis et al. (1972) reported 8 Hz
telluric measurements made in the vicinity of heavy sulfide
deposits. Relative resistivity measurements, obtained by com-
parison of telluric amplitudes, revealed the location of con-
ductive sulfide bodies, provided that width was greater than
depth of burial. Possible detection of IP was not considered.
Ware (1974) also suggested that natural telluric field variations
should be monitored simultaneously at a “reference” dipole
recording site and at a succession of dipoles that traverses an
area of interest, to extract the IP effect. In this study, we have
used the models described in the previous section to illustrate
means of extracting IP from telluric profiles.
In the TM mode, the magnetic field (H) is constant, so
changes in apparent resistivity over the body are caused solely
by changes in electric field (E) measured across the struc-
ture. Profiles of real and imaginary parts of the electric field
at 0.01 Hz for the body of Figure 1, with and without IP, are
shown in Figure 7a. Without the IP effect, the real and imagi-
nary parts are identical. (The phase, with respect to the mag-
netic field, is set by the background medium, which in this
case is a half-space. The phase of the reference electric field is
consequently −135◦ .) For the frequency dependence we have
chosen, the change in the imaginary part as a result of the IP
effect is much more significant than the change in the real part.
If the reference-site electric field is Aei(ωt+ϕ1 ) and the electric
field along the profile is Bei(ωt+ϕ2 ) , then the ratio between these
two fields can be expressed as BA cos(ϕ2 − ϕ1 ) + i BA sin(ϕ2 − ϕ1 ).
If the structure is in the static dc limit and no IP is present, there
is no phase shift between these two electric fields and thus no
imaginary component in the ratio. However, if the dipole along
the profile traverses a body with IP, (ϕ2 − ϕ1 ) is nonzero, and
therefore an imaginary component exists. The advantage of us-
ing the imaginary part of the ratio is that it is easier to see small
FIG. 7. (a) Profiles of the real and imaginary parts of the electric
changes with respect to zero than to look for the changes with field at 0.01 Hz for the model of Figure 1. (b) Cross-section of
respect to some background number of unknown amplitude. the imaginary part of the normalized electric field for the model
Therefore, the electric field along the profile normalized by the of Figure 1 with IP.
142 Gasperikova and Morrison

The above procedure requires the knowledge from the con- IP/resistivity survey, shown in Figure 10, were provided by
ductivity cross-section of which features are in the dc limit and Western Mining. No vertical scale appears in Figure 9 because
therefore are candidates for detection by the imaginary part of it is only a conceptual model. However, the ratio between ver-
the transfer function. tical and horizontal scale in the plot might be considered to be
about 2 (Gary Oppliger, 1995, personal communication). The
FIELD EXPERIMENT pole-dipole IP/resistivity survey was done with a dipole length
of 200 m, with the transmitter on the right side of the receiver.
Data from two MT field surveys on the same mineral
dc and IP inversions of the pole-dipole data were done by us-
prospect near Battle Mountain, Nevada, were analyzed to de-
ing the DCIP2D algorithm by Oldenburg and Li (1994). The
tect a possible IP effect. A schematic geologic cross-section for
resistivity inversion (Figure 10c) recovers a highly conductive
this area, shown in Figure 9, and the results of a pole-dipole
structure at the right extreme of the profile, which represents
valley sediments, and a very resistive structure on the left of sta-
tion 4500, the contact with the porphyry. A small, near-surface
conductive structure is located right on the edge of the por-
phyry, between stations 4500 and 5000, which may represent
the thermal contact zone. The IP inversion (Figure 10d) hon-
oring the near-surface phase data shows that a zone of high
chargeability lies between stations 4300 and 4800, straddling
the contact. A large-scale feature extends at depth between
stations 3500 and 4500.
The MT survey was laid out along a line of the previous
IP/resistivity survey. Two MT surveys were conducted along
this profile. In the 1995 survey, a complete data set of orthog-
onal electric field (E) profiles was acquired. The MT survey
was conducted under standard commercial survey specifica-
tions, with excellent data in the 0.1 to 300 Hz band. Data were
recorded in remote reference mode, where the remote site con-
sisted of both orthogonal electric and magnetic sensors. Along
the profile, data were taken in segments consisting of two pairs
of contiguous orthogonal electric dipoles with one pair of or-
thogonal magnetic sensors. Acquisition time was about one
hour per setup.
From a geologic mapping perspective, this survey was
very successful. The TM mode apparent resistivity and the
impedance phase are shown in Figure 11. The MT section
clearly shows the contact with the porphyry at 4500 m and
reveals the adjoining small conductor in the vicinity of sta-
tions 4700 to 5000, as well as a section of horizontal conductor
from 5000 m to the end of the profile. The skew of the tensor
impedance (Figure 11c) shows strong three-dimensionality for
frequencies below 0.05 Hz in the vicinity of the porphyry. This
strongly suggests that 2-D inversion of any electrical data in
this vicinity may be in error.
The TM data were inverted with the RRI algorithm of Smith
FIG. 8. (a) Profiles of the real and imaginary parts of the electric and Booker (1991), and the resulting section, Figure 11d, is
field at 0.01 Hz for the model of Figure 5. (b) Cross-section of in excellent agreement with the pole-dipole inversion shown
the imaginary part of the normalized electric field for the model
of Figure 5. in Figure 10c. The electrical and MT data refine the geologic
sketch by locating the contact. The impedance strike was nearly
orthogonal to the line; rotation had essentially no impact on
the analysis of the TM mode data.
Unfortunately, the data quality between 0.01 and 0.1 Hz
was not accurate enough to yield a profile of relative low-
frequency E phase and amplitude response over the whole
profile. An objective demonstration of the IP effect thus could
not be achieved. However, by careful data selection, very ac-
curate apparent resistivities at frequencies of 0.01 and 0.1 Hz
were obtained on eight continuous dipoles in the midportion
of the profile. The apparent resistivity values at 0.1 and 0.01
FIG. 9. Schematic geologic cross-section of the Battle Moun- Hz are plotted in Figure 12a. The porphyry contact is seen
tain profile (courtesy of Western Mining). clearly at station 4500 as it is in the resistivity pseudosection
 Mapping of Induced Polarization 143

(Figure 10a). This data further refines the schematic of (consisting of both orthogonal magnetic and electric sensors)
Figure 9. at the beginning of the profile were used for reference. To get
There are not enough data points along this profile to derive high-quality data at low frequencies, data acquisition time was
systematic electric field ratios for a band of frequencies across 6–12 hours per setup.
the whole profile. In this situation, we can draw only on our With standard processing, there were still only selected fre-
previous knowledge of the geology and attempt to see if there is quencies for which accurate data were available. Profiles of
an effect where we know it is. It is known from the IP/resistivity apparent resistivity at frequencies 0.1 and 0.01 Hz are plotted
survey that the section to the right of station 5000 is conductive, in Figure 13a. The same procedure that was applied to 1995
has little IP phase, and is over the valley-fill sediments. If we data was applied to this data set. Assuming no IP effects in the
assume that there are no IP effects in the MT data to the right MT data to the right of station 5000, we simply can shift one of
of station 5000, then we simply can shift one of the profiles in the profiles in Figure 13a so that it overlies the other profile to
Figure 12a so that it overlies the other profile to the right of the right of 5000; this result is shown in Figure 13b. Again, as in
5000 m. This result is shown in Figure 12b, where it is seen that Figure 12b, the data overlay is exact on the right-hand portion
the data overlay is exact on the right-hand portion of the line, of the line, but to the left of 5000, the profiles are displaced. The
but the profiles are displaced between 4300 m and 4700 m. The resulting percent difference curve is shown in Figure 13c. The
higher-frequency (0.1 Hz) apparent resistivities are about 15% dashed line in Figure 13c represents a regional trend in the data,
less than the lower-frequency (0.01 Hz) values. This anomaly resulting from large-scale structures. Because we are interested
is centered directly over the resistivity and IP phase anomaly only in smaller-scale structures, any significant positive depar-
that lies beneath 4500 m. The MT data in these two profiles ture from this trend is caused by the IP body. Negative values
have inherent errors of about 5%. Thus, the split in the values in the percent difference plot suggest that the left side of the
for these two frequencies is defined well and appears to reflect profile is still in the EM regime. The higher-frequency (0.1 Hz)
the known IP effect at this site. apparent resistivities between stations 4200 and 4800 are about
A second survey was conducted along the same profile in 15% less than the lower-frequency (0.01 Hz) values. The IP ef-
May 1996. The new survey was designed with several features fect is resolved better than in the previous survey, and the IP
to improve the overall quality of the data. The first consider- zone is defined well between stations 4200 and 4800—precisely
ation was to increase significantly the data-recording time to over the high chargeability seen in the IP-phase pseudosection
improve the accuracy of the data at low frequencies. A far re- (Figure 10b). The MT data in these two profiles have inher-
mote site (consisting of both orthogonal magnetic and electric ent errors less than 5%, with the split in the values for these
sensors) located a few kilometers away and a near remote site two frequencies well defined. Expressing the differences as a

FIG. 10. (a) Pole-dipole resistivity pseudosection, (b) IP phase pseudosection, (both courtesy of Western Mining); (c) resistivity
inversion of pole-dipole data, (d) phase inversion of pole-dipole data.
144 Gasperikova and Morrison

percent of one of the apparent resistivities removes the influ- ference plot of Figures 12 and 13, the results of the normalized
ence of the background resistivity and, in this case, shows that field analysis display the coherence of the IP response over a
the inherent PFE is approximately the same in the zone on broad band of frequencies and in a well-defined zone of the
either side of the contact. profile. The imaginary part of the normalized fields preserves
We next attempted to improve the results by using a new, ro- the intrinsic resistivity information: The contact is clearly seen
bust multichannel spectral-analysis code (Egbert, 1997). This in the middle of the anomaly. This field data analysis suggests
code uses a robust estimation procedure to reduce unwanted a contact model with IP on either side.
noise (outliers), but more importantly, it uses all channels at To confirm these observations, we constructed the model
all the sites to compute interstation transfer functions and ten- shown in Figure 15a. Here, a contact zone within a porphyry,
sor magnetotelluric impedances at each station. Because we as well as an adjacent conductive zone, is assigned intrinsic IP
worked with high-quality data, no significant difference arose following the same Cole-Davidson model as used previously.
between the magnetotelluric impedance estimations and sub- Figure 15b shows a cross-section of the imaginary part of the
sequent apparent resistivity calculations using this program normalized electric field for this model. Again, the resistive
and the standard processing technique. However, in working body has a strong IP effect (about −0.15), while the IP effect
only with electric fields, which for this survey had a higher of the conductive body is about −0.03.
signal-to-noise ratio than the magnetics, we obtained excellent After the first field survey, we learned that to improve the ac-
estimates of the electric field transfer function down to about curacy of the data at low frequencies, we must increase the data
0.01 Hz. We then displayed results in the normalized electric recording time significantly. Because the cost-effectiveness of
field, as described above. the survey is a concern, we have tried to determine the mini-
Figure 14a shows a cross-section of the imaginary part of mum time required in field acquisition to detect or define the
the normalized electric field along the MT profile. The data IP response. Our analysis suggests that an acquisition time of
points have inherent errors of about 2%. Therefore, any vari- two hours at each station should be sufficient for good data
ation larger than 2% can be an indication of the IP target. The quality between 0.1 and 0.01 Hz. If the anomaly is weak, four
lightly shaded area between stations 4500 and 5200 and the hours of recording time might be necessary.
darker area between stations 4000 and 4500, both centered at
CONCLUSIONS
about 0.04 Hz, clearly show the IP effect that coincides with
IP anomalies known from the IP/resistivity survey. A profile of Clearly, as shown in the model study and two surveys over the
the imaginary part of the normalized electric field at 0.04 Hz same target, the IP effect can be recovered from MT profiling
is shown in Figure 14b. Unlike the crude single-frequency dif- data.

FIG. 11. (a) Raw TM apparent resistivity cross-section, (b) raw TM phase cross-section, (c) skew of tensor impedance cross-section,
(d) RRI inversion of TM data along MT profile.
 Mapping of Induced Polarization 145

The classic telluric profiling technique, wherein the complex 4) The MT data must be of sufficient precision that the
ratio of the profiling electric dipole and fixed reference dipole changes in E and its phase are, in fact, detectable.
is plotted as a function of frequency and profile position, is
a simple and robust procedure for recovering the effect. We The required data quality is obtained easily with modern
obtained the desired accuracy using the robust multichannel MT equipment. Our analysis suggests that with the multichan-
spectral analysis of Egbert (1997). nel spectral analysis code of Egbert (1997), an acquisition time
In summary, the following four conditions must be realized
to detect the IP effect:

1) The IP effect must be confined to a finite body. The

method cannot work in layered earth or in 2-D earth for
the TE mode (E parallel to strike). In both these cases,
there is no dc limit—induction is always present and the
frequency-dependent conductivity cannot be separated
from the frequency-dependent EM response.
2) The intrinsic IP effect, the change in conductivity with
frequency, must be present for those frequencies below
those causing induction in the body.
3) The field data must be rotated to yield the electric field
normal to the strike. In a true 2-D situation, this rotation
yields E/H values for the TM mode. For this mode, H is
constant along the profile, so either ρa (∼|E|2 ) or E can
be used to infer the presence of IP.

FIG. 13. (a) Profiles of apparent resistivity at 0.01 and 0.1 Hz.
FIG. 12. (a) Profiles of apparent resistivity at 0.01 and 0.1 Hz (b) Profiles of apparent resistivity at 0.01 and 0.1 Hz, shifted
from 1995 MT survey. (b) Profiles of apparent resistivity at to overlap on the right-hand portion of the profile. (c) Percent
0.01 and 0.1 Hz from 1995 MT survey, shifted to coincide at the difference between the apparent resistivity profiles at 0.01 and
right-hand extreme of the profile. 0.1 Hz, after having been shifted.
146 Gasperikova and Morrison

FIG. 15. (a) Model of resistive and conductive body with IP.
(b) Cross-section of the imaginary part of the normalized elec-
tric field.

dc limit in any profile direction. Separation of the IP response

FIG. 14. (a) Cross-section of the imaginary part of the nor- from the EM response thus should be easier than for the 2-D
malized electric field. (b) Profile of the imaginary part of the bodies assumed in this study.
normalized electric field at 0.04 Hz.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
of two hours should be sufficient for good data quality between
This work has been sponsored by Aberfoyle Resources
0.1 and 0.01 Hz. However, if the anomaly is weak, four hours of
Ltd., BHP Minerals, Codelco, CRA Exploration, EMI Inc.,
recording time might be necessary. With new 24-bit technology
Geodatos S.A.I.C., Homestake Mining, INCO Exploration,
and with more than 10 channels acquired at a time, detecting
Kennecott, MIM Exploration, Newmont Exploration Ltd.,
IP using natural EM fields (natural field IP, or NFIP) could
Placer Dome Inc., and Western Mining Exploration S.A. We
became cost-effective for the identification of IP targets. The
thank the Geophysical Inversion Facility at the University
NFIP cost per line-kilometer is similar to the current commer-
of British Columbia for providing DCIP2D software, and D.
cial rate (about $2000/km) for production IP/resistivity surveys.
Oldenburg, D. Alumbaugh, and two anonymous reviewers for
The advantage of the NFIP survey is that it eliminates logistical
reviewing this manuscript and for their helpful suggestions.
difficulties with transmitter deployment in the field and inher-
ently provides a greater depth of exploration than conventional
REFERENCES
IP/resistivity surveys. In addition, valuable information about
the strike and dimensionality of the subsurface can be obtained Beyer, J. H., 1977, Telluric and dc resistivity techniques applied to the
geophysical investigations of Basin and Range geothermal systems:
from the tensor impedances. Ph.D. thesis, Univ. of California at Berkeley.
Although the method was illustrated using shallow targets, Dey, A., and Morrison, H. F., 1973, Electromagnetic coupling in fre-
the same procedure can be used for an identification of deeper quency and time-domain induced-polarization surveys over a mul-
tilayered earth: Geophysics, 38, 380–405.
structures. As long as the ratio between the size of the body Egbert, G. D., 1997, Robust multiple-station magnetotelluric data pro-
and skin depth stays the same, the magnitude of the response cessing: Geophys. J. Internat., 130, 475–496.
should not change. However, it may be observable only at lower Flis, M. F., Newman, G. A., and Hohmann, G. W., 1989, Induced polar-
ization effects in time domain electromagnetic measurements: Geo-
frequencies, depending on when the structure reaches its static physics, 54, 514–523.
dc limit and if an IP response still exists at those low frequencies, Goldstein, N. E., 1988, Subregional and detailed exploration for
geothermal-hydrothermal resources, Geother. Sci. & Tech., 1, 303–
as in condition (2) in the list above. 431.
This analysis could be taken into three dimension as 3-D Hohmann, G. W., Kintzinger, P. R., Van Voorhis, G. D., and Ward,
modeling algorithms become available. The finite size of the S. H., 1970, Evaluation of the measurement of induced electrical
polarization with an inductive system: Geophysics, 35, 901–915.
body makes a 3-D target a strong candidate for this kind of Oldenburg, D. W., and Li, Y., 1994, Inversion of induced polarization
analysis because at some frequency, the body should reach its data: Geophysics, 59, 1327–1341.
 Mapping of Induced Polarization 147

Pelton, W. H., 1977, Interpretation of induced polarization and resis- Wannamaker, P. E., Stodt, J. A., and Rijo, L., 1987, A stable finite-
tivity data: Ph.D. thesis, Univ. of Utah, Salt Lake City. element solution for two-dimensional magnetotelluric modeling:
Slankis, J. A., Telford, W. M., and Becker, A., 1972, 8 Hz telluric and Geophys. J. Roy. Astr. Soc., 88, 277–296.
magnetotelluric prospecting: Geophysics, 37, 862–878. Ward, S. H., Sternberg, B. K., LaBrecque, D. J., and Poulton, M. M.,
Smith, J. T., and Booker, J. R., 1991, Rapid inversion of two- and three- 1995, Recommendations for IP research, The Leading Edge, 14, 243–
dimensional magnetotelluric data: J. Geophys. Res., 96, 3905–3922. 247.
Van Voorhis, G. D., Nelson, P. H., and Drake, T. L., 1973, Complex Ware, George Hunter, 1974, Theoretical and field investigations of
resistivity spectra of porphyry copper mineralization: Geophysics, telluric currents and induced polarization: Ph.D. thesis, Univ. of
38, 49–60. California at Berkeley.
GEOPHYSICS. VOL. 49, NO. 11 (NOVEMBER 1984); P. 1993-2003, 9 FIGS., 1 TABLE.

Spectral induced polarization parameters as determined

through time-domain measurements

Ian M. Johnson*

ABSTRACT SPECTRAL IP

A method for the extraction of Cole-Cole spectral The term “spectral IP” has been used to designate a variety
parameters from time-domain induced polarization data of methods which look beyond the familiar resistivity and
is demonstrated. The instrumentation required to effect chargeability (or “percent frequency effect”) as measured in
the measurement and analysis is described. The Cole- electrical surveys. A number of geophysical instrument manu-
Cole impedance model is shown to work equally well in facturers/contractors have developed instrumentation and
the time domain as in the frequency domain. Field trials methodologies which, in essence,collect and analyze data from
show the time-domain method to generate spectral pa- electrical surveys at a number of frequencies or delay times. The
rameters consistent with those generated by frequency- data analysis produces a set of quantities which characterize
domain surveys. This is shown to be possible without the information gained. These quantities or parameters are
significant alteration to field procedures. Cole-Cole time promoted by the sponsor for application in a variety of search
constants of up to 100 s are shown to be resolvable problems for mineral and hydrocarbon resources.
given a transmitted current of a 2 s pulse-time. The In recognition of the pioneering work of Pelton (Pelton et al.,
process proves to have added usefulness as the Cole- 1978), the Cole-Cole impedance model has been adopted. The
Cole forward solution proves an excellent basis for model has been extensively field tested and found to be reliable
quantifying noise in the measured decay. (Pelton et al., 1978). Pelton suggested that the complex im-
pedance (transfer function) of a simple polarizable source may
be best expressed as
INTRODUCTION

The induced polarization (IP) phenomenon was first ob-

served as a relaxation or decay voltage as a response to the
Z(0) = R,
i
1 -m
[
1-
1
1 + (ior)c ’ (1)
11
shut-off of an impressed dc current. This decay was seen to be where
quasi-exponential with measurable effects several seconds after
Z(o) = complex impedance (in R. m),
shut-off. Differences in the shape of decay curves seen for
different polarizable targets have been recognized from the R, = the dc resistivity (in fi. m),
start (Wait, 1959). A systematic method of analyzing time-
domain responses in order to generate an unbiased measure of m = the chargeability (in volts/volt),
source character has, until recently, been lacking. Devel- r = the time constant (in seconds),
opments in the frequency domain have been more pronounced.
In an attempt to improve our understanding of time-domain o = the angular frequency (in seconds-‘),
IP phenomenon, the Cole-Cole impedance model, developed c = the exponent (or frequency dependence),
and tested in the frequency domain, is used to generate the (dimensionless)
equivalent time-domain responses. Time-domain field data are
then analyzed for Cole-Cole parameters and the results used to and
interpret differences in the character of the source.
The theoretical basis for the work will be presented. The i=Ji.
instrumentation required to effect the measurement and analy-
sis will be described. Field examples will be discussed. The dc resistivity (R,) is related to the apparent resistivity

Manuscriptreceivedby the Editor March 20, 1984;revisedmanuscriptreceivedMay 21, 1984.

*Scintrex Limited, 222 Snidercroft Road, Concord, Ont., Canada L4K lB5.
C 1984 Society of Exploration Geophystcists. All rights reserved.

1993
1994 Johnson

calculated in conventional electrical methods. The would better define the limitations of the method under average
chargeability (m) is the relative residual voltage which would be field conditions.
seen immediately after shut-off of an infinitely long transmitted Although the master-curve approach is considered the most
pulse (Siegel, 1959). It is related to the traditional chargeability practical one for routine spectral IP work, other approaches
as measured some time after the shut-off of a series of pulses of are possible. The time-domain decay may be modeled as a
finite duration. The time constant (7) and exponent (c) are those series of decaying exponentials from which the frequency-
newly measurable physical properties which describe the shape domain phase spectrum is easily calculated (Gupta Sarma et al.,
of the decay curve in time domain or the phase spectrum in 1981). Both input current and output voltage may be expressed
frequency domain. For conventional IP targets, the time con- as transform pairs of time-domain signals. The transfer function
stant has been shown to range from approximately 0.01 s to may be extracted directly.
greater than 100 s and is thought of as a measure of grain size.
The exponent has been shown to have a range of interest from NUMERICAL MODELING
0.1 to 0.5 or greater and is diagnostic of the uniformity of the
grain size of the target (Pelton et al., 1978). From Tombs (1981), the (+, 0, -, 0) transmitted current of
Selection of the Cole-Cole model is the primary step in amplitude I, and of pulse time T s used in conventional time
simulating the response of a single polarizable target. A number domain IP may be expressed in Fourier series form as
of other effects are present to a greater or lesser extent depend-
nrrt
ing upon the geoelectric environment. Multiple targets of differ-
ing characteristics will cause overlapping effects. Measurements
may contain an appreciable component due solely to inductive
> sin-.
2T
(2)

A homogeneous earth whose electrical properties may be

coupling effects. In very conductive terrain, this contribution
modeled by a single Cole-Cole impedance of Z(o) is assumed.
may be large enough to dominate the IP effects (Hallof and
Ignoring the effect of array geometry, the steady-state voltage
Pelton, 1980). The inductive effect itself may be a valued
as measured at the receiving dipole pair is
measurement in its own right (Wynn and Zonge, 1977).

V(f) = I, Im t 1 cos y- cos f Z $ $nnr/zr, (3)

“:I nn ( >( >
SPECTRAL IP IN THE time DOMAIN For conventional time-domain IP receivers, it is common to
sample the decay through a sequence of N slices or windows.
The earlier work is well summarized in Wait (1959). By that The value recorded for each slice is
time enough data had been gathered to point to differences in I,+I
103
measured decay curves and a number of decay curve modeling si = V(t) dt (mV/V), (4)
schemes had been tried. Developments in instrumentation were vp(fi+ 1 - ti) s1,
less pronounced. In 1967 the Newmont Standard IP decay was where ti, ti + , are the limits on the integration and VPis the time
introduced (Dolan and McLaughlin, 1967). Induced polariza- average of measured voltage during the current on-time. In
tion receivers were subsequently introduced which used the addition, it is common to average Si over a number of cycles
Newmont Standard as a basis for IP measurements. The so- and to filter out those signals at frequencies well below the
called L/M parameter was used for a number of years as a transmitted fundamentalf, ( = 1/4T).
sensitive measure of agreement with the Newmont Standard For ease of presentation, we define a function G(ti, ti+ 1, 7, c,
and of source character (Swift, 1973). T). This function describes the t, 7, c, and T dependence of S,
IP receivers evolved in the mid 1970s through single dipole and is derived by inserting the expression for the Cole-Cole
instruments which could be programmed to measure a number impedance from equation (1) and V(t) from equation (3) into
of points on the decay. Decay curve analysis was possible the right-hand side of equation (4) as follows:
(Vogelsang, 1981), if tedious and inexact. Extremely long pulse
times were suggested as a means of effecting some type of 1 tit I
time-domain spectral discrimination given the equipment then G(ri, ti+ 1, T> ~3 T) =

((i+ 1 - fi) sI,

available (Halverson et al., 1978). The late 1970s saw the intro-
nn 3nn
duction of time-domain IP receivers which could measure and
record digitally a number of points on the decay. The per-
formance of both transmitters and receivers was improving in
x
(cos -
4
- cos -
4 >

parallel.
The first studies of the shape of the time-domain decay given
a Cole-Cole impedance model were made by Jain (1981) and
Tombs (1981). Both authors show a number of numerically
generated decay curves as the steady-state response to a con- Combining equations (3) and (4) and using the notation of
ventional (+ , 0, -, 0) pulse train. Measured decays were com- equation (5) the theoretical decay during the off-time is given
pared to master curves with uncertain results. by
Both contributions stopped short of routine application.
Having generated a set of standard decays, the differences in lo3 I,R,m
curve shape could be quantified. A measure of the accuracy in
si = Wi, ri+ ,r ~c,c, 7-1.
v,
the field measurement required to effect a reasonable resolution
in spectral character could be gained. Routine application The measured theoretical primary voltage may be expressed
 Spectral IP Parameters 1995

mG(ti, ti+ 1, 5, C, 73 m. G(ti 3ti+ 1, L ~373

time DOMAIN COLE-COLE 1 - m + mG(t, , tb, 7, c, T) = W,, tb, 5, C, T)

(11)

Hence,

m, x lo3
mV/V.
m = G(r,, r,, r> c, 7) + MOcl - W,, r,, r, c, T)]

(12)

Confidence in the spectral parameters so determined is relat-

ed to the agreement between measured data and the selected
master curve. This agreement is quantified by the root-mean-
square (rms) deviation defined as

~={~~1(l-$5-)1x104)1’2percent. (13)

FIG. 1. Theoretical time-domain decay curves for fixed c and The process outlined above will yield spectral parameters
variable r. A typical IPR-11 measured decay is shown as a which are only apparent. Polarizable targets of interest are
series of dots (0.2 s receiver mode) and x’s (2 s receiver mode). most often of finite size and embedded in a medium which may
itself possess characteristic impedances. The theoretical prob-
lem of greater generality is a complex one with no reasonably
general forward solution yet available.
Pelton et al. (1978) presented the case of a simple polarizable
target buried in a nonpolarizing host. They showed that as the
as
relative size of the target, as defined by the dilution factor
Vp=I,Ro--I,R,m+I,R,mG(t,,t,,~,c,T), (7) decreases,the exponent is effectively unchanged. The time con-
stant is similarly unaffected as long as the true chargeability is
where t,, rb are the limits of integration during the current not large. The apparent resistivity and apparent chargeability
on-time. are, however, not as stable under large changes in the dilution
Combining equations (6) and (7), the theoretical decay is factor.
given by This implies that the shape of the time-domain decay and
s, = lo3mG(ti, ti+ 1, 5, C, T) therefore the apparent time constant r and exponent c are
(mV/V), i = 1, N. (8) relatively stable under large changes in the dilution factor. The
’ 1 - m + mG(t,, t,, 7, c, T)
apparent chargeability is not.
Preferred Cole-Cole spectral parameters may be determined By inspection,
by a “best-fit” match of measured data to a suite of master
curves. The process used may be summarized as follows. G(ri, ri+ 1, 7, c, T) = G(nt,, nti+ I, nr, c, UT). (14)
The master-curve set is numerically generated through equa-
If for example, the receiver timing, pulse time and Cole-Cole
tion (8) by allowing c and ‘I to vary in discrete steps over ranges
time constant are all doubled, the master-curve values are
of interest. The chargeability is set to 1 V/V and the pulse time
unaffected. This is a useful result for predicting the pulse length
to 2 s. Both Si and G(t,, r,, r, c, T) are retained in the master-
required to resolve spectral parameters given that one already
curve set.
has a complete understanding of the resolution capabilities of
If the measured decay is given by Mi mV/V (i = 1, N), an
the method for one pulse time (e.g., T = 2 s). As an example, let
observed chargeability m, V/V is defined as the weighted
us assume that time-domain IP surveys using a pulse time of 2 s
average amplitude shift in log amplitude space between mea-
are known to result in spectral discrimination (i.e., decay curve
sured and master curves, i.e.,
shape differences) for time constants up to 100 s. If it is sus-
pected that it may be important to resolve time constants of
log ma = & ,f (log Mi - log Si)wi. (9)
z-1 1 000 s, for example, all other things being equal, a pulse time
of 20 s would be required.
Observed chargeability values are determined for all master All of the above applies for a homogeneous earth whose
curves. The weighting factors wi bias the averaging to late delay behavior is described by a single Cole-Cole impedance. Mea-
times where integration intervals are longest. sured decays may be the result of the superposition of effects
The “best-fit” master curve is selected by minimizing due to more than one source type. Resolution of more than one
impedance type should be possible if all types are sufficiently
SD = f [log Mi - log (m. S,)]‘w,, (10) different in time constant (Major and Silic, 1981). If this con-
i=l
dition is met, the net impedance may be expressed as the sum of
where the m, used is that value appropriate to the master curve impedances of each type. This implies that measured voltages
under consideration. may be modeled as the sum of voltages due to both IP and
The true chargeability m may be found by setting inductive coupling effects and the mathematical summary
 Johnson

shown above will apply equally well to both. At a minimum,

any analysis should be capable of measuring and resolving IP time DOMAIN COLE-COLE
effects (relatively low c, large 7) and inductive coupling (IC) MASTER CURVES

effects (relatively high c, small 5).

Further developments are based on the timing characteristics
of the IP receiver involved. The Scintrex IPR-11 receiver is
assumed through the remainder of the paper and all results are
specific to this receiver.

IPR-11 MODEL CURVES

The Scintrex IPR-11 time-domain IP receiver is a

microprocessor-controlled unit which measures ten semi-
logarithmically spaced points on the decay for up to six dipoles
simultaneously. Receiver slice-timing can be reset to fill in other i
parts of the decay curve in 10 point sets. The measured decay is
recorded to a resolution of 0.1 mV/V.
FE. 2. Theoretical time-domain decay curves for fixed z and
The master curves are numerically generated per equation
variable c. The Newmont Standard decay for a 2 s pulse time is
(8). In the calculation of G(ti, t,+i, r, c, T) the integration is shown with fitted time constant and exponent.
done before the summation. The coding used is taken in part
from that published by Tombs (1980).
The master curves are generated assuming m = 1 V/V and
T = 2 s. The exponent c is allowed the values 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4,
0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, and 1.0. The time constant r is allowed the
values 0.01, 0.03, 0.1, 0.3, 1.0, 3.0, 10.0, 30.0, and 100.0 s. The
exponent values reflect the expected range for polarizable tar-
gets (0.1 to 0.8) and inductive coupling effects (c = 1.0) (Pelton
et al., 1978). The time-constant values are limited at the low end
by the minimum sampling interval (3 ms) and at the high end c n6c.)
)

by what curve shape differences can reasonably be resolved

01
given a pulse time of 2 s. The time constant values chosen are
thought to give reasonably uniform rms deviations between
different master curves.
Master curve data for longer pulse times is immediately R
available given the identity of equation (14).
The weighting factors used in equations (9) and (10) have the
M I

values 0.773,0.800,0.823,0.843,0.897,0.978, 1.048, 1.143, 1.306,

and 1.389.
Figure 1 shows simulated IP decays for variable time con-
stant and fixed exponent. A simulated decay as sampled by the
IPR-11 is shown, assuming that both 0.2 and 2 s IPR-11 receive V
modes have been used.
1 1
Figure 2 shows simulated IP decays for variable c and fixed r. A
Also shown is the Newmont Standard curve (Dolan and
i
McLaughlin, 1967) for a pulse time of 2 s. It has been found to
fit best to the master curve given by a time constant of 1 s and c I
value of 0.1. The rms deviation of the fit is 0.3 percent. A time 0 1.4 1
constant of 1 s is consistent with the fact that the Newmont N
Standard was influenced by the average of a large number of
measured decays. With regard to the c values, Pelton (1978)
noted an average value for c of 0.25 as seen in most field %
surveys. The c value of 0.1 for the Newmont Standard decay is, 1.6 1
however, understandable. Averaging time-domain decay curves
of fixed c and variable r will generally result in a curve with an 2- i
exponent value less than that of the individual decays.
Numerical experiments have been conducted to examine the
stability of the curve-matching process. In essence, the mea-
sured decay is set to one of the master curves. The rms devi-
FIG. 3. Curve shape differences (or rms deviation) between
ation between this decay and each of the master curves is then selected master curves. Arranged in order of increasing devi-
calculated. The master curves are arranged in order of increas- ation from the c = 0.2, r = 1 and the c = 0.5, r = 1 curves.
 Spectral IP Parameters 1997

RESULTANT THEORETICAL
DECAY

IP MASTER

\
10-
\
/ \ \‘
IC MASTER
\ 1‘ .
\
\

IMO
” time (ma) loo

FIG. 4. Measured data (10 point), best-fit master decay curve, FIG. 5. Measured data (20 point composite), best-fit master
and calculated spectral parameters. Array is pole-dipole with curves, and calculated spectral parameters. Both IP and induc-
a = 10 m, n = 6 with V, = 1.2 mV. Rms deviation = 0.65 per- tive coupling (IC) effects are modeled. Array is dipole-dipole
cent. V, designates the voltage measured during the transmitter with a = 100 m, n = 6 with VP= 2.6 mV.
off-time.

ing rms deviation. The results for part of this work are shown in procedures, natural noise, etc. Most conventional IP targets are
Figure 3. The left-hand column shows the ranking in order of not well modeled as a homogeneous earth. The role of spectral
increasing curve shape difference away from a measured decay IP parameters in minerals exploration is still in debate.
as given by the c = .2, t = 1 s master curve. The right-hand Given all of these factors, the method described herein has
column shows the ranking away from a measured decay as been designed with reasonable compromise such that basic
given by the c = .5, r = 1 s master curve. These results serve to spectral parameters can be determined using traditional field
illustrate the following. procedures. Through such a scheme, spectral data over a wide
variety of targets may be collected to improve understanding of
(1) As c is reduced from 0.5 to 0.2, the differences in the the method reliability and function and to modify strategy to
shape of the curve between master curves of different
best fit the exploration problem at hand.
r are reduced and the confidence in the time-constant
determination is lessened. This is no more than the
FIELD WORK
familiar result obtained in the frequency domain.
That is, as c approaches 0.1, the phase spectrum
flattens, the peak in the phase spectrum becomes less The results shown below have been taken from a variety of
distinct, and the time constant becomes more poorly field IP surveys. Most of these surveys have been undertaken
determined. without modification or special consideration for the determi-
nation of spectral parameters. The IPR-11 receiver was used
(2) Figure 3 gives an indication of the order of rms exclusively. All of the data were gathered with a pulse time of
deviation required to achieve reasonably reliable 2 s. A variety of crystal-controlled transmitters were used.
spectral parameters. An rms deviation between the Analysis was, in all cases, effected by a specially prepared
measured and master curve data on the order of 1 application software set which is resident on a microcomputer
percent is indicated. of common manufacture.
An important consideration in any time-domain spectral IP
approach is the maximum resolvable time constant given a Decay curve analysis
fixed transmitted pulse time Resolution will be in part a func-
tion of the differences in master curves as quantified by the rms Measured decays are shown in Figures 4 and 5.
deviation. The differences measured between the r = 30 s and The time-domain decay shown in Figure 4 is taken from a
the r = 100 s master curves are 3.06 percent for c = 0.5 and 0.12 survey over a near-surface Canadian volcanogenic sulfide zone.
percent for c = 0.1. Array geometry was pole-dipole with a spacing of 10 m and
A number of unknown factors will be introduced when the n = 1 to 6. The decay shown is from the n = 6 dipole. The
method is taken into the field. The performance of various IP measured primary voltages were 3 685 mV (n = 1) and 1.2 mV
transmitters under the normal variety of load conditions is not (n = 6). Apparent resistivity for the sixth dipole was 290 R. m.
precisely known. Measured decays will display a reliability Eight transmit cycles were stacked or averaged to make the
which is a complex function of the design of the receiver, field reading.
1998 Johnson

The fit is quite good with a deviation of 0.65 percent. The a I$ of 2.6 mV. For the late-time measurement, 10 cycles were
observed chargeability (m,,) is 283.1 mV/V. The Cole-Cole spec- averaged with a I’, of 2.6 mV. Acceptable data quality is possi-
tral parameters are given as 582 mV/V (m), 30 s (r), and 0.3 (c). ble for such low primary voltages in large part because the
Given the array style, a spacing, and a relatively resistive IPR-11 receiver timing is triggered off the signal from the first
host, no significant IC component was expected (Dey and potential dipole pair. Primary voltages in the n = 1 dipole in
Morrison, 1973). Figure 5 shows a measured decay from dipole- both caseswere greater than 400 mV.
dipole survey in an area of Australia with a considerable thick- For the IC component a c value of 1 was assumed. The fitted
ness of conductive cover. More than 100 m of 50 R m ground parameters for both IP and IC effects are shown on Figure 5.
are involved. The a spacing (100 m) and the n value (6) were The theoretical decays for IP, IC, and the summed responses
additional reasons to measure the early-time portion of the are superimposed.
decay. The decay shown is measured by sampling both early- The IP fit is based on the 10 points of the late-time measure-
and late-time 10 point decays to give a composite 20 point ment. The IC component decayed rapidly and had no measur-
decay. able influence after 40 ms following shut-off. The theoretical IC
For the early-time measurement, 8 cycles were averaged with curve is a good approximation to the early-time decay after

FIG. 6. Segment of results from an IPR-11 survey using the pole-dipole array with a = 10 m and n = 1 to 6. Shown are apparent
resistivity/lOO (0. m) eighth-slice chargeability (mV/V), Cole-Cole time constant (seconds) and exponent (c). Near-current electrode
is to the left of the potential electrode string.
 Spectral IP Parameters 1999

Table 1. Spectral parameters, average values. Spectral parameter sum-

mary for different array geometries. The data set for the survey line is a
portion of that shown in Figure 6.

C 5 D

Array Host Anomaly Total Agreement (%) (%)

Pole-dipole 0.26 0.27 0.27 100 2.17

Dipole-dipole 0.27 0.29 0.28 88 2.59
Gradient 0.10 0.17 0.13 75 2.40

1 I I
10 lam Qoa, tremely low resistivities and high chargeabilities. The ground is
” Vp(mV) O”
‘
indeed so conductive under the “anomaly” as to reduce pri-
mary voltages below that point at which a reliable IP measure-
FIG. 7. Rms deviation as a function of primary voltage (VP)for
spectral fits from data shown in part in Figure 6. ment can be made.
The time constant shows a strong correlation with the two
zones. The time constant is uniformly low in areas of the host
rock and uniformly high over the anomaly. The spatial stability
of the calculated time constant is promising given the low
inherent chargeabilities of the host and the sometimes low
subtraction of the IP effect. The first measuring point at 4.5 ms primary voltages over the anomaly.
after shut-off shows an anomalously high value. This value The c values averaged 0.26 for the host and 0.27 for the
causesthe large rms deviation seen for the IC component. anomaly. These exponent values compare well with the 0.25
It was remarked earlier that impedances could be summed value suggested by Pelton et al. (1978) as the most expected
without excessiveerror if time constants were sufficiently differ- value.
ent. Figure 5 shows the effective decomposition of a decay The distribution of rms deviations as a function of primary
curve into IP and IC components where respective time con- voltages is shown in Figure 7. In this example, the spectral fits
stants are less than one order of magnitude apart. The differ- are equally good down to primary voltages of 1 mV below
ence in c values is influential in giving recognizably different which the rms deviations have become large, and the spectral
forms. IP results are judged unreliable.
In the example cited, the IC component has died out before The same line segment was surveyed with both dipole-dipole
seriously affecting the 10 point IP measurement from which the and gradient arrays. Average values of the c value for the three
spectral IP parameters are determined. In extreme cases,induc- arrays used, for host and anomalous regions, are shown in
tive effects may persist and the early sample points of the 10 Table 1. The time-constant agreement column shows the per-
point IP decay will be corrupted. Spectral parameters deter- centage of calculated time constants which are within a factor
mined without removal of such inductive effects may be unre- of three of those calculated using the pole-dipole array. The
liable. In such cases, the early-time measurement is important gradient array time constants are compared with the nearest
to the proper definition of IC effects, separation of IP and IC plotted vertical average of time constants as determined using
decays, and determination of spectral parameters. the pole-dipole array.
The calculated time constants are reasonably stable and
Pseudosection plots independent of array geometry. The gradient array gives con-
sistently lower c values. This is a reasonable result given that
The results of a portion of a time-domain induced polariza- the primary field in the gradient array will, in general, energize
lion survey are shown in Figure 6. Shown are the apparent a wider variety of polarizable targets. The measured decay may
resistivity (divided by 100) in R. m, the 8th slice chargeability be the result of the superposition of responses of possibly
(690 to 1 050 ms) in mV/V, the time constant in seconds, and different time constants from more than one source.
the exponent c. Array geometry was pole-dipole, with a = 10 m.
The current trailed the potential electrode string, the whole Comparison with frequency-domain spectral results
advancing to the right. The standard 10 point decay of the 2 s
receive mode was used throughout. In 1981, Selco Mining Corporation contracted Scintrex Ltd.
The area is one of very resistive Precambrian basic volcanics and Phoenix Geophysics Ltd. to conduct spectral IP surveys on
with little or no overburden. The line segment shown passes five selected lines over the Detour deposit. Cole-Cole parame-
into a broad zone of near-surface metallic sulfides of which ters were determined independently by Scintrex working in the
pyrite is the most common. time domain and by Phoenix working in the frequency domain.
Two distinct zones are seen in the pseudosections. The left- Array setups were in each case dipole-dipole with a = 100 m,
hand portion or host rock is an area of high resistivities and n = 1 to 6. Surveys were completed within one month of each
low chargeabilities. The right-hand portion is an area of ex- other over the same grid.
2000 Johnson

time DOMAIN
time CONSTANT - r- (seconds)

FREQUENCY DOMAIN
time CONSTANT - J’- (seconds)

EXPONENT - C

FIG. 8. Cole-Cole parameters as determined through time-domain (by Scintrex) and frequency-domain (by Phoenix) measurements
over line 8 W of the Detour deposit. Spectral parameters are omitted in the time-domain data where the rms deviation exceeds 7.5
percent.
 Spectral IP Parameters 2001

CHARGEABILITY - m -(mV/V)

FIG. 9. Time-domain spectral IP results over a known gold producer. Deposit is centered some 50 m below station 450 S. An iron
formation is located near the baseline.
2002 Johnson

The Detour zinc-copper-silver deposit is situated in the Abi- resistivity low and strong chargeability high are indicated. This
tibi volcanic belt in northwestern Quebec. Three mineralized is most probably an area of barren sulfides, probably pyrite
zones have been identified. Most prominent metallic sulfides associated with the iron formation.
are sphalerite, pyrite, and to some extent chalcopyrite. The The spectral IP results are interesting from a number of
distribution patterns of zinc, copper, and silver are irregular at points of view. The time constant of the deposit is higher than
times and inconsistent. the host and yet noticeably lower than that indicated by the
The Cole-Cole parameters c and t as determined by both barren sulfides near the baseline. The true chargeability
methods for a portion of line 8 W are shown in pseudosection pseudosection has amplified the anomaly over the deposit. The
form in Figure 8. The line was traversed from north to south c values show an average value consistent with expectations.
with the current dipole trailing. Economic mineralization is The low c values of 0.1 over the deposit suggest more than one
known at depths of 10 to 150 m and from stations 1 S to 3 N. Cole-Cole dispersion may be present.
Both methods produced a coincident apparent chargeability
high/apparent resistivity low with anomalous values from 5 S CONCLUSIONS
to 7 N. From the time-domain data, average apparent
chargeabilities (610 to 1 050 ms) were up to 3 mV/V away from A method for extracting Cole-Cole spectral parameters from
the anomaly and, over 100 mV/V near station 1 N. Apparent routine time-domain IP measurements was developed, exer-
resistivities were on the order of 1 000 to 3 000 n. m (host) and cised, and applied. Resolution over a broad range of time
less than 100 R. m over limited segments of the anomaly. constants was shown to be possible given time-domain decays
Both pseudosection pairs in Figure 8 show relatively higher from transmitted waveforms with a pulse time of 2 s. The
time constants and exponent values over the center of the apparent c values are governed in part by the type of array
deposit. A detailed comparison reveals a number of differences, geometry used. Limited field tests demonstrated a coarse agree-
some of which may be caused by the following. The time- ment with results seen in the frequency domain.
domain data by current standards are noisy. Spectral parame- Independent of the direct use of the spectral parameters, the
ters were not plotted when the rms deviation exceeded 7.5 analysis procedure using the Cole-Cole model was found to
percent. Even with this rather high cut-off a number of plot give a number of useful side effects. The agreement between
points in the time-domain pseudosection remain blank. Fixing measured and theoretical decay curves is an excellent way to
the exponent in the frequency-domain analysis may affect the quantify the noise quality of the measured decay. Method
comparison. performance using a 2 s pulse time suggestsa maximum resolv-
This comparison suggests that both methods will produce able time constant of approximately 100 s. This may be used to
spectral parameters which are at least roughly equivalent. Re- predict pulse times required to resolve targets of longer time
sults of this type would be more informative if they were of constants.
better quality and moie extensive. The work cited is, however, Further developments could make good use of a forward
the only controlled in-field comparison of the two methods solution which can more adequately predict the spectral re-
available at this time sponse of more complex geologic models. More field work
involving both the time- and the frequency-domain spectral IP
An exploration application methods is required. More spectral IP data from surface and
downhole surveys would extend our understanding of the
In 1983, the Ontario Geological Survey sponsored a series of method and would contribute to its evolution.
geophysical surveys by Scintrex Limited over known gold de- The method appears a promising one for systematic appli-
posits in the Beardmore-Geraldton greenstone belt. The results cation to a variety of exploration problems. Field experience
of this work are described in the open file report by Marcotte with the method should suggest the best usesof the information
and Webster (1983). Part of this work involved an IPR-11 gained. Spectral IP results may be most useful when judged on
survey on five lines over the Jellicoe deposit. Earlier gold pro- a prospect-by-prospect basis. In-field spectral calibration
duction came from a sheared silicified and brecciated zone of through downhole and small-scale array studies and close liai-
quartz stringers and veinlets hosted by arkose. Mineralization son between geologists and geophysicists will be important.
consists of gold and disseminated sulfides (pyrite, arsenopyrite,
and Sphalerite) up to 10 percent locally. The deposit is centered
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
some 50 m subsurface. Overburden is moderately conductive
and of 10 to 20 m thickness. The host rocks are Precambrian
The cooperation of Selco, Campbell Resources, Geopeko,
metasediments including arkose and greywacke. The deposit is
and the Ontario Geological Survey is greatly appreciated.
some 200 m south of an extensive and prominent iron oxide
formation.
The IP survey was carried out using a pole-dipole array with REFERENCES
an a spacing of 25 m and n = 1 to 5. The results over one survey
Dey, A., and Morrison, H. F., 1973, Electromagnetic coupling in fre-
line are shown in pseudosection form in Figure 9. The apparent quency and time domain induced polarization surveys over a multi-
resistivity, eighth-slice chargeability, Cole-Cole time-constant, layered earth : Geophysics, 38,38&405.
Dolan, W. M., and McLaughlin, G. H., 1967, Considerations con-
chargeability, and c value are shown in contoured pseudo- cerning measurement standards and design of IP equipment, parts I
section form. and II, in Proc. of the symposium on induced electrical polarization:
The deposit is centered at station 450 S and is seen as a broad Univ. of California, Berkeley, 2-3 1,
Gupta Sarma, D., Jain, S. C., and Reddy, B. S., 1981, True and
chargeability high. The apparent resistivity section shows no apparent spectra of buried polarizable targets: Rep. no.
marked coincident low. At the extreme north end of the line a IND/74/012-18, Nat. Geophys. Res. Inst., Hyderabad, India.
 Spectral IP Parameters 2003
Hallof, P. G., and Pelton, W. H., 1980, The removal of inductive 1978, Mineral discrimination and removal of inductive coupling
coupling effects from spectral IP data: Presented at the 50th Annual with multifrequency IP: Geophysics, 43,588~609.
International SEG Meeting, November, in Houston. Seigel, H. O., 1959, Mathematical formulation and type curves for
Halverson, M. O., Zinn, W. G., McAlister, E. O., Ellis, R., and Yates, induced polarizatton: Geophysics, 24,547-565.
W. C., 1978, Some results of a series of geologically controlled field Swift, C. M., 1973, The L/M parameter of time domain IP
tests of broadband spectral induced polarization: Presented at the measurements-A computational analysis: Geophysics, 38,61-67.
48th Annual International SEG Meeting, November 1 in San Fran- Tombs, J. M. C., 1980, A study of induced polarization decay curves:
cisco. f:id:;. 102, Inst. Geol. Sci. (London), Appl. Geophys. Unit,
Jain, S. C., 1981, Master curves for derivation of Cole-Cole parameters
from multichannel time domain data: Rep. no. IND/74/012-20, Nat. ~ 1981, The feasibility of making spectral IP measurements in the
Geophys. Res. Inst., Hyderabad, India. time domain: Geoexpl., 19,91-102.
Major, J.! and Silic, J., 1981, Restrictions on the use of Cole-Cole Wait,, J. R., Ed., 1959, Overvoltage research and geophysical appli-
dispersion models in complex resistivity interpretation: Geophysics, cations: Pergammon Press.
v. 46,916931. Voglesang, D., 1981, Relations of IP decay curve statistics and geology:
Marcotte, D., and Webster, B., 1983, A report on geophysical surveys Geophys. Prosp., 29,288-297.
conducted in the Beardmore-Geraldton greenstone belt: Ontario Wynn, J. C., and Zonge, K. L., 1977, Electromagnetic coupling: Geo-
Geol. Survey open-file rep. 5469. phys. Prosp., 25,29-51.
Pelton, W. H., Ward, S. H., Hallof, P. G., Sill, W. P., and Nelson, P. H.,
GEOPHYSICS, VOL. 51, NO. 9 (SEPTEMBER 1986); P. 1830-1849. 9 FIGS., 2 TABLES

Theory of induced-polarization roggIng

in a borehole

R. Freedman* and J. P. VogiatzisS

ABSTRACT

Currently, there is interest by the petroleum well- nitely thick noninvaded formations and infinitely thick
logging industry in the potential use of induced polar- invaded formations. EM coupling contributions to ap-
ization (IP) measurements to improve formation evalu- parent IP phase angles have an approximately universal
ation in shaly sands. Shell Development Company has dependence on a scaling parameter defined here. The
constructed an experimental four-electrode IP and resis- scaling relationship permits the quantitative estimate of
tivity logging tool to obtain downhole measurements in EM coupling effects for specific tool parameters (i.e.,
shaly sands. This study contributes to the theoretical electrode spacings and frequencies) and formation
understanding and interpretation of the dynamic (i.e., characteristics (i.e., apparent conductivities). Therefore,
time-dependent) response of this type of downhole IP scaling relationships of this type should be useful in the
logging device. design of IP tools. An inverse method, developed for
A low-frequency (e.g., 32 Hz or less) electric current determining true formation IP phase angles and re-
oscillating at a single fixed frequency is applied between resistivities
from apparent values measured by an IP tool,
a pair of current electrodes in a borehole. The resulting utilizes data from multiple pairs of voltage-measuring
voltages induced between pairs of potential measuring electrodes and exploits the fact that, for the systems of
electrodes in the borehole are calculated by solving the interest, the inverse resistivity and IP problems can be
time-dependent Maxwell’s equations. Inductive electro- “decoupled. ”
magnetic (EM) coupling contributions to apparent (e.g., The assumption that IP phase angles have a loga-
measured) IP phase angles are automatically taken into rithmic dependence on frequency over a decade fre-
account. The model is applied to the study of normal quency interval leads to a nonlinear relationship be-
logging arrays for which the voltage measuring elec- tween percent frequency effect (PFE) and IP phase
trodes are interior to the current electrodes, The model angle. This nonlinear relationship agrees well with ex-
responses are calculated for normal arrays in both infi- perimental data.

INTRODUCTION acting like a giant capacitor that had been polarized by the
applied current and was then discharging. One of the many
Background intriguing aspects of IP is that wet rocks containing metallic
minerals and/or clays can exhibit effective relative dielectric
Induced polarization (IP) phenomena were discovered more constants, at frequencies below 1.0 Hz, as large as 10’ (Fuller
than fifty years ago (Allaud et al., 1977, 3&34; Schlumberger, and Ward, 1970). These large dielectric constants are more
1920). The discovery and documentation are credited to C. than six orders of magnitude greater than the dielectric con-
Schlumberger who discovered the IP effect while conducting stants of the rock constituents (e.g., brine, hydrocarbons, clays,
surface exploration measurements in the search for metallic metallic minerals, etc.).
ore deposits. Schlumberger’s field measurements involved es- The physics of the IP phenomena cannot be understood
tablishing electric currents in the earth and measuring poten- simply in terms of the bulk properties of the rock constituents.
tial differences between pairs of reference electrodes. He ob- Most physical models (Sumner, 1976) which attempt to ex-
served that when the electric currents were interrupted, the plain IP focus on the interactions between cations in the brine
measured potential differences decayed very slowly. The decay and electric charges (electrons in the case of metallic minerals
rate was much slower than could be accounted for by the and anions in the case of clay minerals) at the mineral sur-
finite conductivity of the earth. The earth appeared to be faces. A different approach has recently been discussed by Sen

Manuscript received by the Editor February 28, 1985; revised manuscript received February 13, 1986.
*Schlumberger Well Services, P.O. Box 2175, Houston, TX 77252-2175.
$Shell Development Co., P.O. Box 481, Houston, TX 77001.
(_’ 1986 Society of Exploration Geophysicists. All rights reserved.

1830
 Theory of IP Logging in a Borehole 1831

LIST OF SYMBOLS

A = Vector potential defined via uninvaded zone resistivity

equation (I 2) (A). and the invaded zone radius,
a = Borehole radius (m). respectively (fi m).
AM, AN = Distances separating the A R, = Resistivity of drilling mud
electrode from the M and N (n. m).
electrodes, respectively. R, = Formation resistivity (fi m).
B = pOH = Magnetic induction (W/m2). R,, = Invaded zone resistivity (fi. m).
BM, BN = Distances separating the B I,~ = Invaded zone radius (m).
electrode from the M and N t= time (s).
electrodes, respectively. I/@,, z) = complex phasor voltage from
D = E’E = Electric displacement vector which VMN,I and VMN,Q are
(coulomb/m’). calculated using equations
E = Electric field intensity (V,/m). (22) and (23), respectively (V).
F”‘(R,, R,, h) = Deviations of theoretically V, = Amplitude of VMN(t)(V).
computed apparent I/MN(t) = Complex voltage induced
resistivities from their between the measuring
measured values as defined in electrodes M and N (V).
equation (28) (0 m). VMN.Q= Quadrature voltage component
FE = PFE/lOO = Frequency effect induced between the
(dimensionless). measuring electrodes M and
H = Magnetic field intensity N (‘0
(A-turn/m). VMN,I = In-phase voltage component
I = Amplitude (i.e., peak value) induced between the
of the alternating current IT(t). measuring electrodes M and
IT(t) = Alternating current in the N (V).
insulated cables connecting zhl K AM = See definition of AM (m).
the A and B electrodes to zN = AN = See definition of AN (m).
the power supply (A). 6 = (2/O& 0) l/2 = Classical EM skin depth where
J, = Current density in the insulated p0 = 4% x lo-’ H/m is the
cable separating the A and B magnetic permeability of a
electrodes defined in equation vacuum (m).
(20) (A/m2). E’ = KEY = Dielectric constant of a medium
K = True effective relative dielectric (Flm).
constant of a medium ~~ = (36n)-’ x 10m9= Dielectric constant of a vacuum
(dimensionless). (F/m).
k = Complex propagation constant 0 = IP patameter of a medium as
defined in equation (19) defined in equation (6)
(m ‘). (radians).
Lz = Effective length squared as O1= Formation IP parameter
defined in equation (27). (radians).
PFE = Percent frequency effect defined BXO= Invade! zone IP parameter
in equation (C-2). (radians).
(dimensionless). 0:) = Measured values of apparent
R, = Apparent formation resistivity formation phase angles from
defined in equation (4) (a. m). which EM effects have
Ry’ = Measured values of apparent been subtracted (&radians).
resistivity where superscripts 8, = Apparent formation phase
i = 1, 2, 3 denote a particular angles defined in equation
set of electrode spacings (5) (mradians).
(0. m). A0 = EM coupling contribution to
@‘(R,, R, , b) = Theoretically computed values apparent phase angles as
of apparent resistivities where defined in equation (25).
R,, R,. and h denote the l.~= Magnetic permeability of a
invaded zone resistivity, the medium (H/m).
1832 Freedman and Vogiatzis

p,, = Radial coordinate of the by the power supply. Also

measuring electrode the frequency of the resulting
cables (m). electromagnetic fields
pl = True charge density (see (radians/s).
Maxwell’s equations).
(p, $, z) = Cylindrical coordinates.
o = Conductivity of a medium (S/m).
o* = Complex conductivity defined in a denotes apparent formation
equation (17) (S/m). parameter.
@ = Scalar potential defined in t denotes formation parameter.
equation (14) (V). x0 denotes invaded zone parameter.
o = Angular frequency of the m denotes borehole or drilling
alternating current provided mud parameter.

(1981). He considers a model which focuses on the role of tests of an experimental downhole IP tool constructed at Shell
geometrical effects and argues that the large dielectric con- Development Company for IP logging of shaly sands.
stants in rocks can be caused by the presence of rock grains
with high aspect ratios. In spite of the voluminous literature Previous work and scope of this paper
on the IP eflect, the complexity of the problem has led to
considerable controversy and there are no generally accepted In spite of decades of research on IP, there has been little
models which explain all of the IP observed phenomena. work in the literature on quantitative modeling of the bore-
The primary commercial application of IP has been for hole responses of IP tools. Brant and The Newmont Explora-
exploration of metallic ore deposits by surface IP measure- tion Staff (1966) calculate borehole departure curves for a
ments. The effects of EM coupling and the theory of IP sur- model zero-frequency IP device consisting of two point elec-
face measurements have been studied extensively in con- trodes in a borehole. This pioneering effort failed to address a
nection with mineral exploration (Dey and Morrison, 1973; number of important aspects of downhole IP logging, includ-
Wynn and Zonge, 1977; Nair and Sanyal, 1980; Madden and ing the inverse problem for the effects of invasion and the
Cantwell. 1967). The ability of IP to detect disseminated sul- effects of EM coupling on the tool response. Vinegar et al.
tide minerals has also been used to estimate the sulphur con- (1985) present borehole IP and resistivity departure curves
tent, and, therefore. the quality of in-situ coal deposits. By computed using Seigel’s (1959) coupling-free theory of IP. Vin-
comparison, the use of IP to evaluate or locate petroleum egar et al. treated EM coupling using an approximation based
reservoirs has not been commercially successful. The early on expressions derived by Sunde (1948) and Wait (1959) valid
work on applying IP to the in-situ study of petroleum reser- in an infinite homogeneous medium. The paper by Vinegar et
voirs was conducted in the U.S.S.R. Dakhnov et al. (1952) al. (1985) did not address the inverse invasion problem for IP
describe IP well-logging field equipment and discuss both lab- logging.
oratory and held IP measurements, Their interpretation of the A dynamic model for studying the responses of downhole
field measurements is qualitative, but their field data suggest unfocused four-electrode electrical logging devices is discussed.
that IP might be useful for identification of lithology and for The model and the theory underlying it provide a consistent
locating permeable zones. IP and spontaneous potential (SP) analysis of resistivity and IP logging in a borehole. The model
iogs in- shdy standshmavethe same~general character. permits obtaining apparent~formation resistivities and I-P pa-
During the decade 1950 1960. the development and use of rameters from measured logging data. The exact dynamic re-
IP for mineral exploration grew, while interest in IP for petro- sponse of the model is calculated, and EM contributions to
leum reservoir studies seemed to decline. In the past decade, a apparent resistivities and apparent IP parameters are taken
number of publications have revived interest in applying IP into account automatically. True formation resistivities and IP
borehole logging to evaluation of shaly sand reservoirs. Hoyer parameters are obtained from the apparent values by solving
and Rumble (1976) give experimental data which indicate that appropriate boundary value and inverse problems. Examples
the dielectric constants of shaly sands are approximately lin- illustrate under what conditions true formation resistivities
early proportional to their cation exchange capacities (Q,,). and IP parameters can be obtained from measured tool re-
The paper by Snyder et al. (1977) reviews the state-of-the-art sponses. The results discussed here are valid for (1) an infi-
in IP well-logging methods and expresses the belief that bore- nitely thick, noninvaded formation penetrated by a borehole,
hole measurements might permit the in-situ measurement of and (2) an infinitely thick invaded formation penetrated by a
Q,, in shaly sand reservoirs. More extensive studies of IP in borehole. The model’s use in other logging geometries is not
shaly sands have recently been reported by Vinegar and considered.
Waxman (1984). Their results confirm the results of Hoyer and In addition to the inductive coupling effects from wave
Rumble (1976) and lead to a model equation for the quadra- propagation, there are also capacitive coupling effects from
ture conductivity of shaly sands. Vinegar et al. (1985) report current leakage between the current and potential-measuring
on tool development, borehole departure curves, and field wires and electrodes (Wait, 1959; Madden and Cantwell,
 Theory of IP Logging in a Borehole 1833

1967). We consider an idealized model and neglect the capaci- ematical relationship is as follows. If the current has the form
tive coupling which can also obscure the true IP response of
I, = i CDScot, (1)
the formation. In practice these effects can be minimized by
prudent tool design (Vinegar et al., 1985). then the induced voltage will be of the form
Previous works on IP have frequently assumed a linear
relationship between the two most widely used IP parameters, VMN(f)= V” cos (wt - O,), (2)
percent frequency effect (PFE) and phase angle (Zonge et al.,
1972). We derive a nonlinear relationship between them. In where I$, is the amplitude of the oscillating voltage and Q,, is
the limit of small phase angles (e.g., shaly sands), this relation- an apparent phase angle which describes the phase relation
ship is approximately linear and is in excellent agreement with between /r(t) and I/MN(t), Note that the induced voltage in
the experimental data of Vinegar and Waxman (1984). In equation (2) consists of a component V’,, I which oscillates
rocks cammining metailic minerals, the phase angles can be in-phase with I, and a quadrature component VhlN.Qwhich
large and the nonlinear relationship proposed here also com- oscillates 90 degrees out-of-phase with I,. Equation (2) shows
pares favorably with the experimental data of Zonge et al. that
(1972).

Downhole instrumentation and measurements and

VMN,QE V. sin 8,. W)

Figure 1 displays a schematic of a model four-electrode IP
logging device. In practice the power supply, phase-sensitive A phase-sensitive detector such as the one shown in Figure 1
detector, and amplifier are located downhole (Vinegar and
measures both the m-phase and quadrature components of the
Waxman, 1982). The electrode system which consists of point
induced voltage. The in-phase voltage component is utilized to
electrodes A, B. M, and N is suspended from an armored
determine an apparent formation resistivity. The quadrature
cable (not shown). During the logging operation, the electrode
component of the induced voltage which contains the IP re-
system is raised and lowered in the borehole at fixed distances
sponse is not measured in conventional resistivity logging. An
between the electrodes. For the logging method described
experimental four-electrode IP tool which operates according
here, the borehole must contain a conductive drilling mud,
to principles similar to those described has been constructed
that is, wells drilled with oil-base muds cannot be logged. A
by Shell Development Company (Vinegar et al., 1985).
power supply provides an alternating current I,.(r) of fixed
angular frequency o and amplitude I in the insulated cable
between the current electrodes A and 6. This results (via Max- Definition of apparent formation resistivities
well’s equations) in an oscillating voltage V&(I) being induced and phaseangles
between the M and N electrodes which are connected by insu-
lated cables to a phase-sensitive detector and amplifier. The The in-phase and quadrature voltage components measured
induced voltage VMN(t)also oscillates at angular frequency w by an apparatus such as that in Figure I can be used to define
(i.e., because of the linearity of Maxwell’s equations), but in apparent resistivities R, and apparent phase angles 8.. The
general the voltage will be out-of-phase with l,(t). The math- apparent resistivity (in 0. m) is obtained from r/,,, I using the

APPARENT PHRSE
PHRSE SENSlTlVE
- FlND QPPRRENT
DETECTOR RND
RESISTIVITY
SIGNRL FMPLIFIER _ CRLCULATOR

FIG. 1. A schematic of a four-electrode normal IP logging tool.

1834 Freedman and Vogiatzis

relation with
-1
B=pH,
R, =T V,,,, L- +
‘ L_’ (4)
AM AN BN BM ’ and (11)
where AM, AN, BN, and BM are the distances (in meters) D = E’E,
separating the electrodes. The above definition of R, is similar
where c’ = KE” is the effective dielectric constant and p is the
to the definition in the conventional theory of unfocused point
magnetic permeability of the medium.
electrode-type resistivity devices (Dakhnov, 1959). In the latter
Note that the dielectric constant, and therefore the IP effect,
case, the in-phase voltage component in equation (4) is re-
enters Maxwell’s equations through the displacement current
placed by the voltage amplitude (V,). This difference is negligi-
term in equation (8). The magnetic permeability p can be re-
ble for IP logging in shaly sands since, for the expected range
placed by the permeability of a vacuum, p,, = 4x x lo-’ H/m.
of measured phase angles (i.e., less than 100 mradians), V,, and
This is an excellent approximation for nonferromagnetic
VMN,, differ by less than 1 percent. The apparent phase angles
media since the deviations of p from p0 arising from paramag-
fl, in milliradians are defined by
netic effects are negligible. The current density J, is a source
V current arising from the alternating current in the cable separ-
0, = 1 000 tan-’ MN.Q. (5)
VMN,I ating the A and B electrodes.
To solve Maxwell’s equations (7HlO), it is convenient to
A major aim of this paper is to demonstrate under what con- cast them in terms of a vector potential A and a scalar poten-
ditions the true formation resistivities R, and IP parameters 0, tial 0,. First, we introduce A by observing that since V . H = 0,
can be determined from R, and 8,. We define the IP parame-
ter 0 (in radians) by H=VxA. (12)

WE, K To introduce 4, substitute the equation (12) into equation (7)

0 = tan-’ -, and use the constitutivc relatiort B = p,, H. Thus
0

Vx [E-iop,A]=O, (13)
where K is an eff‘ective relative dielectric constant for the
medium, E” = (36n)-’ x IO-” F/m is the dielectric permit- and therefore the quantity in brackets can be written as the
tivity of a vacuum, and c is the effective conductivity of the negative gradient of a scalar potential. Thus, we arrive at a
medium in units of S/m (Fuller and Ward, 1970). Note that cs familiar result
is simply the reciprocal of the resistivity R(Q. m). Therefore, if
R, and 0, can be determined from the downhole tool response, E(w) = -V@ + iwp, A. (14)
then the effective formation relative dielectric constant K, can Note that in obtaining equation (14), we have taken time Fou-
be determined from equation (6). Thus IP logging in shaly rier transforms using the convention that any function of time
sands can be viewed as a method for dielectric constant log- S(t) is related to its transform g((w)via
ging at low frequencies (e.g., 32 Hz or less).
The argument of the arctangent in equation (6) is the ratio
of the quadrature and real parts of the complex conductivity
of the medium. IP parameters defined by equation (6) are
identical to the IP phase angles which Vinegar and Waxman
s(t) =
s “da_
Q -g S(o)P’.

On substituting equations (12) and (14) into equation (8) and

using the constitutive relations in equation (It), after some
(1984) measured in their laboratory experiments on shaly sand
straightforward algebra, a coupled equation for A and 0 is
core samples. The ratio of the quadrature and real parts of the
obtained. This equation can be decoupled by choosing the
complex conductivity in shaly sands is typically less than 0.03.
gauge condition
Therefore, an excellent approximation for the IP parameter of
a shaly sand is
(16)

which provides a relationship between the potentials. In equa-

tion (16), we have introduced the complex conductivity
DYNAMIC MODEL OF ELECTRODE-TYPE Is* = o(1 - iO), (17)
ELECTRICAL LOGGING TOOLS
where 0 = o&‘/o is an IP parameter. On using the gauge con-
Time-dependent Maxwell’s equations, dition the vector potential obeys the inhomogeneous wave
potentials and gauge conditions equation

V*A + kZA = -J,(r), (18)

The starting point of our treatment of the dynamic response
of electrode-type electrical logging tools is Maxwell’s equa- where the complex propagation constant
tions in the frequency domain, which in mks units are

V E = iwB,
(1%
x (7)
V x H = -iwD + oE + J,, (8) has been introduced and where 6 = (2/~0p~a)“~ is the classical
skin depth.
V.B=O. (9) Equations (18) and (19) are general; in order to specify our
V.D=p, (10) model, it is necessary to choose an appropriate source current
 Theory of IP Logging in a Borehole 1835

density J,(r). For an electrode-type electrical logging tool such model equations for the following logging geometries: (1) an
as the one depicted in Figure 1, we choose J,(r) to be of the infinitely thick, uninvaded bed penetrated by a borehole; and
form [in a cylindrical coordinate system (p, 4, z) with origin at (2) an infinitely thick, invaded bed penetrated by a borehole.
the A electrode], The detailed results of our calculations are too lengthy to
display here; however, it is useful to discuss them in general.
IG(p)Cu(z)- a(2 - Ule, Our calculations result in a complex voltage V(p, z) (i.e., a
J,(r) = -
2nP phasor voltage in electrical engineering terminology) from
where u(z) is a unit step function defined by the equation which the in-phase (V&) and quadrature ( VMNJ voltage
components induced between the M and N electrodes can be
1, for 2 2 0 computed. These voltage components are obtained from the
u(z) = (21)
0, forz<O’ equations

e, is a unit vector in the z direction, and L = AB is the dis- (22)

tance separating the A and B electrodes. Also, note that the
and
current density vanishes everywhere except along the portion
of the insulated current cable which is between the A and B VMN,p = Im CWb, zy) - V(po3 zJ1~ (23)
electrodes. Moran and Gianzero (1979) discuss a similar
where Re and Im are operators which take the real and imagi-
model in an investigation of the interplay of resistivity ani-
nary parts, respectively. of the complex quantities on which
sotropy and finite frequency effects on the apparent re-
they operate; p and z denote coordinates in a cylindrical coor-
resistivities
of electrical logging tools.
dinate system [i.e., (p, 4, z)] whose origin is at the A electrode.
The coordinate p0 is the radial coordinate of the voltage mea-
Definition of the forward problem
suring cables; zy = AM and + = AN are electrode spacings.
and a method for calculating apparent formation
The bracketed terms in equations (22) and (23) are line inte-
resistivities and IP parameters
grals of the electric field along a path connecting the M and N
electrodes, e.g.,
The model described permits calculation of the voltage
components VMN,, and I/MN,o(and therefore 8, and R,) for an
electrode-type logging tool operating at any frequency and for
any prescribed electrode-spacing and configuration. The EM
coupling effects contribute to 8, and can mask the small IP In Appendix A the boundary-value problem for our dynamic
response of the formation if they are not taken into account model is solved for the two logging geometries considered. An
properly. The EM coupling effects decrease with decreasing expression for V(pO , z) is derived [see equation (A-26)] which,
frequency and also with decreasing electrode spacings AM together with equations (A-22) and (A-40), represent our solu-
and AN. Therefore, it is possible to decrease the EM effects by tions. These equations, together with equations (A-25a) and
decreasing the electrode spacings; however, this decreases the A-25b), were used to calculate 8. and R, for the examples
depth of investigation. presented here. In Appendix B, our dynamic model is solved
The values of 8, and R, determined from the solution of our in an infinite homogeneous medium. The inductive EM cou-
model depend not only on tool parameters (e.g., frequency, pling terms obtained in Appendix B are shown to agree with
electrode spacings, etc.), but also on borehole and formation those obtained previously by Wait (1959) in computing the
properties. For example, consider an infinitely thick bed pen- transfer impedance between parallel wires in an infinite, ho-
etrated by a borehole and having an invaded zone of radius mogeneous medium.
r 1” The tool response, and hence 8, and R,, in this zone
depends upon (1) the borehole radius (II), (2) the drilling-mud EM coupling contributions to apparent IP phaseangles
resistivity (R,), (3) the invaded-zone radius (r,,), (4) the
invaded-zone resistivity (R,,), (5) the invaded-zone IP parame- The numerical results below illustrate the EM coupling con-
ter (Q,,), (6) the formation resistivity (R,), and (7) the formation tributions to apparent IP phase angles for four-electrode
IP parameter (Q,).In a more complex model for the formation normal IP arrays.
the tool response will, of course, depend upon more parame- The EM coupling contributions (AQ) to the apparent IP
ters. Given any model for the formation and values for all of phase angles for an IP tool operating at a frequency f are
the parameters which define the model, then, in principle, the defined by
values of 0, and R, can be computed. We call this a solution
of the “forward problem” for the model. AQ = Qa(S) - Q,(fob (25)
The solution of the forward problem for a given model of where Q0are apparent IP phase angles defined in equation (5)
the formation involves solving the Maxwell’s equations (just and f0 is a low frequency (i.e., essentially dc) for which EM
discussed). These equations lead to mathematical boundary- coupling contributions are negligible. The numerical results
value problems which can be solved analytically for all of the presented below were obtained usingf, = 2 - 6(0.015 6) Hz.
standard logging geometries normally considered in modeling We consider four-electrode normal arrays for which the B
logging tool responses. For more complex geometries (e.g., electrode is located in the borehole. Calculations of AQ were
invaded thin beds), our dynamic model equations can be performed for several different IP arrays in a borehole pen-
solved numerically using finite-element and/or finite-difference etrating an infinitely thick noninvaded formation. For these
methods. We do not consider these more complicated situ- situations, the tool responses were computed using equations
ations here. In Appendix A, we use Green’s function and inte- (A-25), (A-26), (4), and (5).
gral transform methods to obtain analytical solutions to our Our numerical results demonstrate the following.
1636 Freedman and Vogiatzis

(I) A0 has a negligible dependence on the formation the scaling parameter is approximately universal. That is, for
IP parameter (0,) for the systems of interest for which tixed values of L: o,,A we found only slight differences in A0
0 I 0, 5 30 mradians and f’s 32 Hz. for different values of h R,/R, , electrode spacings, and bore-
(2) The dominant contribution to A0 is from the term hole size. Figure 2 displays approximate upper and lower
in equation (A-26) which contains the modified Bessel bounds on A0 obtained from the calculations. The closenessof
function K,. the bounds illustrates the approximately universal nature of
the scaling. The weak, nonuniversal dependences on R,/R,
Some insight into the scaling behavior of A0 can be ob- and electrode spacings result from the other terms (i.e., the
tained by extracting the dominant contribution to A8 from the terms not involving the modified Bessel function K,) in equa-
IS, term in equation (A-26). After some straightforward al- tion (A-26). These terms do not scale like Li o,h because they
gebra, we find that have a different z dependence (i.e., dependence on electrode
spacing) than the dominant K, term. Figures 3 through 5
display resistivity departure curves which were also generated
by the calculations described above. The latter results showed
where we have introduced an “effective length” squared for a that the apparent formation resistivities (R,) have negligible
four-electrode normal array which is defined by dependences onf and Oz. Figure 2 can be used to estimate the

(27)
AM AN BN BM

Note that if the B electrode were at infinity (e.g., in the mud

1
pit), then L,Z = (AM) (AN), as might be expected. In deriving
equation (26) we have used a well-known small-argument ex-
pansion for the modified Besselfunction, i.e., K, (z*) = (- l/2)
In (z*/2) + t, valid for z* +0.
In equation (26) oa and crmare the apparent formation and
.
drilling mud conductivities, respectively, and A8 is in radians. . x
All of the calculations were done using p. = 0.01 m for the
radial coordinate of the voltage-measuring electrodes. A0 is
negative [the negative sign comes from the logarithm in equa-
tion (26)] for the normal arrays considered here.
The form of A0 in equation (26) suggeststhat the EM cou-
pling contributions to apparent IP phase angles can be scaled
using the scaling parameter Lz a,J Numerical calculations of
A0 were performed as a function of Lza,J’for (I) S-inch and
12-inch borehole diameters, (2) resistivity ratios (R,/R,) in the
range from I to 60. and (3) for the three sets of electrode
spacings shown in Figure 2. We find the dependence of A0 on
FIG. 3. Resistivity departure curves for shallow tool.

FIG. 2. Approximate upper and lower bounds for EM cou-

pling contributions to apparent IP phase angles. FIG. 4. resistivity departure curves for medium tool.
 Theory of IP Logging in a Borehole 1837

magnitude of the EM coupling contributions to A0 for differ- problem). It is then possible to devise a method (discussed
ent tool designs. For example, if -A9 must be less than ap- below) for determining values of the unknown parameters
proximately 10 mrad, then Ls o,,jr 100. This latter inequality such that the calculated responses are identical to the input
places obvious constraints on the tool frequencies and elec- (i.e., measured) responses. If the set of parameters determined
trode spacings For any anticipated range of apparent re- is unique, then we have solved the inverse problem. In Figure
resistivities 6, we display a schematic of an IP device having three sets of
Note that if Lz o,fhad been used as the scaling parameter, electrode spacings (a set consists of electrode pairs AB, AM,
then Figure 2 would have consisted of a family of curves for and AN). This device can measure three apparent resistivities
A0 corresponding to different values of RJR,,,. Use of o, in- and three apparent IP parameters and can, therefore, provide
stead of cr,,,in the definition of the scaling parameter results in enough data to find a solution of the inverse problem.
the almost total coalescenceof this family of curves (Figure 2). We briefly describe our method for solving the inverse
Note also that the findings reported here are valid only for problem discussed above. An example of this method for a
four-electrode normal arrays with the B electrode in the bore- particular case is presented and discussednext. Let R$’ denote
hole. The EM coupling effects for other arrays can be similarly measured values of apparent resistivity where subscripts i = 1,
investigated and will generally have different characteristics 2, 3 refer to the particular set of electrode spacings for which
(e.g., see Nair and Sanyal, 1980). Rz’ is determined. Let Rz)(R,, R,, b) denote the theoretically
computed values (i.e., solutions of the forward problem) of
Definition of the inverse problem and a method for obtaining apparent resistivities. We are using the fact that the theoreti-
IP parameters, resistivities, and invasion radii from logging cally computed apparent resistivities have a negligible depen-
data dence on EM and IP effects for the devices and application
considered here. This leads to a “decoupling” of the resistivity
To define and illustrate the “inverse problem” we consider and IP inverse problems. That is, the inverse resistivity prob-
the simple model for invasion discussed earlier. That is, we lem can be solved and the solution can then be used to solve
consider a borehole of known radius p = a is filled with a the inverse IP problem. The theoretically computed values for
drilling mud having known resistivity R, and IP parameter fixed i depend functionally on the values assigned to (1) the
0, = 0. The annular region a < p I rxo is invaded by the resistivity of the invaded zone (R,), (2) the resistivity of the
borehole fluid and has electrical properties R,, and flXO.The formation zone (R,), and (3) the radius of the invaded zone (h).
region p z rxo is the uninvaded formation and has electrical In a more complex model, the computed values of apparent
parameters R, and 8,. The response of an IP tool in this resistivity will depend upon more parameters. Generalization
borehole will, therefore, depend functionally on five unknown of this inverse method to more complex models is straightfor-
parameters (i.e., fJXo,RsO, tl,, R,, and rxo). Thus at least five ward, however, an IP tool with more than three sets of elec-
independent measurements are required to determine these trode spacings is required to obtain values of formation IP
parameters. Determining these parameters from the logging parameters and resistivities.
data (i.e., measured voltages) involves the solution of an in- It is convenient to introduce the deviations of the computed
verse problem. This inverse problem can be described as fol- values of the apparent resistivities from their corresponding
lows: Suppose that one is given five independent measure- measured values. That is, we define the functions
ments of the response of an IP tool. Furthermore, suppose we
F”‘(R,, R,, b) = ltb”(R,, R,, b) - R:‘, (28)
have a method for calculating these responses for any set of
values of the five unknown parameters (this is the forward for i = 1, 2, 3. The solution of the inverse problem for the
present model involves determining values of the parameters
R,, R,, and h such that the deviations F”‘(R,, R,, h) vanish.
The values thus determined are the values predicted by the
model for R,,. R,, and rxo The method we use to obtain the
zeroes of equation (28) is a simple iterative scheme based on
the well-known Newton-Raphson method for solving systems
of nonlinear equations (Kunz, 1957). Application of this
method to equations (28) leads to a set of algebraic recursion
relations (for i = 1, 2, 3),
i;F”’ L;F(i)
AR;’ ’ FR+ Ah”+’ ah + F”’ = 0, (29)
2

wthere AR;+’ = R;+’ - R;, etc., and n = 0, 1, 2, . is an iter-

ation index. A procedure for obtaining initial values Rio’, Rio’,
L
and b”’ for the iteration scheme is discussed in the next sec-
5-
I
tion. The functions F”’ and their partial derivatives in the
i above equations are evaluated at R;, R;, and h”. Convergence
of the iteration occurs after M iterations provided that the
absolute values of the ratios AR.y/Ry, ARYIRY, and Ab”/bM
1 * / I I ,I, ,,,,, ,,W are all less than a prescribed error criterion. On convergence
5 10 50 100 500 1000
RtiRm of the scheme one automatically obtains the desired model
Frc;. 5. Resistivity departure curves for deep tool, parameters. i.e., R,, = Rf’. R, = RF. and rXO= b”. Note that
1838 Freedman and Vogiatzis

at each step of the iteration process in equation (29) it is PREDICTIONS AND RESULTS
necessary to compute F”’ and its derivatives. Therefore, to FROM THEORETICAL MODELS
solve the inverse problem one must have accurate and rapid
methods for solving the forward problem. Departure curves for an infinitely thick noninvaded bed
The next step in solving the inverse problem is determi- penetrated by a borehole
nation of the IP parameters OX,)and 8,. Using a relationship
derived by Balabanian and Bickart (1969), the set of approxi- Figure 7 displays a graphical relationship between 8, and
mate equations R, and the formation parameters 0, and R,. These curves were
obtained by using equations (A-22) and (A-26) to calculate
values of 0, and R, for different values of Bt and R,. These
(30) curves represent a graphical solution of the inverse problem
for an infinitely thick, noninvaded bed penetrated by a bore-
hole since, with them, et and R, can be obtained from values of
can be derived. In equation (30), the 02’ are measured values 0, and R,. The departure curves depicted are valid for an IP
of apparent formation phase angles from which the EM cou- tool in an 8 inch borehole filled with a relatively high-
pling contributions (AO) have been subtracted. The EM cou- resistivity mud having R, = 1 Q.rn. Note that 0, = 0 since
pling contributions to be subtracted from the measured appar- most drilling fluids do not exhibit IP effects. The departure
ent phase angles are defined in equation (26) and are com- curves in Figure 7 demonstrate that significant borehole ef-
puted as previously described. A derivation of equation (30) is fects must be correctly accounted for to determine R, and 8,
given in Appendix D, and the method is applied to the inverse from the apparent values 0, and R, determined from the tool
resistivity and IP problem for an infinitely thick, invaded for- response. For example, if the tool records values R, = 80 R. m
mation. The derivatives in equation (30) are evaluated at and 0, = 20 mradians, then from the departure curves R, =
R, = R,,,, R, = R,, and h = r,“. Note that these same deriva- 100 Q m and 0, = 30 mradians. The departure curves also
tives are computed in the final iteration of equation (29) so illustrate the effects of frequency on the response of an IP tool.
that the only unknowns in equation (30) are H,, and 8,. Thus, At two frequencies considered in Figure 7, 1 Hz and 10 Hz, for
apparcnt~ phase angles @,‘I (i.e., with EMU coupling contri- the electrode spacings and borehole conditions considered, the
butions subtracted) from only two sets of electrode spacings frequency efects are most important for the lower values of
are required to determine O,, and 0,. In the next section we formation resistivity. Observe also that for small values of O1
discuss an application of our inverse method. In the example the apparent values 0, can be negative at higher frequencies.
discussed. the formation is deeply invaded (i.e., the invaded- The departure curves in Figure 7 are valid for an IP tool
zone radius is equal to six borehole radii) and the invaded- whose electrode spacings and configurations are identical to
zone parameters (O,,, . R,,) and formation parameters (O,, R,) the standard 16-inch (41 cm) normal tool used in resistivity
are significantly different. This example represents a situation logging. Similar departure curves can easily be constructed for
where the erects of invasion on the tool response are severe, any set of electrode spacings and for any borehole size and
so it is a good test of the validity of the method. mud resistivity.

RPPRRENT PHASE
IT PHRSE SENSITIVE -
RND RPPARENT
POWER IT _ f . DETECTOR FIND
_ RESISTIVITY
SIGNAL RMPLIFIER CALCULRTOR

FIG. 6. A schematic of IP device with three sets of electrode

spacings.
 Theory of IP Logging in a Borehole

Pseudodeparture curves for an infinitely thick invaded bed

penetrated by a borehole

The usefulness of depafture curves of the type discussed

above is lessened when the formation is invaded by mud fil-
trate, because of the proliferation of unknown parameters
which occurs whenever the formation is invaded. To illustrate
this point, consider a simple model for the invasion. A bore-
hole of known radius p = u is assumed to be filled with a
drilling mud with known resistivity R, and IP parameter
8, = 0. The annular region a 5 p 5 rXO is invaded by the
borehole fluid and has electrical parameters R,, and BXo.The
tool response in this borehole will, therefore. depend upon five
unknown parameters (i.e., QXO,R,, , 0, 1 R, , and rxO).There are
clearly too many variables to display graphically. Nevertheless
constructing “pseudodeparture curves” lends some light on
the invasion problem. That is, suppose the properties of the
invaded zone (i.e., values of R,, , Oxo,and r,J are given. For
fixed values of the invaded-zone properties we can construct,
using equations (A-26), (A-40), and (A-41), pseudodeparture
curves such as those in Figures 8 and 9. Figure 8 shows
coupling-free (i.e., zero-frequency) pseudodeparture curves il- FIG. 8. A pseudodeparture curve for the effects of invasion on
the response of an IP device with electrode spacings identical
lustrating the etrects of invasion on the response of an IP
to those of a 64-inch (163 cm) normal tool.
device having electrode spacings identical to the standard 64-
inch normal tool. Note that EM coupling effects (dashed
curve) can be quite large at these relatively long electrodc
spacings. Figure 9 depicts a pseudodeparture curve for the
same situation shown in Figure 8, except that the electrode
spacings are those of the 16-inch (41 cm) normal tool. A com-
parison of Figures 8 and 9 shows that the response of the
longer-spaced tool is much more sensitive to the formation
properties (i.e., 8, and R,). Indeed, if the radius of the invaded
zone in Figure 9 is increased from two to six borehole radii,
then the 16-inch normal response becomes essentially insen-
sitive to the properties of the formation. The sensitivity of the
longer-spaced tool (i.e., 64-inch normal) is reduced when the

FIG. 7. A borehole departure curve for an IP device whose FIG. 9. A pseudodeparture curve & the effects of invasion on
electrode spacings and configuration are identical to those of a the response of an IP device with electrode spacings identical
Ih-inch (41 cm) normal tool. to those of a 16-inch (41 cm) normal tool.
1840 Freedman and Vogiatzis

radius of the invaded zone is increasedto six borehole radii;

however,there is still good sensitivity to the formation proper-
Table 1. Application of the inverse method to a deeply invaded
formation. ties. This suggeststhat at least two of the sets of electrode
a = 0.102m (BOREHOLE RADIUS)
spacingson the device in Figure 6 should be chosento pro-
vide a greater depth of investigation than the 16-inch normal
= sill (MUD RESISTIVITY)
Rnl
spacing.
ELECTRODE SPACINGS iin) AND APPARENT VALUES

AM AN AB’ RB(i) -Ii) Application of the inverse method to a deeply

@a
invaded formation
0.406 6.10 12.75 3.67
This example demonstratesthe accuracy and efficiency of
1.62 21.64 m 122.77 6.60
the inverse procedurefor obtaining values of R,, , Ox0 , R, , 0,)
6.10 21.64 415.46 8.34
and rxOfrom the apparent resistivitiesand IP parametersob-
tained from a tool suchas the one in Figure 6. Consider a tool
with three setsof electrodespacingsidentical to thoseof stan-
STEP 1: DETERMINATION OF R,,, Rt AND rxo
dard 16-inch (41 cm), 64-inch (163 cm) and 20-ft (6.1 m)
” b(“) R”!“) bf”) normal devices. Moreover, consider this tool situated in a
L
borehole of radius a = 0.102 m which penetratesan infinitely
12.747 415.461 0.305 thick invaded bed with invaded zone radius rxo = 0.610 m. In
1 9.266 414.957 0.341
this example we consider invaded-zone properties R,, = 2
0. m, OX0= 10 mradians, and formation properties R,=
2 6.921 426.257 0.379
1 000 R. m and 8, = 30 mradians. The deep invasion (i.e., six-
3 5.342 450.149 0.418
borehole radii) and the large contrast in invaded-zone and
4 4.250 486.582 0.456 formation propertiesmake this example a formidable test case
5 3.557 541.478 0.493 for our inverse method. The apparent values of resistivity Ra’
6 3.020 602.848 0.523 and ez) obtained by measurementswith the three setsof elec-
7 2.693 869.789 0.548
trode spacings are listed in Table 1. Note that i = 1, 2, 3
8
denotes, respectively,the 16-inch (41 cm), 64-inch (163 cm),
2.374 736.378 0.598
and 20-ft (6.1 m) normal spacings.Table 1 shows that the
9 2.193 796.629 0.581
apparent values of resistivities and IP parameters are very
10 2.072 846.303 0.590 different from the actual or true values. To determine true
11 1.993 883.928 0.598 values from the apparent values, we use the two-step pro-
12 1.972 918.875 0.601 cedure discussedin the precedingsection. First, we solve the
13 1.968 945.351 0.604 set of iterative equations (28). Initial values for the iteration
14 1.971 984.378 0.606
procedure are obtained as follows. The initial value of the
15
invaded zone resistivity is set equal to the apparent resistivity
1.977 977.450 0.607
from the 16-inch (41 cm) normal, i.e., R\‘) = Ry), and the initi-
16 1.983 986.103 0.608
tial value of the formation resistivityis set equal to the appar-
17 1.988 991.644 0.609
ent resistivity from the 20-ft (6.1 m) normal, i.e., Rio’ = Ra’.
18 1.992 995.091 0.609 The initial value of the invaded-zone radius is set equal to
19 1.995 997.180 0.609 three borehole radii, i.e., b(O)= 3~. Table 1 lists the values of
21 1.998 999.129 0.610 Ry’, R’;,‘ and b(“) obtained at each step of the iteration. Note
22 1.999 999.532 0.610
that after 25 iterations we have obtained values of R,, , R,,
and rxoaccurateto within one-tenth of 1 percent.
23 1.999 999.754 0.610
This computation required 4.5 minutes on a UNIVAC 1108.
24 2.000 999.873 0.610
Note that each step of the iteration required four solutions of
25 2.000 999.937 0.610 the forward problem. Thus, in this example we solved the
forward problem 100 times, supporting our assertionthat ac-
‘B-ELECTRODE IN THE MUD PIT.
curate and rapid solutions of the forward problem are essen-
tial to solution of the inverse problem. The next step is to
utilize the values obtained for R,,, R,, and rXoto obtain true
IP parametersOX0and 0, from the measuredapparent values
STEP 2: DETERMINATION OF e,, AND et
e$) (from which EM coupling contributions have been sub-
ELECTRODE SPACINGS e x0 tracted). This is simple and merely involves solution of any
et
pair of the set of three algebraic equations (30). Table 1 dis-
ea
-(II -12)
’ ea 10.06 31.11 plays resultsobtained by using all three pairs of equations to
-11) -0)
determine 6,, and 0,. In practice any inconsistenciesbetween
e, I fb 10.06 31 .b9
sdlutionsarrived at by using different pairs would be warnings
$2)
a
$3)
’ a 10.33 31.11 that either the model is inadequate (e.g., thin beds or other
effectsmight be important) or that the logging data are poor.
Note that the values of OX0and O1obtained using different
pairs of spacingsare in goodagreement.
 Theory of IP Logging in a Borehole 1841

Comparison of a nonlinear relationship between percent nonlinear (NL) relationship with experimental data obtained
frequency effect and IP phase angle with laboratory data by Zonge et al. (1972). They measured both the frequency
effect FE (PFE/lOO) and the phase angle on a suite of mineral-
In Appendix C a nonlinear relationship between percent ized rocks composed of a variety of mineral types and con-
frequency effect (PFE) and IP phase angle is derived. The PFE centrations of conductive materials. The frequency measure-
is simply the percent change in resistivity per decade change in ments were performed at 0.1 and 1.0 Hz. Table 2 lists the
frequency. The PFE and phase angle are the two most com- measured FE and phase angle 8 in columns 2 and 3, respec-
monly used parameters to characterize IP phenomena. Pre- tively. In column 4 we have computed, using the measured
vious workers on the IP effect have frequently utilized linear phase angles, the FE predicted using a theoretical relationship
relationships between the IP phase angle and PFE. (FE = 1.80) derived by Zonge et al. This relationship is dis-
Appendix C demonstrates that a linear relationship is valid cussed in Appendix C. The fifth column of Table 2 lists the FE
only in the regime of small phase angles, or more precisely, predicted by equation (31) using the measured phase angles. It
when 20/x In 10 K I, where 0 is in radians and is evaluated at is clear that the NL relationship derived in Appendix C is in
the geometric mean (6) of the two frequencies of in- better agreement with Zonge et al.% data than is the linear
terest. This inequality is satisfied for shaly sandstones where relationship they derived. Indeed only for sample MOR-4
true formation IP phase angles are not expected to exceed does the FE predicted by the Zonge et al. relationship agree
approximately 30 mradians (Vinegar and Waxman, 1984). In better with the measured FE than does the NL relationship.
the mining industry where the IP effect is widely used to iden-
tify rock strata containing metallic minerals, this inequality is
violated. In this case phase angles of hundreds of milliradians SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
are frequently of interest. The nonlinear relationship derived
in Appendix C is
A dynamic (i.e., ttme-dependent) model of unfocused
electrode-type electrical logging devices has been proposed to
PFE=lOO[exp(~ln~)-11. (31) study resistivity and IP logging in a borehole. The model has
been applied to study the frequency-domain responses of four-
In the limit of small phase angles we can expand the ex- electrode normal type devices in shaly sand formations. The
ponential in the above equation and obtain dynamic model self-consistently accounts for inductive EM
(8 in milliradians). coupling effects on apparent IP phase angles (0,). The EM
PFE g 0.146 60 (32)
coupling effects on 8, have been studied in detail for four-
As noted in Appendix C, the constant of proportionality electrode normal arrays and are shown to have an approxi-
(0.1466) is in excellent agreement with the experimental results mately universal dependence on a scaling parameter Lz oa _/I
of Vinegar and Waxman (1984) on 20 shaly sandstone samples Determination of true formation resistivities and IP param-
saturated with brine. Table 2 compares the predictions of the eters from apparent values requires solution of an inverse

Table 2. Comparison of the nonlinear (NL) relationship with laboratory data and theory of Zonge et al. (1972).

SAMPLE* FE(O.l. 1.0) d(O.316 Hz) FE = 1.8 0 FE (NL)

TB-15-1 0.002 3 0.001 9 0.003 4 0.002 8

Y-4125-A 0.018 0.012 0.022 0.018

MOR-1 0.054 0.035 0.063 0.053

MINN-1 0.057 0.036 0.065 0.054

TB-24-40 0.077 0.048 0.086 0.073

MOR-2 0.097 0.061 0.110 0.094

MOR-4 0.190 0.110 0.200 0.170

MOR-3 0.360 0.210 0.380 0.360

ANdlOA 0.410 0.240 0.40 0.420

MIN-2 0.680 0.350 0.630 0.670

S
‘ AMPLES ARE DESCRIBED IN TABLE 1 OF ZONGE et al. (1972).

*t? IS IN RADIANS.
1842 Freedman and Vogiatzis

problem. A new two-step method which permits accurate and Erdelyi, A., 1954, Bateman manuscript project, tables of integral
rapid solution of the inverse problem for the dynamic model transforms. Vol. II.: McGraw-Hill Book Co.. 17.
Fuller, B. D.,‘and Ward, S. H., 1970, Linear s&m description of the
has been proposed. As an example of the method, we demon- electrical parameters of rocks: Inst. Electr. and Electron. Eng.,
strated how values of R,, , R, , 8,, , Ot, and rxO can be deter- Trans. Geosci. Electron., GE-8. 7-18.
Hoyer, W. A., and Rumble, R. C., 1976, Dielectric constant of rocks
mined from logging data acquired in a deeply invaded forma- as a pet-,physical parameter: Sot. Prof. Well Log Analysts 17th
tion. Ann. Logging Symp., Denver, paper 0. -
The two most widely used IP parameters are phase angle (0) Kunz, K. S., 1957. Numerical analysis: McGraw-Hill Book Co.
Madden, T. R., and Cantwell, T., 1967, Induced polarization, a
and percent frequency effect (PFE). We demonstrated that a review: Mining Geophysics, 1, Theory, Sot. Explor. Geophys., 373-
linear relationship between these two parameters is, in general, 400.
not valid. We derived a nonlinear relationship which is in Moran, J. H., and Gianzero, S., 1979, Effects of formation anisotropy
on resistivity-logging measurements: Geophysics, 44, 12661286.
good agreement with published experimental data over the Nair, M. R., and Sanyal, N., 1980, Electromagnetic coupling in IP
whole range of physical interest. measurements using some common electrode arrays over a uniform
half-space: Geoexplor., 18, 97-109.
Note added in proof.-After this work was completed, H. J. Runge, R. J., Worthington, A. E., and Lucas, D. R., 1969, Ultra-long
Vinegar brought to our attention the work of Van Voorhis et spaced electric log (ULSEL): Trans., Sot. Prof. Well-log Analysts
al. (1973). They presented a different derivation of the nonlin- H-l-22.
Schlumberger,, C., 1920, Etude sur la Prospection electrique du Sous-
ear relationship developed here. Sol : Gauthler-Villars et Cie.
Sen, P. N., 1981, Relation of certain geometrical features to the dielec-
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS tric anomaly of rocks: Geophysics, 46, 17141720.
Seigel, H. O., 1959, A theory of induced polarization effects (for step-
We thank Shell Development Company for permission to function excitation), in Wait, J. R., Ed., Overvoltage research and
geophysical applications: Pergamon Press, 4-21.
publish this paper. We thank J. D. Robinson for his interest in Sunde, E. D., 1948, Earth conduction effects in transmission systems:
this work and for helpful conversations during the course of D. Van Nostrand Co., 3@3 1.
this work. Also we thank E. Baskir, E. G. Flowers, D. R. Snyder, D. D., Merkel, R. H., and Williams, J. T., 1977, Complex
formation resistivity--the forgotton half of the resistivity log: Sot.
Montague and J. Olivi: for their help in the preparation and Prof. Well Log Analysts 18th Ann. Logging Symp., Houston, paper
review. Z.
Sumner, J. S., 1976, Principles of induced polarization for geophysical
REFERENCES exploration : Elsevier Science PubI. Co.
Van Voorhis, G. D.. Nelson, P. H., and Drake, T. L:, 1973, Complex
Abramowitz, M., and Stegun. 1. A. Eds., 1964, Handbook of math- resistivity spectra of porphyry copper mineralization: Geophysics,
ematical functions: National Bureau of Standards, applied math- 38,49-60.
ematics series, 55, 375. Vinegar, H. J., and Waxman, M. H., 1982, Method and apparatus for
Allaud. L. A.. and Martin. M. H.. 1977. Schlumberger: The history of determining shaliness and oil saturations in earth formations using
a techniquk: John Wiley and Sons. induced polarization in the frequency domain: U.S. Patent no.
Balabanian, N., and Bickart, T. A., 1969, Electrical network theory: 4,359,687, November 16.
John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 433-447. ~~ 1984, Induced polarization in shaly sands: Geophysics, 49,
Brant, A. A., and The Newmont Exploration Staff, 1966, Examples of 1267-1287.
induced polarization field results in the time domain: Mining Geo- Vinegar, H. J., Waxman, M. H., Best, M. H.. and Reddy, 1. K., 1985,
physics, i, Sot. Explor. Geophys. Induced polarization logging--tool development, borehole depar-
Dakhnov, V. N., 1959, The application of geophysical methods; elec- ture curves and field test results: Sot. Prof. Well Log Analysts, 26th
trical well logging: Moscow Petroleum Institute; trans., G. V. Ann. Logging Symp., Dallas, paper AAA.
Keller (1962). Colorado School of Mines Quart., 57. Wait, J. R.. 1959, The variable frequency method, in Wait, J. R., Ed.,
Dakhnov, V. N., Latishova, M. G., and Ryapolov, V. A., 1952, Inves- Overvoltage research and geophysical applications: Pergamon
tigation of wells by the induced polarization method (electrolytic Press, 29-49.
well !ogging): Sb. Pr0mislovaya Geofizika, Vnetaneft; trami, G. V. \Nynn, J. G. and Zonge, K. L., !977, Electromagnetic coupling Geo-
Keller: The Log Analyst, November-December, 4682. phys. Prosp.. 25,29-51.
Dey, A.. and Morrison, F., 1973, Electromagnetic coupling in fre- Zonge. K. L.. Sauck, W. A., and Sumner, J. S., 1972, Comparison of
quency and time-domain induced-polarization surveys over a mul- time frequency and phase measurements in induced polarization:
tilayered earth: Geophysics, 38, 38G405. Geophys. Prosp., 20, 626648.

APPENDIX A
SOLUTION OF THE FORWARD PROBLEM

This appendix solves our dynamic model equations for where the source current density J,(r) is given by
electrode-type electrical logging devices in the two logging
geometries considered in this report. As discussed, these solu- J,(r) = _ %%G) - u(z - Me,
64-Y
tions are used to calculate apparent resistivities (R,) and phase 27w
angles (0,) for the theoretical tool response. where all quantities in equations (A-l) and (A-2) have been
defined previously. The vector potential is a vector of the form
A = (0, 0, A) because the source current density is in the z
Infinitely thick noninvaded bed penetrated by a borehole
direction. If A, denotes the solution of the above equations in
the borehole, then A, obeys the equation
The model equations solved here were discussed in the text.
Recall that the vector potential A obeys the inhomogeneous VZA + k2A = IS(P)CU(Z)- u(z - Ql
1 1 1 (A-3)
wave equation 297
valid for p < a. If A, denotes the solution outside of the bore-
V*A + k2A = -J,(F), (A-1) hole, then A, obeys the equation
 Theory of IP Logging in a Borehole 1843

V=A, + k; A2 = 0, (A-4) written in the form (valid for p I a)

for p 2 a. In equations (A-3) and (A-4), k,(for e = 1, 2) de-
notes the complex propagation constant of the 8th medium rlh B(h)I,(y,p) cos h(z -z’), (A-15)
defined by
where the first term is a solution of the inhomogeneous differ-
k, = (1 + d (1
6 - iop, ential equation and the second term satisfies the homogeneous
e equation. The function I, is a zeroth-order modified Bessel
where 6, = (2/wu0 o,)‘12 and Bc= WE>/D~are the classical skin function of the first kind, and yi = Jm and R =
depth and IP parameter, respectively, of the medium. To solve ,/p’ + (z - z’)‘. A solution of equation (A-12) which is regu-
equations (A-3) and (A-4), specify the correct boundary con- lar at p = r, can be written in the form (valid for p 2 a)
ditions at p = a. The boundary conditions on the vector po- R;
tential are obtained from the requirement that the tangential G, = dh C(J& (y2 p) cos h(z - z’), (A-16)
components of E and H be continuous at p = a. That is, sCl
impose the conditions where K, is a zeroth-order modified Bessel function of the
second kind and y2 = ,,/m. The functions B(h) and C(h)
E,, = L (A-6a)
are chosen so that the boundary conditions at p = a are satis-
and fied.
The rationale for introducing the Green’s functions G,(p,
H,, = H2+ (A-6b)
z - z’) is that the vector potentials A,(p, z) can be expressed in
at p = a. From equations (12) (14), and (16) terms of the functions G, by the integral

(A-7) A,(P, z) = LdzziG,(P, z - z’), (A-17)

J0
and valid for / = 1, 2. This simplifies the problem because the
inhomogeneous equation (A-11) satisfied by G, is easier to
H,,=S, (A-8) solve than the inhomogeneous equation (A-3) satisfied by A,.
8P Furthermore, the functions A, defined in equation (A-17) will
where o: = crI - HOE;for P = 1, 2. If equations (A-7) and (A-8) automatically satisfy the proper boundary conditions.
are combined, then the boundary conditions at p = a are The next step in the calculation of the functions A, is to
equivalent to the conditions solve for the functions B(h) and C(h). It is convenient to intro-
duce the mathematical identity
\
--+iq.l,A, , (A-9) &kiR 2 cc

p=a ---s_
7F o dl R,(Y,P) cos Y(Z -z’) (A-18)
R i
and
which can be proven using the theory of integral transforms. II
equation (A-18) is substituted into equation (A-15) and recall
(A-10)
equation (A-16), then after some algebra, the boundary con-
dition in equation (A-13) leads to the equation
Green’s functions
-_y:Io(r,~)R(~)+~ ~:K,(yza)C@)= $ ~:K,(y,o). (A-19)
To solve equations (A-3) and (A-4) subject to the boundary
conditions given in equations (A-9) and (A-10) it is convenient Similarly, the boundary condition in equation (A-14) leads to
to introduce Green’s functions G,(p, z - z’) for C = 1, 2. The the equation
Green’s functions satisfy the equations

y,i,(yiu)B(Lj $ yZ K,(y, ajC@j = 2 y,K,(y,aj, (A-20)

(A-l 1)

for p I a and where I, and K, are first-order modified Bessel functions of

the first and second kinds, respectively. In arriving at equation
V=G,+ k;G,=O (A-12) (A-20) we have used the well-known relations
for p 2 a. We seek solutions of equations (A-11) and (A-12)
subject to the boundary conditions dl, (4 (A-21a)
- = II(Z)>
dz
(A-n)
and

and
dKo(4 =
- -K,(z), (A-21b)
dz
(%),=.
=(%),;. (A-14)
where z is a complex argument. The functions B(h) and C(h)
A solution of equation (A-l 1) which is regular at p = 0 can be are solutions of the algebraic equations (A-19) and (A-20). We
1844 Freedman and Vogiatzis

are interested in calculating the voltage components (i.e., V,,, I and

and V,& induced between the M and N electrodes. There-
fore, we are interested in the solution of A I(p, z) which in-
volves the function B(h). and where E, is the exponential integral defined for complex
To save space we do not give our result for C(h), since we
do not explicitly use A,(p, z). On soiving the simuitaneous
equations (A-19) and (A-20) for B(h),
argument z* by

E,(z*) =
=
s
1
&

-
e-z*t

t2 ’
for Re z* > 0. The third and fourth terms in equation (A-26)

B(h) = I.
YIKO(Yla)KSYza) - y2 2 KO(yZa)K,(y,a) represent dynamic contributions to V(p,, z) arising from EM

yl~0(y14KI(y24
C +“’
otY2~h14Ko(Y24
1
effects. Note that these terms vanish in the limit of zero fre-
quency and therefore are not present in the static potential
theory of electrode type resistivity devices (Dakhnov, 1959).
On taking the limit o+ 0 and setting Or = 0 (for G = I, 2),
(A-22)
equation (A-26) reduces (as expected) to the result the static
On combining equations (A-l 5) and (A-17), we find that A,(p, potential theory would produce.
z) can be written in the form
The dependence of V( p,, , z) on the formation IP parameter
0, is contained in the second term [i.e., in the function E(h) of
L dz’ @ttR equation (A-26)]. The term contains the IP effect of the forma-
A,(P, 2) = 2 ~ tion. The EM coupling effects on the apparent phase angles 0,
s0 R
are dominated by the K, term in equation (A-26). The terms
Om
dh in equation (A-26), except for the integral, are identical to the
+ - B(h)l,(y,p)[sin I.z - sin h(z - L)],
terms for a homogeneous medium having the electrical
s0 J.
properties of the drilling mud [e.g., see equation (B-1411. The
(A-23) EM contributions to 8, are calculated as described in the text.
with B(h) given by equation (A-22). The complex voltage VMN That is, the EM contribution is a function of frequency Sand
induced in the cable connecting the M and N measuring elec- is defined by
trodes is given by the line integral (A-28)
A@= 8, (1) - 0, C./Y,),
where A0 is the EM effect at frequency f and Jo is a low
frequency for which EM effects are negligible. In our numeri-
cal computations of AO, we used a value,f, = 2m6 (0.015 6) Hz.
where the integration is along a line p = p. where p0 is the As noted, we verified numerically that the EM effects are inde-
radial coordinate of the measuring cables and Z~ = AM and pendent of the formation IP parameters for the range of in-
7 ~
‘N - AN are electrode spacings. The real and imaginary com- terest in shaly sands (i.e., less than 30 mradians).
ponents of V,, are the in-phase (I&,, ,) and quadrature
(V,,, a) induced voltage components. respectively. That is, Infinitely thick invaded bed penetrated by a borehole

GN, r = Re (%.J = Re IMP,, zd - Wo, dl (A-25a) Here we solve our model equations for a simple three-
V MN.Q= Im (Vi,) = Im CV(P,. 4 region model in which the annular region a i p I b is invad-
- UP,. zdl (A-25b)
ed by borehole fluids. Here b is the radius of the invaded zone,
where the complex voltage v(P,, z) is obtained from per- and region p > b represents the uninvaded formation. The
forming the indefinite integral in equation (A-24). Calculation calculation of V(p,, z) for this situation follows the same pat-
of ml, z) is straightforward, although somewhat tedious. tern as the calculation for an infinitely thick noninvaded bed;
With the aid of equations (A-23) and (A-24), therefore, some of the details are omitted.
The vector potentials A, (for & = 1, 2, 3) in the three regions
of interest obey the equations

V2A, +kfA, =z u(z)-u(z-L)

1
, (A-29)

for p I a,
x cos hz - cos X(‘? - L) (A-30)
1 I V’A, + k; A, = 0,

Ik;z for a 5 P I b, and

-2x0* K,(-ik,P*)
1 V’A, + k: A, = 0, (A-3 1)
ik,l
- 4x0: E2(-ik,z) - E, C-ik,(L - z)] for p 2 b. The boundary conditions on the functions A, are
i obtained from equations (A-7) and (A-8), together with the
where conditions on the EM field vectors, i.e.,

SL = Jpi + (L - z)2, EIZ = -L. at p = a, (A-32a)

 Theory of IP Logging in a Borehole 1545

HI, = Hz,, at p = a, (A-32b)

& Ko(Y,~H~(V - F 2 K,(y,a)H,(h)
1
Rz, = R,,, at p = b, (A-32~) s(a) = “, ,*
9 (A-40)

and
(A-32d) where
HZ, = Hz,, at p = b.
H,(h) = R&z @r(h) + Ir(y2 W2 (U (A-41a)
The next step in the solution of the equations (A-29HA-31) we
HZ (h) = Ro (~2 WI@.) - 10 (~2 W2 (V> (A-41b)
introduce the Green’s functions G,(p, z - z’) defined by the
equations, with

VzG, + k;G, = ‘8(p);;p- “), (A-33) (A-41~)

for 0 I p I a,

VzG, + k; G, = 0, (A-34)
F,(h)= 1 -s R,(Y, b)Ro(y, b). (A-41d)
for a I p I b, and

V’G, + k: G, = 0, (A-35) Substituting B(h) into equation (A-26) yields the complex volt-
age I/(p,, z) appropriate to the invasion model discussedhere.
for p z b. The solutions of equations (A-33HA-35) can be
written in the form B electrode in the mud pit

_LeiklR m
G, = -+ (A-36) Here we modify the results of the preceding two subsections
A R(Wo (rr p) cos h(z - z’),
4rrR so to account for the frequent situation where the B electrode is
placed in the mud pit. For practical purposes, we are interest-
forO<pIa,
ed in the limit L-t 00 in the results for V(p,, z). From equa-
cc tions (A-15) and (A-17)
G, =
s0
dk
[
WR, (Y2 PI + mv, (Y2 PI
1 cm v2 - 4,

A,(P, 4 = 2 s 0
m dzf

-
eiktR

ss
(A-37) m m

for a I p 5 b, and f dz' dh B(h)l,(y,p) cos h(z - z’), (A-42)

0 0
m for L-+ 03. In Appendix B it is shown that the first term in the
G, = dh E(k)K,(y, p) cos h(z - z’), (A-38) above equation can be written in the form
s0
m dz’ &kjR

for p 2 b. The functions B(h), C(h), D(h), and E(k) are deter- -= 2K,(--k,p,)-EE,(---k,z), (A-43)
R
mined from the boundary conditions imposed on the functions
G, at p = a and p = b. These boundary conditions are identi- for p. << z, where E, is an exponential integral of complex
cal to those in equations (A-13) and (A-14). Imposing the con- argument defined by equation (B-6). Consider the second
ditions on equations (A-36)-(A-38) leads to four algebraic term, denoted for convenience by T2. Interchanging the order
equations for the unknown functions: of integration results in the equation
Q c0
r: Io(yla)R - 2 r:
[
R,(y,a)C + I,(y,a)D
1 = 3 R,(y,a), T, =
s0
dh R(Wo (YI P)

The integral over the variable z’ is elementary and leads to the

50
dz’ cos h(z - z’). (A-44)

(A-39a)
result
yrLr(yra)R + ~2 R1(y2W
[
- Lr(y,a)D
1 = $ yrRr(yra),

s 0
a,

dz' cos k(z - z’) =

sin Xz
F -j- di(a), (A-45)
(A-39b)
where 6(h) is the Dirac delta function. Combining the results
Y:

and
[
Ko(y,W+Io(y,W
1 -~r:Kok,W=O, (A-39~) of equations (A-44) and (A-45) yields

A~(P,, z) = -$ Ro(-ikip,) + i E,(-ik,z)

~2
[
K,(y,W-I,(YzW
1 --~xKdy,bP=O.

As discussed, our solution for U(p,, z) only involves the un-

(A-39d)
+
JO
mdh
T R(W(Y,P,)
nR(O)
sin hz + 2 Lo( - iklpo),

known function R(h). 0n solvmg me above equauon for B(X), (A-46)

1848 Freedman and Vogiatzis

__I ,+
where B(0) is p(h) evaluated at h = 0. Recall that I/@,,, z) is
V(o,,z)=4Ro*-
defined by the inbefinite integral 1 2

+ iou,
s
z

dz’ A,(P,,

by using equation (A-24), On substituting equation (A-46) into

~'1, (A-47) -

(A-48)
equation (A-47), after some algebra,

.%
APPENDIX B
SOLUTION DF THE DYNAMIC &DEL
IN AN INFINITE HOMOGENEOUS MEDIUM

Derivation of complex voltage is valid since the coupling effects are dominated by the con-
ductivity of the medium for systems of interest here. The first
Appendix A focused on the solution of the boundary-value integral in equation (B-4) can be expressed in terms of a
problems associated with solutions of the dynamic model zeroth-order modified Bessel function. The second and third
equations in the two logging geometries considered. The integrals can be simplified in cases for which z >> p and L
origin and derivation of the dynamic coupling contributions -z >> p. In these casesu can be replaced by h in the integrals,
to the measured voltages were perhaps somewhat obscured by and x = )L(S/z) and x = hS/(L - z) in the second and third
the details associated with the boundary-value problems. To integrals, respectively. This results in the equation
gain insight and avoid these complications, we solve the dy-
namic model equations in an infinite homogeneous medium A(p, z) = 2 2K,(-ikp)-E,(--kz)-E,[-ik(L-z)] ,
and compare the resuhs with previous worli (Wait,- L959). i I
The z-component of the vector potential obeys the equation
(B-5)
V’A + k*A = -J,(r), (B-1) where the exponential integral functions E, are defined by
where the source current density is given in equation (A-2).
The solution of equation (B-l) in an infinite homogeneous
medium has the form
E,(z*) =
s1
mdt emzvr
-
t” ’
(B-6)

s
valid for n = (0, 1, 2. 3 . .) with z* a complex argument such
d3r’ exp (ik (r - r’ I)
A(r) = x J, k’b (B-2) that Re z* z=-0.
Ir - r’ 1 To calculate the induced voltage V,,,, between the mea-
where in cylindrical coordinates (p, $, z), suring electrodes the line integral must be computed:
ZN IN
Ir-r’l=Jp’-p’*-2pp’cos(+-$‘)+(z-2’)* VMri= dP - IQ,,, z) = df - (-VQ + iwu, A), (B-7)
i =M ZM
J^
Combining equations (B-l) and (B-2) and using equation (A-2)
where df = e, dz and p = pO. On performing the integral for
results in
the term involving the scalar potential,
-I L dz’ exp [ikt[p2 + (Z - z’)“]
A(P* z) = G (B-3)
s0 Jpz + (2 - z’)* vu, = QM - ON + iwu, *I*dz A(p, , z). (B-8)
5Q.4
From the change of variables h = (z’ - z)/&, the above integral
can be written in the form The scalar potential can be obtained from the gauge condition
41 dh e-,l mi)u
_ @= &.A. (B-9)
s Z!S
U cr

Using the above equation and equation (B-3), it is easy to

demonstrate that
where u = JL’ + (P/S)~. In equation (B-4) we have assumed
exp (ik,/m)
k = (1 + i)/F, where 6 = (2/ou,o) I” is the classical skin depth.
This implies that the IP parameter of the medium is zero, and J6-z
 Theory of IP Logging in a Borehole 1847

exp (ikJpi + (L - zJ2) counted for in quantitative IP logging of shaly sand petroleum
- (B-10) reservoirs to get an acceptable degree of accuracy. Wait (1959)
Jp; + (L - ZJ 1’ gives expressions [Wait’s equations (40)(42), p. 401 for the
and similarly for aN. Consider the integral in equation (B-8), transfer impedance z = V/I, between parallel current and volt-
i.e., age cables in a homogeneous medium. It can be shown that
1/,,/1 in equation (B-14) is identical to the result from Wiit’s
expressions by making the following substitutions: p = pO,
c,=o, c,=L., P,=z,, P2 = zN, and y = -ik and then
performing the indicated integrations.

=-s[
-_I

4x
ZN

.zM
dz 2K,(-ikp,)-E,(-ikz)-E,
EM contribution to apparent resistivity

(B-l 1) From equation (B-14) expressions for the apparent resistivi-

To perform the integral in equation (B-11), use a recurrence ty of the medium, including EM contributions can be ob-
relation obeyed by the exponential integral functions of com- tained. We derive here a simple expression valid in the limit
plex argument z* (Erdelyi, 1954): zN c<6, zM <<6, and L-t cc (e.g., B electrode in the mud pit).
The apparent resistivity is given by
dE (3)
A = - E,_ ,(z*), (B-12)
dz* (B-15)
valid for n = (1, 2, .). Thus the exponential integral functions
in the integrand of equation (B-l 1) can be written in the form where the frequency dependence of R,(w) is explicitly indicat-
ed. The small-argument expansions of the functions K, qnd
E,(-ikz) = (k-l f$kzj. E, are needed in equation (B-14). The first few terms of these
expansions for the complex argument z* are (Abramowitz and
and Stegun, 1964),
(B-13a)

K,(.z*)= -(,nf+,)(l i$+.,.)+$+..., (B-16)

E,[-ik(L -2)] = -(ik))’ 2 [-ik(L - z)],

On substitution of the values from equation (B-13a) into equa- and

tion (B-11) the integrals are ejementary and
Z?&(z*)=z*(lnz*+y--1)+1-T+.-., (B-17)
v,, = @M- Q, - $& 2kZ(z, - Z&e (- ikp,)
c where y = 0.577 215 664 9 is Euler’s constant. The expansions
in equations (B-16) and (B-17), together with equations (B-14)
+ ik E,(-ikz,) - E,(-ikz,) and (B-l 5) yield, after some algebra,
1

-E, [ ~ ik(L - z,J] + E, [ ~ ik(L - z,,,,)]

from equation (B-8). The scalar potential terms QM and ON are

I> , (B-14)
>
, (B-18)

where R, (0) is the apparent resistivity at zero frequency. Note

defined by equation (B-10). The scalar potential terms reduce that here R,(O) = R = o- ,‘ the true resistivity of the medium,
in the limit of zero frequency to the same result (for an infinite because we are considering an infinite homogeneous medium.
homogeneous medium) as in the conventiona static potential The “skin effect” (i.e., EM effect) contribution is given by the
theory of resistivity logging. The terms in parentheses in equa- second term in parentheses in the equation. Note that this
tion (B-14) represent the EM coupling between the current contribution is directly proportional to the frequency. For
and measuring electrode cables: these terms vanish in the limit electrode-type resistivity tools with long electrode spacings,
of zero frequency, and therefore they represent “primary” dy- the EM contributions can become very large. These effects can
namic contributions to the measured voltages. These contri- be minimized by operating the tools at very low frequencies.
butions arise from the time derivative of the vector potential The ULSEL tools (Runge et al., 1969) are operated at 0.05 Hz
and therefore have no opportunity to appear in a static to minimize the EM effects. Moran and Gianzero (1979) have
theory. The quadrature voltages (i.e., VMMN.c = Jrn V,,), and given‘a formula similar to equation (B-18); however, our result
therefore the apparent phase angles (B,), contain EM coupling differs from theirs in the sign of the skin-effect correction. This
effects which can mimic the IP response of earth formations. discrepancy can be traced to a sign error in the exponential
As noted previously, these contributions must be properly ac- functions in their equation (38).
1848 Freedman and Voglatzis

APPENDIX C
DERIVATION OF A NONLINEAR RELATIONSHIP BFTWEEN IP PHASE ANGLE
AND PERCENT FREQUENCY EFFECT

Nonlinear relationship Oh) + W,)

~(&a= 2 . (C-6)
In this appendix we derive an approximate relationship be-
On combining equations (C-5) and (C-6) and recalling equa-
tween the two most commonly used IP parameters, phase
tion (C-2), the desired relation is
angle and percent frequency effect (PFE). Phase angle in IP is
defined as the difference in phase between the input current
and the measured voltage response assuming sinusoidal wave- PFE~lOOFE=lOO[exp(~ln~)-I], (C-7)
forms for both.
In terms of a complex voltage V(w), the phase angle at where the base angle is evaluated a! the geometric mean
frequency o is given by the arctangent of the ratio of the
(w = fl 0102) of the two frequencies. Note that PFE is not in
imaginary component of the voltage to the real component. general linearly related to phase angle. A linear relation is
That is, the phase angle O(w)at frequency o is valid only in the regime of small phase angles or, mord pre-
Im Y(w) cisely, when 20/n In oz/ol << 1. In this limit the exponential in
O(o) = tan-’ p. (C-1) equation (C-7) can be expanded to obtain the relationship
Re V(w)

PFE is a parameter computed from measurement of the volt- PFE = 100 FE N 146.6 0 (radians), (C-8a)
age amplitude (i.e., peak voltage) at two different frequencies, a
or
low fr~equenq (ml) anda_highfrequency (o&. The definition of
PFE is PFE = 100 FE 2: 0.146 6 0 (milliradians), (C-8b)

I ffY%~I- I W,)l valid for 20/n In 02/01 <c 1. The small-phase angle approxi-
PFE = 100 FE = 100 (C-2)
I w%)l ’ mation is applicable to the experiments of Vinegar and
waxman (1984) on a suite of 20 shaly sand core samples. The
where ( V(o,) 1 and 1V(q) ) are the high and low frequencies
proportionality constant in equation (C-8b) is in good agree-
measured voltage amplitudes, respectively. In equation (C-2)
ment with the experimental value of 0.144 reported by Vinegar
we introduced the frequency effect (FE), which is simply the
and Waxman (1984).
PFE divided by 100. In definition (C-2) of PFE, it is under-
stood that the input current amplitude is independent of fre-
quency. Therefore, in equation (C-2) the voltage amplitudes Zonge et al. (1972) relationship
can be replaced with the corresponding apparent resistivities
Zonge et al. (1972) have also derived a theoretical relation-
without altering the definition of PFE.
ship between PFE and phase angle using equation (C-3) as
In the derivation of a relation between PFE and phase
their starting point. The relationship they obtained is signifi-
angle, the PFE is calculated using frequencies a decade apart,
cantly different from ours because of different approximations
that is, o2 = low,. The starting point is an approximate re-
and assumptions. Zonge et al. (1972) replace differentials with
lationship given by Zonge et al. (1972),
differences in equation (C-3) and establish the approximate
relation
(C-3)
2oOAoo
PFEz- (C-9)
A derivation of-the above relation has been given by Baitiba- x0 )
nian and Bickart (1969). Laboratory experiments on IP in
where w = 6 = w,fi and Aw = ot - al, so that
rocks have shown that O(o) has a weak dependence on fre-
quency. Indeed, the data of Zonge et al. (1972) suggest that PFE N 181.1 0 (radians), (C-1Oa)
over a decade interval of frequency the phase angle varies
approximately linearly with the logarithm of the frequency. or
Therefore, we assume in the frequency interval o1 < w I 100, PFE N 0.181 1 0 (milliradians). (C-lob)
that
It is clear that this result differs considerably from ours and
In w also from the experimental relationship reported by Vinegar
O(w)= O(w,) + [O(w,) - O(o,)] 2. and Waxman (1984). Furthermore, Zonge et al. (1972) have
(C-4)
reported experimental values of FE and phase angles on a
In !!5
a1 suite of rocks. These experiments were performed on rocks
On substitution of expression (C-4) into expression (C-3) and whose IP phase angles spanned a large range, from a few
milliradians to several hundred milliradians. In Table 2 the
integrating from w1 to 02, after some algebra,
nonlinear (NL) relationship derived here and the Zonge et al.
ln I wb)
-=_ I 2 WI) + w%) ln 02 (1972) relationship are compared with these data. It is evident
(C-5) that the theoretical relationship derived here [equations (C-7)
Iwh)I x 2 01
and (C-8)] is in better agreement with’ these data than is the
It follows from expression (C-4) that at w = ,& linear relationship derived by Zonge et al. (1972).
 Theory of IP Logging in a Borehole 1949

APPENDIX D
A METHOD FOR SOLVING THE INVERSE INVASION PROBLEM
FOR AN IP LOGGING DEVICE

The determination of unknown formation parameters from for i = 11 23 3 where Vci)= V”‘(R” R”z, h”), AR;+’ = R;+’
logging data involves the solution of an “inverse problem.” In ~ R:. etc. As noted eailier, on &nvergence of the above
this appendix we describe a method for solving the inverse equations after M iterations, the desired model parameters,
problem for a simple model of a formation invaded by mud i.e., R,, = R.7, R, = Ry and r,,, = h”, are obtained. Note that
filtrate. The method is general and can be applied easily to the terms in equation (D-2) are identical to equations (29)
more complex models of invaded formations. since the apparent resistivities are proportional to the in-phase
The model consists of a borehole of known radius r = a voltages.
containing drilling mud of known resistivity R, and IP pa- The next step is to determine the IP parameters 8,, and @.
rameter 8,w= 0. The annular region-a s r 5 rXfl is assumed to Let
be invaded with mud filtrate and to have electrical parameters
R,, and 8,,. The uninvaded formation (r > rXO)has electrical (D-3)
parameters 8, and R, For this simple model of the invasion,
the unknown parameters to be determined are rxo, R,,, R,,
denote the measured phase angle (in radians) for the ith elec-
13,,, and Of.
trode pair from which EM coupling terms have been subtract-
Determination of these parameters requires (1) at least five
ed. Recall the approximate relation in equation (C-3) which,
independent measurements of the response of an IP tool, (2) a
for constant current amplitude, gives the relations
computer program that can simulate the response of an IP
tool if the parameters of the model described above were x d In R,,
known (e.g., a solution of the forward problem discussed in ox02 2 dIn (D-4)
appendix A). and (3) a systematic method for combining the
measured logging data with the computer simulation program and
to obtain the unknown parameters of interest. For an IP tool,
T[ d In R,
we consider a normal type of electrical logging tool operating (D-5)
at a single frequency (in the frequency range of 32 Hz or ” Z 2 d In w
below) which consists of a source electrode A, a sink electrode
Furthermore, if B”’ denotes the theoretically computed
B, and three sets of measuring electrode pairs M and N. The
phase angle for the ith electrode pair, then
tool should have the capability to measure both the in-phase
and out-of-phase (with respect to the source current) potential n d In Vci’(R rOI R,, rxo)
differences between the three electrode pairs. Let Vj$, and P-6)
e”’ = z dlno ’
V& denote the in-phase and out-of-phase measured poten-
tial differences for the ith electrode pair (i = 1, 2, 3). The negli- or on taking the indicated derivatives,
gible dependence of the in-phase voltage (potential difference)
SV”’ d In R,, (7Vci1d In R
in shaly sands on the IP parameters OX0 and 0, leads to a
simplification of the inverse problem.
A”’ 2 5 -$ R,, (7R ~
xo d In CII
+R,-2
3R, d In o I
(D-7)
- [
The inverse resistivity problem can be solved by ignoring
the dependence of the in-phase voltage on the IP parameters. On substitution of equations (D-4) and (D-S) into the equation
The resistivities and invaded zone radius thus determined (D-7).
from this inverse problem can be used to solve for OX0and t!ll.
Let Vci’(R,, R,, h) denote the in-phase potential difference (D-8)
t’
calculated using the computer program which simulates the
response of the IP tool where R,. R,, and b correspond to the
or on replacing e”’ by @“.
M
invaded-zone resistivity, the formation resistivity, and the
invaded-zone radius, respectively. We choose values of R,, R, ,
and h such that
e-2 _
w 4.0 PV”’ e , R, * a’“’ e

I/“’ ,?R xo ,,“’ SR ” (D-9)

r0 I
V”‘(R,, R,, h) - I’$, , = 0, (D-l)
for i = I, 2, 3. The above equation is identical to equation (27)
for i = 1, 2, 3. Application of the Newton-Raphson method to since the apparent resistivities are proportional to the in-phase
equation (D-l) leads to a set of algebraic recursion relations voltages. Note that any two of the three equations (D-9)
should give the unknown values O,, and Or. Any inconsist-
encies between solutions resulting from choosing different
pairs of equations indicates that either the theoretical model is
(D-2) inadequate or the measured data are in error.
DISCUSSION

on: “Mineral discrimination and removal of inductive PHASE

coupling with multifrequency IP” by W. H. Pelton, S. H. [mrad]
Ward, P. G. Hallof, W. R. Sill, and P. H. Nelson lOOO-

(GEOPHYSICS, 43, 5884509).

The authors discussed the behavior of the resistivity spectra

ORIGINAL
by means of the Cole-Cole dispersion model. They also dis-
SPECTRUM
cussed the corrections with which the petrophysical resistivity
spectrum can be reduced into an apparent resistivity spectrum
caused by a polarizable body embedded in an unpolarizable
PRISM B
environment. The application of the Cole-Cole dispersion
model is a marked step forward in spectral IP analysis. How-
ever, closer attention must be paid to the assumptions and
approaches on which the authors base the relations between
the petrophysical and apparent spectra. PRISM A
The authors based their relations between the true and ap-
parent spectra on the use of the dilution factor B,. In accord-
ance with the definition by Seigel(1959), they assumed that B,
is a real constant (independent of frequency) over the whole FREQUENCY
frequency range under consideration. First consider the justi- [H 21
fication for the assumption of the existence of a constant factor i I I I 1 1 I I I I I r

B, in the light of an example calculated for phase spectra. to5 to3 10’ IO’ lo3 lo5

Similar considerations could also be made with the aid of

amplitude spectra. FIG. 1. The original (petrophysical) Cole-Cole phase spectrum
and the apparent phase spectra of two prisms with different
Figure 1 shows separately the phase spectra of two prisms depth and resistivity of the host medium.
(prisms A and B) that are located at two different depth levels in
environments that differ in resistivity. The spectra were calcu-
lated by an integral equation technique (Eskola, 1979).
The prisms are 60 x 260 x 150 m in dimension. The depth to
the upper surface of prism A is 10 m and that of prism B 20 m. resistivity. The apparent parameters were inverted by fitting the
The ratio of the resistivity of the environment to the resistivity Cole-Cole phase spectrum to the calculated phase spectra
of the prism at direct current is 26.5 for prism A and 1.0 for (those shown in Figure 1) using the finite-difference Levenberg-
prism B. The resistivity of both prisms obeys the same Cole- Marquardt algorithm. For prism A, mAo= 0.43, cAo= 0.25,
Cole dispersion model with the parameters R, = 251 R’m, r Ao-- 5.9 s, and for prism B, mBo= 0.69, cBo= 0.25, rBo = 0.60 s.
m I 0.95, c = 0.25, and r = 6.4 s. The spectra were calculated The compatibility of the Cole-Cole model with the apparent
on the ground surface directly above the centers of the prisms spectra is very good, demonstrating that the Cole-Cole disper-
for a gradient array. At the selected starting frequency, 1O-5 sion model is well preserved in the potential-theoretical process
Hz, the phase angles of apparent resistivity are the same for that transforms the true spectrum into an apparent one. If the
both prisms. This implies that for both prisms (for the array in corrected r values were determined from the nomogram by
question and at the same calculation point) the dilution factors Pelton et al. (p. 606, Figure 27) with the m-values of the above
are the same at this frequency (B,, = B,, = 0.42). If B, were inversion, i.e., mAo= 0.43 and mBa= 0.69, and the value
really a real constant independent of the frequency, as the m = 0.95 of the original spectrum, one would get rA = 590 s,
authors assume, the phase spectra of prisms A and B would sB = 20 s. These values should now be the time constants of the
coincide over the whole frequency range. Figure 1 shows, how- true spectrum. However, ‘sA in particular differs markedly from
ever, that the spectra of prisms A and B differ significantly from the time constant r = 6.4 s of the original spectrum.
each other. From the above example one may conclude that Pelton et al.
Quantitatively evaluating the magnitude of the error which are not justified in assuming the existence of a constant factor
the reduction method proposed by the authors causes to the B,. As stated above, the Cole-Cole spectrum keeps its form
parameters of the spectra in the above example, consider the well in the potential-theoretical transformation of the true spec-
determination of parameter r, which is important in mineral trum to the apparent spectrum. However, in the process that
discrimination on the basis of the phase spectra of apparent transforms the true spectrum to the “apparent spectrum” by
1556
 Discussions 1557

means of the constant term B,, as suggested by Pelton et al., spectra cannot be based independently of the structural model
the functional form of the spectrum changes considerably. For on the assumed existence of the constant dilution factor as
example, in the method by Pelton et al., “the apparent ampli- defined by Seigel (1959). The reductions between the anomaly
tude spectrum” is obtained by raising the petrophysical Cole- and the original spectrum must be based on the correct
Cole spectrum to a power of B,. This, however, is not the potential-theoretic considerations.
Cole-Cole spectrum in form when B, # 1.
HEIKKI SOININEN
When a “spectrum” such as this is inverted by fitting the
Geological Survey of Finland
Cole-Cole model, it results in a poor fitting and erroneous SF-02150 ESPOO 15
spectral parameters. If it is assumed for the moment the exis- Finland
tence of the constant factor B, (unjustifiably), the amplitude
REFERENCES
spectrum has to be fitted with a Cole-Cole spectrum raised to a
power of B, One would then get the constant B, as well as the Eskola, L., 1979, Calculation of galvanic effects by means of the
methodof sub-areas:Geophys. Prosp., 27,216227.
spectral parameters. Seigel, H. O., 1959, Mathematical formulation and type curves for
In summary I conclude that the analysis of the anomaly induced polarization : Geophysics, 24,547-565.

Reply by the authors to H. Soininen The total change in p2 (co)over the entire frequency range is
governed by m2 where
We appreciate the discussion by Heikki Soininen and wel- 1
P,(O) _
come the opportunity to qualify use of the dilution factor
P2(cc’) 1 -m2'
derived by Seigel(1959).
The dilution factor We see that for m2 = 0.69 or less the total change in p2(o) is 3.2
or less. A factor of 3.2 corresponds to one-half decade and is the
8 ln p,
B, 2 (1) distance between points in the plots along the three-decade
2 ln p2 horizontal axis of p2 in Figure 25 of the subject paper.
is really only the first order, or linear term, of the following The approximation given by equation (1) simply assumes
Taylor’s series: that over the range of p2(o) (which is 3.2 if m = 0.69) that the
curves shown in Figure 25 of our paper may be approximated
S In p, by a straight line with slope B,
A In p, = - A In p2 + -:l 3 (A In p2)’ +
c’In p2 As m2 becomes larger and the range of p2(o) increases, the
approximation becomes poorer.
+-- 1 ”
‘ In pa(A In p2)n+ Soininen makes his point by choosing m2 = 0.95, which re-
n! alnp;
sults in p,(O)/p,(co) = 20, which frankly pushes the approxi-
mation a little too far. A factor of 20 is 1.3 decades and most of
= .g, -$ s (A ln PJ, (2) the log p, curves in Figure 25 of our paper show noticeable
nonlinearity across this large a range.
where A In p is the polarizability (frequency effect). Note that We believe that Soininen’s comments provide a useful cau-
the above is true only for one polarizable body in a non- tion: be careful with the approximation (1) when m2 is large
polarizable half-space. (greater than 0.9). Using the approximation to determine true
In general, for h polarizable media, the apparent polarizabil- time constant from apparent time constant can lead to errors as
ity is large as two decades-ven larger when m, is greater than 0.95.
We would like to go a little further, however, and make some
A In p, = i ; $2 (A In pk)“. (3), comments on the comments.
k=l n=,
(1) We do not advise use of the Schlumberger array for
It is thus obvious that (1) is indeed a simple approximation. Yet making spectral IP measurements. One reason is that
we believe that this simple approximation is adequate to permit
for multiple conductors B, can take on very wild
a reasonable correction to apparent spectral parameters for the
values-strongly negative ones, for example, and
vast majority of practical exploration problems.
these values of B, can change rapidly for changing
B, does definitely vary as a function of p2. This is clearly resistivity contrast-as Soininen has shown. A
shown in Figure 25 of the subject paper. B, is simply the slope second very practical reason is that the inductive
of the functions shown in the double logarithmic plot. How- coupling for Schlumberger array is extreme.
ever, it is easy to see that the functions are very nearly a straight
line for considerable change in p2. (2) We do recommend use of the dipole-dipole array.
 Discussions

This array minimizes inductive coupling and gives B, decades or more. All that we will really know is that the time
values which are relatively simple for even complex constant is quite small and that therefore the mineralization
geology. In order to determine true spectral parame- has a small grain size. Similarly the phase data may indicate a
ters from apparent spectra, we recommend picking peak near 10m4 Hz, and all we may really know is that the
spectra corresponding to pseudosection points which effective grain size is large, and that therefore the mineral-
are in the heart of the apparent polarizability anoma- ization is likely to be graphite or pyrrhotite.
ly. This is only common sense. The closer the B, are Our correction for the finite size of the polarizable body is
to 1.0, the smaller the correction that we need to definitely only a first-order approximation. It relies on the
apply and hence the more accurate we can be. assumption that log p, versus log p2 can be approximated by a
(3) As Soininen assuredly knows, when we are dealing straight line over the range of interest for ~~(0). This range of
with actual field spectra we do not have 10 decades of interest for pZ(0) is a factor of 3.2 if m2 is 0.69 and the frequency
data to work with. Thus manipulations with data range is infinite. If the practical frequency range is only four
over a frequency range 10m5 to 10” Hz are really decades, the change in p2 is less.
only of academic interest. Soirinen has pointed out that we should use caution when
What we might actually have, when conditions are making corrections on apparent spectral parameters to obtain
good, is four decades of IP data centered about 1 Hz. the true spectral parameters. When m, is 0.95 or larger, the
Beyond 100 Hz, inductive coupling effects usually approximation underlying our correction becomes poor.
dominate the data and below 0.01 Hz time and costs We would like to add that there are additional practical
become prohibitive for commercial exploration. difficulties in determining true spectral parameters from appar-
To be more realistic, Soininen’s analysis should ent spectral parameters. These involve, first, the uncertainties in
have studied models having the same B, at 1 Hz, not determining the apparent spectral parameters from noisy data
at 10m5 Hz. Also, the most important frequency over a finite frequency range and, second, stripping away the
range of interest would be two decades on either side background polarizability.
of this center frequency. If we look at his Figure 1 The real world of nonprismatic geology and nonzero back-
again, we should be most interested in how well the ground polarizability presents errors and uncertainties at least
two curves match between 10m5 and 10m3 Hz (rea- as important as the deterioration in the approximation (1)
sonably well), and (if he had shown two decades on when m2 becomes large.
the other side of his starting frequency) between lo-’ The danger in making dilution compensation any more
and 10-5Hz. complex-say incorporating more of the terms in equation
(2tis that no compensation will be attempted at all. Until
To summarize, in practical exploration problems, we might
geology cooperates with us a little more by providing square
have (at the most) four decades of useable IP spectra, centered
orebodies of uniform polarizability, let tis keep our approxi-
about 1 Hz. We may have additional data from 100 to 10 000
mations simple.
Hz, but these data will mainly be used to define EM response
We appreciate the interest that Soininen has shown in our
and to aid in decoupling the lower frequency spectra.
paper and his confirmation that the Cole-Cole dispersion
Our problem is to determine, first of all, the apparent spectral
model is well preserved in the transformation from true spec-
IP parameters. If our phase measurements are relatively noise-
trum to apparent spectrum.
free and the phase peak occurs within the frequency range lo-’
to lo+2 Hz, we may pe able to determine these apparent W. H. PELTON
spectral parameters quite accurately. If the phase peak occurs Phoenix Geophysics
at 10“ Hz and the phase data are somewhat noisy, we may have 4891 Independence St., Suite 270
an uncertainty in the determination of the time constant of two Wheat Ridge, CO 80033
GEOPHYSICS, VOL. 49, NO. Y (SEPTEMBER 1984); P. 15341540, 17 FIGS. 5 TABLES.

The behavior of the apparent resistivity phase spectrum in the

case of a polarizable prism in an unpolarizable half-space

Heikki Soininen*

ABSTRACT

In the application of the broadband induced polariza- The apparent Cole-Cole parameters have been invert-
tion method, it is necessary to know how a pet- ed from the apparent spectra. The apparent
rophysical resistivity spectrum is transformed into an chargeability is generally noticeably smaller, owing to
apparent spectrum measured in the field. Investigated in the geometric attenuation, than the chargeability of the
the present work was the forming of an apparent spec- original petrophysical spectrum. The apparent fre-
trum in the case of a polarizable three-dimensional quency dependence, on the other hand, is very close to
prism embedded in an unpolarizable half-space for the value of the original frequency dependence. The shift
gradient and dipole-dipole arrays. The computations of the apparent phase spectrum toward lower fre-
were done numerically using the integral equation tech- quencies partly compensates for the decrease in the ap-
nique. The frequency dependence of the resistivity of the parent time constant caused by attenuation of the spec-
prism was depicted by means of the Cole-Cole disper- trum. The apparent time constant is thus close to the
sion model. true time constant of the pctrophysical spectrum. It is
With this simple model geometry, the phase spectra therefore possible in principle to obtain by direct inver-
of apparent resistivity resemble quite closely in func- sion from an apparent spectrum measured in the field a
tional form the original petrophysical phase spectrum of reasonable estimate of the frequency dependence and
the Cole-Cole dispersion model. The apparent spectra time constant of the true spectrum of a polarizable
have shifted on the log-log scale downward, owing to body.
geometric attenuation, and toward lower frequencies.

INTRODUCTION provides a good basis for the analysis of broadband induced

polarization (IP) measurements. The characteristic features of a
On the basis of the laboratory and in-situ spectral measure- spectrum can thereby be represented solely by means of the
ments it has been observed that in the linear regime the four parameters R,, m, c, and r.
frequency-dependent resistivity of a rock can often be described In field measurements, however, the frequency spectrum of
by the Cole-Cole dispersion model (Pelton et al., 1978; Hallof the petrophysical resistivity is not measured, but rather the
and Klein. 1982a, b). The Cole-Cole dispersion model, apparent spectrum dependent upon the electrode array and the
geometry of the targeted body. In the application of the spectral

where
I7 (1) IP, therefore, one must know how the petrophysical spectrum
becomes transformed into an apparent spectrum and how the
possible spectral parameters inverted from the apparent spec-
trum stand in relation to the original petrophysical parameters
Z(w) = the complex impedance (a), of the Cole-Cole model.
R, = the value of Z(o) at zero frequency (Q), The reduction of the apparent IP spectrum into the true
m= the chargeability (Seigel, 1959), spectrum has until now generally been done with the “dilution
c= the frequency dependence, factor” (Pelton et al., 1978). Description of the frequency-
r = the time constant (s), dependent complex system with such a real (frequency-
the angular frequency (rad/s), and independent) constant is wrong. however, and leads in practice
i2= -_1 to erroneous results in the determination of the time constant,

Manuscriptreceivedby the Editor November 9, 1983;ievised manuscript received February 3, 1984.

*The Geological Survey of Finland. Geophysics Department, SF-02 150 Espoo 15,Finland.
4:‘~1984 Society of Exploration Geophysicists. All rights reserved.

1534
 Phase Spectrum, Prism in Half-Space 1535

EARTH SURFACE parameters have been selected in such a way that the resistivity
of the prism at direct current is R, = 250 fi’ m. The
chargeability has values of m = 0.35. 0.63, 0.85, 0.95, and 1.0.
With each chargeability value, the anomalies have been calcu-
lated with the values of frequency dependence c = 0.15, 0.32,
and 0.60. r = 6.4 s was adopted as the time constant. The values
1250 0. m and 5000 0. m were used as the resistivity of the
unpolarizable half-space. Thus the ratio of the resistivity of the
environment and the model at direct current (“conductivity
contrast”) was 5 and 20.
I used both the gradient array (AB = 2000 m, the prism
situated in the middle of the electrodes), and the dipole-dipole
array (n = 20 m, n = 4). By the parallel examination of two
electrode’arrays, the insignificant dependence of the spectral
behavior from a particular array will be demonstrated.
In the following, calculated phase spectra of apparent resis-
tivity will be examined. The use of a phase spectrum alone
suffices in this ideal examination, since the Cole-Cole disper-
FIG. I. Three-dimensional prism model. sion model is a minimum-phase shift function. In a minimum-
phase shift function, the phase spectrum determines the ampli-
tude~spectrum unambiguously (without an additive constant
R,) by means of the Hilbert-transform (Bode, 1945). In general,
too, the model representing the IP phenomenon should be a
which is important from the standpoint of mineral discrimi- minimum-phase shift function, because with both electrode
nation (Soininen, 1984a). polarization and membrane polarization the phase angle is
In the present work, a numerical investigation has been made zero at direct current and approaches zero at high frequencies
of how the petrophysical resistivity spectrum of a polarizable (Ward and Fraser, 1967).
body situated in an unpolarizable host rock is transformed into In practical measurements, disturbances external to the IP
an apparent spectrum in an ideal, undisturbed case. Knowledge system (e.g., inductive coupling) are liable to make the mea-
of the basic principles of the behavior of such an ideal system is sured spectrum a nonminimum-phase shift function. The infor-
the basis for the application of the method. A gradient array mation of such disturbances can occur differently in phase and
and a dipole-dipole array have been used as the electrode amplitude spectra, so that examination of both spectra separ-
configuration. Calculation of the spectra is based on the solu- ately might possibly shed light on the nature and origin of the
tion of the problem of steady current flow. The problem is disturbance and thereby help correct it. The matter will not,
solved numerically by using the integral equation technique however, be considered further in the present study.
(Eskola, 1979). The calculations are done in the frequency The apparent resistivity spectra were first calculated on the
domain, which is more advantageous for spectral studies than ground surface above the midpoint of the prism. In Figure 2,
the time domain from the standpoint of both theoretlical treat- the phase spectra are shown on a double logarithmic scale with
ment and practical measurements (Soininen, 1984b). the chargeability value m = 0.35 and the frequency-dependence
In addition to the galvanic effect, in practice the reriult of the values c = 0.15,0.32 and 0.60. In the figure are shown both the
measurement of the apparent resistivity spectrum also includes petrophysical Cole-Cole spectrum and the apparent spectra
various disturbance effects, of which the most noticeable is the with conductivity contrast 5 and 20 for the dipole-dipole array
inductive coupling between the cable layout and the ground. (curves 1 and 2) and the gradient array (curves 3 and 4). It is
The inductive coupling is especially strong at high frequencies observed that, owing to the saturation phenomenon, the phase
and with linear electrode arrays of large dimensions. The mini- anomaly is smaller with a high value for the conductivity
mization of the inductive coupling should be done by, for contrast than with a low value. Further, comparing curves (1)
example, using nonlinear electrode arrays which are minimum and (2) with curves (3) and (4) it may be noted that the phase
coupled in relation to the inductive electric field. Although the anomaly of a thin vertical prism is greater with a dipole-dipole
examination of the spectra is done here only with linear elec- array than with a gradient array. The apparent spectra have,
trode arrays, the relations between the true and apparent spec- owing to geometric attenuation, shifted downward. It is impor-
tra to be presented in the following are also valid according to tant, moreover, that the spectra have also shifted leftward
the model calculations with other (nonlinear) electrode arrays. toward lower frequencies. Otherwise, the apparent spectra are
very similar in form in the log-log representation both when
THE PHASE SPECTRA OF THE APPARENT RESISTIVITY compared with each other and also when compared with the
original petrophysical spectrum.
The phase spectra to be examined have been calculated for a In Figure 3, the petrophysical Cole-Cole spectra as well as
polarizable vertical rectangular prism model situated in an the apparent spectra have the chargeability value of m = 0.63.
unpolarizable half-space (Figure 1). The resistivity of the prism In Figure 4, the spectra have m = 0.85, and in Figure 5,
conforms to the Cole-Cole dispersion model. The apparent m = 0.95. The apparent spectra deviate more in form now, the
spectra have been calculated at 20 frequencies on the band m values being higher, from the petrophysical Cole-Cole spec-
1.0 x 10m4 Hz to 3.16 x 1O+4 Hz. The values of the Cole-Cole tra of the prism, especially with m = 0.95. The apparent spectra
 (4
FIG. 2. Petrophysical Cole-Cole phase spectra and the calculated apparent phase spectra with m = 0.35; (a) c = 0.15; (b) c = 0.32;
(c) c = 0.60. Curves 1 and Zdipole-dipole array, conductivity contrast 5 and 20. Curves 3 and 4-gradient array, conductivity
contrast 5 and 20.

(a)
FIG. 3. Petrophysical Cole-Cole phase spectra and the calculated apparent phase spectra with m = 0.63; (a) c = 0.15; (b) c = 0.32;
(c) c = 0.60. Curves 1 and Zdipole-dipole array, conductivity contrast 5 and 20. Curves 3 and L-gradient array, conductivity
contrast 5 and 20.
 Phase Spectrum, Prlsm in Half-Space

FIG. 4. Petrophysical Cole-Cole phase spectra and the calculated apparent phase spectra with m = 0.85; (a) c = 0.15; (b) c = 0.32;
(c) c = 0.85. Curves 1 and 2dipole-dipole array, conductivity contrast 5 and 20. Curves 3 and 4--gradient array, conductivity
contrast 5 and 20.

FIG. 5. Petrophysical Cole-Cole phase spectra and the calculated apparent phase spectra with m = 0.95; (a) c = 0.15; (b) c = 0.32;
(c) c = 0.60. Curves 1 and Zdipole-dipole array, conductivity contrast 5 and 20. Curves 3 and 4--gradient array, conductivity
contrast 5 and 20.
 Soininen
LOG,0PHRSE
illRAOI

(4 (4

FIG. 6. Petrophysical Cole-Cole phase spectra and the calculated apparent phase spectra with m = 1.0; (a) c = 0.15; (b) c = 0.32;
(c) c = 0.60. Curves 1 and Zdipole-dipole array, conductivity contrast 5 and 20. Curves 3 and 4 -gradient array, conductivity
contrast 5 and 20.

corresponding to the same spectral parameters are, however, dispersion model of the petrophysical spectrum, at least when
very similar in form among themselves. In Figure 6, the phase the chargeability is clearly smaller than one. This comparison
spectra are computed with m = 1.0. It is observed that as the was worked out more exactly by fitting into the calculated
chargeability rises very close to the value m = 1.0, the form of apparent phase spectra the Colt-Cole dispersion model using
the Cole-Cole phase spectrum changes rapidly, until with the the finite-difference Levenberg-Marquardt algorithm (Brown
value m = 1.0 the phase spectrum no longer has any maximum and Dennis, 1972).
but at high frequencies asymptotically approaches the value Table 1 presents the apparent spectral parameters inverted
-crc/2. Owing to the geometric attenuation of the apparent from the apparent spectrum calculated with the parameter
spectrum, the apparent chargeability is appreciably smaller values of m = 0.63, c = 0.32, and r = 6.4 s for the gradient array
than one, upon which a peak forms on the apparent phase (conductivity contrast 20). Corresponding to the uppermost
spectrum. Otherwise, too, the apparent phase spectrum de- row of Table 1, the whole frequency band has been used in the
viates noticeably more from the original spectrum than in the inversion, that is, all 20 frequencies. The Cole-Cole dispersion
case of lower m values. model fits the apparent spectrum well, which can be seen from
Consider next how the apparent spectrum changes as the the fact that the standard deviation of the fit remains small.
point of calculation shifts away from above the midpoint of the From the inverted spectral parameters it may be observed that
prism. Figure 7 shows the apparent phase spectra at the points the apparent frequency dependence c, has the same value as the
1000,980,960,950, and 940 m in the gradient array profile (the c of the original petrophysical spectrum. The apparent time
midpoint of the prism is at the point 1000 m). The parameters constant r, remains slightly smaller than the original t. Next,
of the Cole-Cole model are m = 0.63, c = 0.32, and r = 6.4 s; the frequency band has been divided into three subspectra for
the conductivity contrast is 5. It is perceived that upon shifting the inversion. The seven low frequencies (1.0 x 10m4 Hz . . .
away from the midpoint on the profile, the phase spectrum 1.0 x IO * Hz) make up the first subspectrum, the seven
shifts downward due to increased geometric attenuation and at middle frequencies (3.16 x lo-’ Hz ___ 1.0 x IO+’ Hz) the
the same time it again shifts to the left. The form of the second one, and finally the seven high frequencies (3.16 x lO+ ’
attenuating spectra remains once again unchanged. Hz 3.16 x !O’4 Hz) rhe third one. !n all the inversions done
from these three subspectra, the same values are obtained for
INVERSIONS MADE FROM APPARENT SPECTRA the apparent parameters as when inverting the parameters from
the whole spectrum. Furthermore, the standard deviation re-
It was found in the foregoing that the apparent resistivity mains small. This may be regarded numerically as a proof that
spectrum corresponds qualitatively in form to the Cole-Cole the functional form of the Cole-Cole model has been preserved
 Phase Spectrum, Prism In Half-Space 1539

Table 1. Inverted apparent spectral parameters from different parts of well in the transformation from a petrophysical spectrum into
the spectrum. The original Cole-Cole arameters are m = 0.63, an apparent spectrum.
E = 0.32, and r = 6.4 s. Gradient array, conBuctivity contrast20.
Table 2 presents the corresponding results from inversions
Number of Standard for the gradient array with m = 1.0, c = 0.15, and T = 6.4 s
frequencies cl? To(s) deviation (conductivity contrast 5). Again, the same apparent parameters
~ m, -
are inverted from the whole spectrum from the beginning,
20 .24E-2 .32 5.8 9.2E-9 middle, and end of the spectrum. The standard deviation of the
.24E-2 .32 2.4E-9
.24E-2 .32 ::: 5.7E-11 fit remains small in all cases. It is significant also that the
:
7 .24E-2 .32 5.8 lSE-10 apparent frequency dependence (‘a is the same in value as the
original c in the inversion also done from the high-frequency
part of the spectrum, although (with the value m = 1.0) the
original and the apparent spectrum are different expressly at
high frequencies.
Next, the Cole-Cole dispersion model was fitted to all the
Table 2. Inverted apparent spectral parameters from different parts of
the spectrum.The original Cole-Cole parameters are m = 1.0, c = 0.15, apparent spectra displayed in Figures 2 through 6. In all the
and 7 = 6.4 s. Gradient array, conductivitycontrast5. cases, the same value was obtained for the apparent frequency
dependence c, as the frequency dependence c has in the original
Number of Standard petrophysical spectrum. The apparent chargeability m, remains
frequencies m, Cl? ‘I, (s) deviation
--- smaller, owing to the geometric attenuation of the spectrum,
20 ,124 .15 1.8 9.4E-7 than the chargeability m of the petrophysical spectrum. The
7 ,124 .15 1.8 3.3E-8 time constant T is an important parameter from the standpoint
7 ,124 .15 1.8 2.4E-8 of mineral discrimination, for which reason the inverted values
I .124 .15 1.8 7.3E-10
of the apparent time constant ~~will be more closely examined.
Tables 3 and 4 present the values of ~~ inverted from the
apparent spectra calculated with different values of m and c for
the dipole-dipole array.
From the tables it will be noted that the values of apparent
Table 3. time constants inverted from the apparent spectra. Dipole- time constant remain smaller than their petrophysical value
dipole array, conductivitycontrast 20.
(7 = 6.4 s). They are closer to it with high values of frequency

dependence and low values of chargeability. The apparent time

constants almost invariably deviate, however, less than one
- - - - decade from the value of the petrophysical time constant. It is
.15 3.6 2.2 1.3 .96 .81 noteworthy that the values of apparent time constant also
.32 4.9 3.0 2.6 behave with the gradient array in the same way as with the
.60 5.6 4.3 4.0
dipole-dipole array presented.
Finally, the inversion of the spectra calculated at different
points of the gradient array profile was performed, as shown
in Figure 7. The results of inversion are !&ted in Table 5. Values-
of the apparent frequency dependence c, again remain, in all
Table 4. time constants inverted from the apparent spectra. Dipole- the inversions, the same as the petrophysical c. The apparent
dipole array, conductivitycontrast5.
chargeability m, diminishes upon shifting on the profile farther

l_
C .35 .63 .85
--
.95 1.0
from the midpoint of the prism, while the apparent time con-
stant ~~is then closer to its petrophysical value 5 = 6.4 s.
Keeping the apparent time constant close to the time con-
.15 2.1 .67 .20 .094 .058 stant of the petrophysical spectrum is helped by the fact that as
.32 3.8 2.3 1.3 .87 .68
the spectrum attenuates, it also shifts at the same time toward
.60 4.8 3.6 2.7 2.2 1.9
the lower frequencies. This can be easily understood on the
basis of the following analysis. For the Cole-Cole phase spec-
trum it is possible to write (Major and Silic, 1981)

1
‘5=_ (2)
Table 5. Values of apparent spectral parameters inverted from spectra w(1 - nl)‘!*c’
calculated at different points of the profile. The original Cole-Cole
parameters are m = 0.63, E = 0.32, and F
‘ = 6.4 s. Gradient array, con- where w is the frequency at which the maximum of the phase
ductivity contrast5. spectrum occurs. In the apparent spectra c, is the same, accord-
ing to the foregoing inversions, as the c of the petrophysical
ma Cl2 -L (s) spectra. Accordingly, the diminishing of the apparent
1000 .73 lOE-1 .32 4.5 chargeability tends to diminish the apparent time constant. At
980 .55 lOE-1 .32 4.6 the same time however, the spectrum shifts toward the left,
970\ .40 lOE-1 .32 4.7 upon which w diminishes and therefore t increases. Thus 5,
960 .25 lOE-1 .32 4.9 remains close to the petrophysical 5 value.
950 .13 lOE-1 .32 5.3
940 .43 IOE-2 .32 It should be noted, further, that use of the “dilution factor”
6.7
(Pelton et al., 1978) in the analysis of apparent spectra leaves
1540 Soininen

rophysical Cole-Cole spectrum of a polarizable body situated

in an unpolarizable environment preserves its functional form
well in a potential-theoretic transformation to the apparent
spectrum. For this reason, the Cole-Cole dispersion model can
also be accurately fitted into an apparent spectrum. Of the
parameters inverted from apparent spectra, the apparent fre-
quency dependence ca preserves its petrophysical value well.
The apparent time constant ~~remains somewhat smaller (gen-
erally, however, less than a decade) than the petrophysical time
constant. From the practical standpoint of mineral discrimi-
nation, however, the apparent time constant is generally suf-
ficiently close to the petrophysical time constant. This con-
clusion is supported by the fact that, for example, the pet-
rophysical time constants of graphite and sulfides differ from
each other in general by three or four decades. If one needs
more accurate interpretation, the calculated spectrum can be fit
to the measured spectrum. The calculation of the forward prob-
lem must be based on correct modeling, and use of any kind of
“dilution factor” in the calculation of the apparent spectra is
not allowed.
The relationship between the real and the apparent spectrum
becomes more complicated if frequency-dependent resistivity is
also applied to the host rock. Similarly, the characteristics of
the apparent spectrum inducd by several bodies become com-
FIG. 7. Petrophysical Cole-Cole phase spectra and the calcu-
plicated.
lated apparent phase spectra at different points of the profile.
Gradient array, conductivity contrast 5. The midpoint of the
prism is at point 1000. REFERENCES
Bode, H. W., 1945, Network analysis and feedback amplifier design: D.
Van Nostrand Company, Inc.
Brown, K. M., and Dennis, J. E., 1972, Derivative free analogues of the
unnoticed the shifting of the spectrum leftward with increased Levenberg-Marquardt and Gauss algorithms for no&ear least
attenuation. Hence the results can be very heavily (several squares approximations: Numerische Mathematik, l&289%297.
Eskola, L., 1979, Calculation of galvanic effects by means of the
decades) in error, when conclusions are drawn on the basis of method of sub-areas: Geophys. Prosp., 27.616627.
the measured time constant about the time constant of the Hallof, P. G., and Klein, J. D., 1982a, Electrical parameters of vol-
petrophysical spectrum of the anomaly source. canogenic mineral deposits in Ontario: Presented at the 52nd
Annual International SEC Meeting, Dallas.
The foregoing observations were based on the application of ~ 1982b, Electrical parameters of nickel-copper ores at Sudbury,
a rectangular prism model and gradient and dipole-dipole Ontario: Presented at the 52nd Annual International SEC Meeting,
arrays. Corresponding observations were also made, however, Dallas.
Major. J.. and Silic, J., 1981. Restrictions on the use of Cole-Cole
using a dipping prism model and a nonlinear electrode array. It dispersion models in complex resistivity interpretation: Geophysics,
turned out that the same relationships between petrophysical 46,916931.
Pelton, W. H., Ward, S. H., Hallof, P. G., Sill, W. R., and Nelson, P. H.,
and apparent spectra were also effective under these conditions. 1978, Mineral discrimination and removal of inductive coupling
Hence, it may be assumed that the relationships described with multifrequency IP: Geophysics, 43,588-609.
between the petrophysical and the apparent resistivity spec- Seigel, H. O., 1959. Mathematical formulation and type curves for
induced polarization: Geophysics, 24,547-565.
trum hold true for quite an extensive group of different elec- Soininen, H. T., 1984a, Discussion on “Mineral discrimination and
trode arrays and geometries of a polarizable body. removal of inductive coupling with multifrequency IP” by Pelton,
W. H., Ward, S. H., Hallof, P. G., Sill, W. R., and Nelson, P. H.:
Geophysics, this issue,p. 1567-I 569.
SUMMARY ~ 1984b, Inapplicability of pulse train time domain measure-
ments to spectral IP: Geophysics, 49.
Ward, S. H., and Fraser, D. C., 1967, Conduction of electricity in rocks,
On the basis of inversions done from numerically calculated in Mining geophysics, 2: Society of Exploration Geophysicists, 197-
apparent resistivity spectra, it can be stated that the pet- 223.
GEOPHYSICS, VOL. 49, NO. 7 (JULY 1984); P. 1105-1114, 13 FIGS., 3 TABLES.

Mineral interfacial processes in the method

of induced polarization

James D. Klein*, Tom Biegler$., and M. D. Hornet

ABSTRACT

A phenomenological laboratory investigation has The results of this study imply that there are two
been conducted of the IP response of pyrite, chalco- physical processes responsible for electrode polarization
pyrite, and chalcocite. The technique that was used is in the IP method. For chalcocite and perhaps other
standard in electrochemistry and employs rotating disk related copper sulfide minerals, the probable mechanism
electrodes. The effect of rotation is to stir the electrolyte is diffusion of copper ions in the groundwater. In this
and thus to restrict the maximum distance available for case, the phenomenon is correctly described by the
diffusion of electroactive aqueous species. For high rota- Warburg impedance. Chalcocite’s distinctive response is
tion speed and low excitation frequencies, the mean dif- thought to be related to its forming a reversible
fusion length exceeds the thickness of the diffusion layer. oxidation-reduction couple with cupric ions in solution.
The net effect is to reduce the electrode impedance at No other common sulfide mineral forms a reversible
low frequency. The thickness of the diffusion layer and couple with its cations in solution. For the other min-
thus the impedance at low frequency can be controlled erals of this study, the lack of dependence on rotation
by the rotation speed. implies that diffusion of active species in the electrolyte
Measurements using rotating disk electrodes have is not the controlling process. Possible alternate mecha-
been conducted in both the time domain and the fre- nisms include surface controlled processes such as sur-
quency domain. For both pyrite and chalcopyrite, the face diffusion or adsorption phenomena. Ancillary data
results were the same: no dependence on rotation was obtained during this study indicate the interface im-
observed. For frequency domain measurements with pedance of chalcopyrite is proportional to the electrode
chalcocite, a strong dependence on rotation was ob- potential which in turn can be controlled by rotation
served. The interpreted diffusion layer thickness was speed, electrolyte composition, or application of an ex-
found to depend on rotation speed to the - 3 power, in ternal dc current or voltage. This implies that the sur-
agreement with results predicted by hydrodynamic face concentration of active species is dependent on
theory. electrode potential.

INTRODUCTION been significantly improved. Field data are now interpreted

routinely with the aid of main-frame or desk-top computers.
Many advances have been made in the induced-polarization One-dimensional forward and inverse solutions, and two-
(IP) technique since its beginnings in the early 1950s. A recent dimensional forward solutions are commonplace. Two-
review of the state-of-the-art of IP is given in Hohmann and dimensional inverse and three-dimensional forward solutions
Ward (1981). Possibly the greatest improvements have been are available. Research on the effects of texture and type of
made in instrumentation. The advent of microprocessor- mineralization is progressing with recent work including (1)
controlled, multichannel receivers has enabled very efficient field studies in-situ (Pelton et al., 1978; Halverson et al. 1979;
collection of broadband IP data of high quality. The devel- and Klein and Hallof, 1982); (2) laboratory studies (Dewitt,
opment of high-voltage, rapid-switching semiconductor devices 1978; Ostrander and Zonge, 1979; and Klein and Sill, 1982);
has allowed the construction of high-powered transmitters (30 and (3) theoretical studies (Wong, 1979; and Wait, 1982). The
to 100 kW) capable of operating at frequencies up to hundreds bulk of this research emphasizes the importance of texture and
or thousands of hertz. Also, the interpretation of IP data has grain size and shows the advantages of spectral IP compared to

Presentedat the 52nd Annual International SEG Meeting, October 21, 1982 in Dallas. Manuscript received by the Editor June 10, 1983; revised
manuscript received December 13, 1983.
*Formerly Phoenix Geophysics Inc.; currently Anaconda Minerals Co., 555 17th St., Denver, CO 80202.
SCSIRO Div. of Mineral Chemistry, P.O. Box 124, Port Melbourne, Vie. 3207, Australia
c’ 1984 Society of Exploration Geophysicists. All rights reserved.

1105
1106 Klein et al.

conventional time-domain or frequency-domain IP. An ad- the location of the diffusion process. Fink (1980) challenged
ditional area of advancement deals with the isolation and inter- these notions when he reported on the results of laboratory
pretation of EM coupling data. The one aspect of IP which has experiments that were designed specifically to observe diffusion
not enjoyed comparable advancement deals with the basic on the solution side of the interface. The experimental pro-
underlying electrochemical phenomena. Symptomatic of this is cedure used by Fink (1980) involved a rotating disk electrode,
the review paper by Hohmann and Ward (1981) which skips the as did the research described in the present paper.
topic of electrochemistry altogether. The electrochemistry of We have undertaken a series of experiments to verify the
the mineral-groundwat r interface at low current density is not results of Fink (1980) that imply that diffusion in the solution in
yet completely understood and constitutes the subject of this general cannot be the source of the IP phenomenon. We made
paper. Final understanding of the electrochemistry is required measurements in both the time and the frequency domain. Our
in order to determine the ultimate potential of IP and related data suggest that solution diffusion is the controlling process
techniques. for some minerals (certain copper sulfides) but not for other
A number of investigators have studied the impedance of the common minerals (pyrite and chalcopyrite), in agreement with
mineral-electrolyte interface. Most of these studies have been at the observations of Fink (1980).
linear current densities, which require the voltage drop across
the interface to be less than 0.005 V. Some of the more impor-
LIST OF SYMBOLS
tant investigations have been reported by Madden and Mar-
shall (1959), Klein and Pelton (1976), Angoran and Madden C, = Background concentration, moles/cm3.
(1977), Fink (1980), and most recently by a number of re- C,, = Double layer capacitance, micro-Farads/cm*
searchers at a special SEG workshop on the electrochemistry of (pF/cm’).
IP, including Madden (1982), Olhoeft (1982), Thornber (1982), D = Diffusivity, cm’/s.
and Klein et al. (1982). E = Electrode potential, volts (V).
The observed impedance of an interface between an electro- E” = Reaction potential for all reactants at unit ac-
lyte and most naturally occurring semiconductive minerals can tivity, volts (V).
be described as follows. For frequency (f) less than 10 to 100 F = Faraday constant, 96,500 coulombs/mole.
Hz, the impedance varies approximately asfto the - f power. f = Frequency, hertz (Hz).
This dependence on frequency strongly suggests an electro- I = Current density, amp/cm* (A/cm*).
chemical reaction for which the rate-determining step is a diffu- L = Diffusion layer thickness, cm.
sion process. For most minerals the interface impedance at 1 In = Natural logarithm.
rad/s is in the range 1O+3 to 1O+4 ohm-cm’, regardless of log = Logarithm, base 10.
mineral composition, solution conductance, or pH. log, = Logarithm, base 2.
Concepts dealing with the electrochemical basis of IP have n = Reaction valence.
evolved slowly since the late 1950s. Madden and Marshall R = Gas constant, 8.314 joules/“K-mole.
(1959) conducted the first, and most influential, laboratory R,, = Parallel reaction resistance, used to account
study of the interface impedance. They observed that the inter- for parallel reactions in the equivalent circuit
face impedance was essentially invariant with mineralogy and of Figure 4, ohm-cm*.
solution composition. The diffusion process implied by the R, = Solution resistance, ohm-cm*.
frequency dependence of -4 led them to postulate the exis- tanh = Hyperbolic tangent function.
tence of some active ion that was present in the various solu- T = Absolute temperature, “K.
tions. Diffusion of this unidentified ion on the solution side of t, = Elapsed charging time during time domain ex-
the interface was thought to be the rate-determining step. An periment, s.
impedance with this origin is correctly termed a Warburg im- t, = Elapsed discharge time during time domain ex-
pedance (Vetter, 1967), an expression which is now common in periment, s.
the geophysical literature. The magnitudes of the observed t, = Total charging time during time domain exper-
impedances indicated that the active ion was present in solu- iment, s.
tion at concentrations on the order of lo-* moles/cm3. t = time s.
Madden and Marshall (1959) could not identify this active ion, u = Kinematic viscosity, cm’/s.
which might be termed an “enigmatic” ion in light of the W = Electrode rotation speed, Hz.
apparent independence of mineralogy and solution compo- W(w) = Warburg impedance, ohm-cm*.
sition. Angoran and Madden (1977) postulated an alternate W,(o) = Warburg impedance modified to account for
interpretation of the constant Warburg impedance, i.e., the finite diffusion layer thickness, ohm-cm*.
reacting species were majority ions such as Cl ~, which diffused W,(o) = Surface diffusion impedance, ohm-cm*.
as adsorbed ions along the electrode surface to specific reaction o = Frequency, rad/s.
sites. The same investigators, using copper sulfides, identified X0 = Distance between reaction zones in the surface
C ++ and S as active ions, e.g., ions for which the Warburg diffusion model, cm.
impedance was inversely proportional to concentration. In ad- Z, (0) = Impedance due to surface diffusion, ohm-cm*.
dition, Klein and Pelton (1976) identified Fe+ + + and S as Z,(w) = Component of surface diffusion impedance
active ions for several sulfide and nonsulfide minerals. Madden that behaves as a normal Warburg impedance,
(1982) proposed that the IP phenomenon was due to diffusion ohm-cm*.
of Cl- in solution prior to an adsorption process at the mineral Z(w) = Total interface impedance, ohm-cm*.
surface. All of these investigations focused on the solution as
 Mineral lntertaclal Processes in IP 1107

DIFFUSION THEORY tion (1) is the potential-time curve at constant current, i.e.,
chronopotentiogram, for the reversible reduction of a species
time domain (Ox) present initially at concentration Co. Initial concentration
of the reduced species (Red) is zero. At time t,, the current is
The theory for semi-infinite diffusion in one dimension is interrupted and, as the species (Ox) diffuses toward and (Red)
quite simple and its application to reversible processes well away from the electrode, the potential relaxes according to
understood. A good treatment of the subject is given in Bockris equation (2). This equation can be derived as the limiting case
and Reddy (1970). The need for reversibility in applying this for chronopotentiometry with current reversal (Berzins and
theory is often “glossed over” in the geophysical literature. Delahay, 1953), with the reverse current set at zero. We have
Electrochemical reversibility is a loose concept which depends found that the reduction of ferri-cyanide at a platinum elec-
on the reference time frame, but in the present context it means trode in unstirred solution obeys these equations closely. The
that small changes of potential to each side of a zero-current voltage-time curves for reversible systems are illustrated in
equilibrium potential drive a given reaction in opposite direc- Figures 1 and 11.
tions, and that the electrode potential and surface con- It is characteristic of this type of system that any kind of
centrations of reactants are related through the Nernst equa- stirring severely disrupts the diffusion layer and the potential-
tion. It is significant that almost all sulfide minerals behave time curves. In the present case, rotation of the platinum elec-
nonreversibly when placed in contact with an electrolyte, a fact trode produces a steady state in the diffusion layer. In a
which makes the application of simple diffusion theory ques- charging experiment, the potential then makes an almost in-
tionable at the outset. The equations for time-domain behavior stantaneous jump to a new potential when the current is
of a reversible diffusion-controlled system are: for charging we switched on, and then stays there. If charging is done under
have quiescent conditions and stirring commenced soon after cur-
rent interruption, the potential jumps to its initial open circuit
value and remains there. These results are also sketched in
E = E” + $ In (1)
Figure 1.

while for discharging, we have

Frequency domain
C, nFm
E = E” + $ In (2) In the frequency domain, the electrode impedance for a
zz(j;-,lt-t,)-
reversible, diffusion dominated system at low frequency (less
where subscripts 0 and r refer to oxidized and reduced states for than 10 to 100 Hz) is controlled by the Warburg impedance,
the active species. In conventional electrochemical terms, equa-
1O-3 RT
W(w) =
n2F2Co JioD’

Note that the Warburg impedance predicts that voltage will

lag current by x/4 radians and that the amplitude varies ac-
QUIESCENT cording tow to the - f power.
If the electrode is rotated, as will be described in the next
section, then the Warburg impedance, equation (3), must be
modified as follows (Armstrong et al., 1978):

W,(o) = W(o) tanh (LJio/D). (4)

z c:
This modification is based on the effects of convective flow of
the electrolyte due to the rotating electrode. The flow lines are
illustrated in Figure 2, and the effect of rotation on the con-
centration profile is illustrated in Figure 3. When the electrode
.- STIRRED
2 is rotated, there are two different regions in the electrolyte that
W must be considered. First, there is a thin layer of solution
I I
immediately adjacent to the electrode. This layer rotates along
0 +, t(s) with the electrode and has a thickness that decreases with
increasing rotation speed. Since this layer is not affected by
convection in the electrolyte, electrochemically active ions must
COMMENCE move through it by diffusion (ignoring electric field transport).
S
‘ TIRRING The second region is separated from the first by a shearing
plane in the solution. The second region is dominated by con-
vective flow as illustrated in Figure 2. The convective flow
provides a transport mechanism for the active ions so that their
concentration in this region may be considered constant. The
FIG. 1. Illustrative plots of electrode voltage versus time illus- net effect is that the distance through which ions must diffuse
trating time-domain response of a reversible diffusion- can be controlled by rotation, and is given by Albery and
controlled system for quiescent and stirred conditions. Hitchman (1972):
1108 Klein el al.
L = o~j4~‘/3,,“6w- 112
(5) cell was open to the atmosphere so oxidizing conditions were
present. In some cases, a two-electrode measurement was made
As illustrated in Figure 3, the effect of rotation is to cause the using a piece of massive sulfide with mixed mineralogy as the
interface impedance to level off to a constant value at low counter electrode. This electrode had a much larger area and
frequency. The value of the low-frequency asymptote is pro-
thus much lower impedance than the working electrode. For
portional to the diffusion layer thickness and decreases as
other measurements, a three-electrode measurement was made
rotation speed W to the - 3 power. For applied currents at low using a low impedance reference electrode to measure the po-
frequency, the mean diffusion length can be much greater than tential. In all cases the dc potential of the working electrode
the diffusion layer thickness, and then diffusion has minimal
was monitored using a saturated calomel electrode (SCE). The
effect. At high frequency, the mean diffusion length can be much impedance measurements were made using a Phoenix Geo-
less than the diffusion layer thickness, in which case rotation
physics IPV-3 receiver. The current source was a constant
has little or no effect.
voltage source with variable output in series with a 1 meg-R
ballast resistor.
LABORATORY STUDIES
Frequency domain results
Procedures
A number of rotating disk electrode measurements were
Laboratory procedures for rotating disk electrode studies are made using the minerals pyrite, chalcopyrite and chalcocite.
described by Albery and Hitchman (1972). The electrode ma- Figure 4 shows observed and inverted amplitude spectra for a
terial is cut into a thin disk and mounted at the tip of a shaft as pyrite electrode. The solution used was 10m4 mole/cm3 NaCl.
illustrated in Figure 2. The shaft is mounted vertically in a The two data sets are for the electrode held stationary and
rotator such that only the face of the electrode is in contact with
the electrolyte.
Frequency domain measurements were made using a Pine
Instrument Co. AFASRZ rotator. The solutions were prepared
with distilled water and reagent-grade chemicals. The electrode
CONVECTION

AXIS OF ROTATION I
I
I
0 I

0 L (cm) DISTANCE

1/1ELECTRODE
---
Iiil%SlON LAYER

STREAMLINES

STREAMLINES FREQUENCY(Hz)
BELOW DISK (b)
SURFACE
FIG. 3. (a) Concentration-distance profile illustrating the effect
of convection and the finite diffusion layer thickness. (b) Plots
FIG. 2. Electrode arrangement for rotating disk electrode stud- of log (amplitude) and log (phase) versus log (frequency) for
ies, illustrating the streamlines of fluid flow and the diffusion different values of diffusion layer thickness L illustrating the
layer. effects of convection on the Warburg impedance.
 Mineral interfacial Processes in IP 1109
PYRITE spinning at 100 Hz. The most striking feature is that rotation
has no effect on the observed spectra. The data are very similar
to data obtained with other pyrite electrodes in different solu-
IN
tions. The smooth lines give the best-fit theoretical data ob-
tained by fitting the observed amplitude data and phase data
(not shown) to the equivalent circuit given in the figure. The
estimated model parameters are also given in the figure. The
equivalent circuit we have used differs from what is commonly
used to analyze interface data. The more common circuit would
have a reaction resistance in parallel with W,, and would not
have the parallel element R,, We have ignored any component
of impedance due to reaction resistance since there is no evi-
dence of its presence in the data. We have added the parallel
resistor R,, in order to account for the low-frequency behavior,
and consider it to account for parallel electrochemical reaction
paths. Use of the double layer capacitance C,, is well docu-
mented in the electrochemical literature. At this point we make
no claims regarding the circuit element W, (0) other than that it
is proportional to o to the - i_ power. The circuit element R,
RPI accounts for the resistance of the solution in series with the
1111111111111111~ interface.
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 IO An alternate interpretation of the data in Figure 4 could have
log,f (Hz) been made without the circuit element R,, and with a reaction
resistance, as is preferred by Fink (1980). In this case, inversion
FIG. 4. Observed and inversion amplitude spectra for a station- of the observed data results in very small and poorly resolved
ary pyrite electrode, and the same electrode rotated at 100 Hz. estimated values of W,, very large estimated values of the
Also shown is the equivalent circuit used to invert the data as reaction resistance, and poor fit to the data. The interface
described in the text. The solution used was 10m4 mole/cm3 frequency dependence in this model is attributable mainly to
NaCl.
the reactivity of the double layer capacitance C,,
The results obtained with chalcopyrite are not as clear-cut as
those obtained with pyrite, but the conclusion regarding the
effects of rotation is the same. As shown in Figure 5, rotation
does not have any major effect on the amplitude spectrum. The
spectra, particularly at low frequency, were found to have a
CHALCOPYRITE dependence on the electrode potential, which in turn could be
controlled by rotation speed. Thus there was an apparent
second-order dependence on rotation speed. Drift in the elec-
trode potential during the course of the measurements resulted
in subtle distortions of the observed spectra at low frequency.
The dependence of the chalcopyrite impedance on electrode
potential will be discussed briefly later in this paper. The main
conclusion of the present experiment is that rotation does not
have the effect required for diffusion of aqueous species to be
the rate-limiting step for chalcopyrite or pyrite, as stated by
Fink (1980).
After observing the results obtained with pyrite and chalco-
pyrite, chalcocite proved to be a surprising exception. It dis-
played a dependence on rotation which was very similar to that
predicted by equation (4) and illustrated in Figure 3. Figures 6
and 7 show the dependence of the observed amplitude and
phase spectra on rotation speed. The spectra were measured in
the sequence:

(1) Stationary

-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 IO (2) 100 Hz
log, f (Hz) (7) 0.5 Hz
FIG. 5. Observed and inversion amplitude spectra for a station- These data show very strongly the effects of rotation and
ary chalcopyrite electrode, and the same electrode rotated at
100 Hz. Also given are the estimated model parameters. The thus suggest that the process primarily responsible for the IP
solution used was lO-4 mole/cm3 NaCl stabilized with 10e8 phenomena for chalcocite is diffusion of aqueous species in the
mole/cm3 CuSO, and pH = 1. electrolyte, also as shown by Fink (1980).
1110 Klein et al.

1000 _
OHz

G
E
4
loo

J”‘I”II1lI1IlIlL
-6 -4 -2 0 2
IO J~I~~~~~IIIIIII~~J
4 6 6 IO
-0 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 0 IO
log, f (Hz)
log *f (Hz)
FIG. 6. Smoothed observed amplitude spectra for a chalcocite
electrode at the indicated rotation speeds. The corresponding FIG. 7. Smoothed observed phase spectra for a chalcocite elec-
phase data are presented in Figure 7. The solution used was trode at the indicated rotation speeds. The corresponding am-
10m4mole/cm3 NaCl. plitude data are presented in Figure 6.

The results obtained with the three different minerals of this

study indicate that two different electrochemical processesmust
be occurring, depending on mineralogy. In the case of pyrite
and chalcopyrite, rotation has no primary effect, whereas for
chalcocite, rotation totally dominates the low-frequency im-
pedance. Thus, analysis of interfacial IP data requires an expla-
nation of each of these processes. Analysis of stationary elec-
trode data cannot provide the key to unraveling the various
effects, since the two different processes have essentially the
same response. In order to analyze interfacial data, a gener-
alized equivalent circuit has been devised as shown in Figure 8.
In this circuit, W,(o) is a Warburg-like term used to account for
the diffusion behavior that is independent of rotation. The term _
W, (0) is given by equation (4) and accounts for the diffusion of PIG. 8. Generalized equivalent circuit that was used to invert
the chalcocite data. W,(w) accounts for postulated surface diffu-
aqueous species.It is a true Warburg impedance. An interpreta-
sion impedance, and W,(o) is the Warburg impedance modified
tion of the underlying physical basis for W,(o) will be given in a according to equation (4) to account for convection in the
later section. electrolyte.

Table 1. Estimated parameter values for cbalcocite data.

Rotation
speed (Hz)
RS
(ohm-cm2)
w,
(ohm-cm2)
w,
(ohm-cm’)
cdb L
(uFlcm2) (cm)
0.00 31.0 553. 80.9
100.0 27.4 8.3 396. 62.0 0.00147
50.0 26.6 11.7 374. 54.6 0.00166
16.7 30.3 15.6 360. 47.4 0.00250
5.0 31.9 17.4 346. 42.5 0.00416
1.67 33.7 19.0 340. 45.2 0.00688
0.50 33.5 32.5 322. 45.1 0.01160

W, and W, are amplitudesat 1 rad/s.

 Mineral Interfacial Processes in IP 1111

Rs = 30.322% IP response of chalcocite

W, = 15.6+6%
CORRELATION MATRIX
Wb=360+2%
The data obs:rved with the rotating chalcocite electrode
Rs l Cdb = 47.49%
shown in Figure3 6 and 7 have been inverted to the equivalent
WS 064 I L = 0.0025 22%
circuit of Figure 8. The main effects of rotation could be ac-
wb .I16 ,136 I counted for by the W, (co)element, but a more accurate fit to the
Cdb -.208 ,074 ,407 1 low frequency data was obtained with the inclusion of W,(o).
I,W L -.Ol I -.42l -.347 -.263 The various model parameters that were of interest were R,,
W,, W,, C,, and L where L is the thickness of the diffusion
t
layer, equation (5). A least-squares inversion program was used
to invert the observed amplitude and phase data simultaneous-
ly. All of the estimated parameter values are given in Table 1. A
sample data set plus inversion results are given in Figure 9. The
inversion statistics for this example are typical of the statistics
for the other data sets.
The values of W, for the stationary electrode contain a con-
tribution from W,. For stationary electrodes it is not possible to
separate the two effects. The diffusion layer thickness L displays
a regular increase with decreasing rotation speed as expected.
The values of W, are quite small compared to values of the same
parameter obtained for pyrite and chalcopyrite. A repeat
measurement for the electrode stationary at the conclusion oft
the rotation study resulted in values of W, = 280 ohm-cm’ and
C,, = 31.7 uF/cm’. Therefore, the systematic variations in
these two parameters in Table 1 are attributable to drift in the
FIG. 9. Sample observed data and inversion results for electrode surface conditions or in the solution chemistry with
chalcocite electrode rotated at 16.7 Hz. The corresponding time
estimated parameters are given in the figure and in Table 1. Figure 10 shows the dependence of the estimates of L on
rotation speed. According to equation (5), L should vary with
W to the -4 power. As shown in Figure 10, the estimated
values of L do have the proper dependence on W, particularly
at low rotation speed. At high rotation speed, there is more
turbulent flow in the electrolyte that disrupts the convective
flow that provides the basis of equation (5). In equation (5)
I) = 1 x 10m5 cm’/s, u = .Ol cm’js, and W is in Hz. For a
rotation speed of 1.67 Hz, the diffusion layer thickness L is
4.9 x lo- 3 cm, which is in good agreement with the value of L
IO-’ -
estimated from the observed data. These results confirm that
diffusion in the electrolyte is the physical basis for the IP
response of chalcocite. No conclusions have been drawn to this
point as to the identity of the diffusing ionic species. The most
likely candidates are Cu + + ions which have dissolved from the

0
zw
02

00 I
I 1 I I
IO-31
5 1.67 5 16.7 50 100
W (Hz) FIG. 11. Plot of observed potential versus time for measure-
ments made with a reversible system involving oxidation of
FIG. 10. Plot of estimated values of the diffusion layer thickness ferro-oxalate complex showing the effects of stirring the solu-
L versus rotation speed W showing the dependence of L on W tion at times (a) and (b). Potential is referred to the Standard
to the - f power, particularly at low rotation speed. Hydrogen Electrode.
1112 Klein et al.

Table 2. Analysis of charge-discharge curves for 10e6 moles/cm3 fer- electrode itself. Copper ions can move in and out of the
ricyanide in 10m3 moles/cm’ KCl. Cathodic current density IO-’
chalcocite lattice reversibly. The probable reaction is
A/cm’, Z, = 4.6 s.

E tl'Z
5Cu, S = ECU,,, S + Cu+ + + 2e-, (6)
(volts vs. S.H.E.) 112
(sf
as discussed by Klein and Shuey (1978). This identification of
0.490 2.02 2.02 cu++ as the active ion for chalcocite is consistent with obser-
0.480 1.85 1.84 vations of Angoran and Madden (1977). Other copper sulfide
0.460 1.39 1.42
minerals, digenite and djurleite, have electrochemical and min-
0.440 0.93 0.94
0.430 0.73 0.76 eralogical similarities to chalcocite (Brennet et al., 1974; Shuey,
1975). Therefore these minerals are likely to have IP response
mechanisms similar to chalcocite.

Time-domain results

Figure 11 shows the results obtained during time domain

Table 3. Analysis of charge-discharge carves for pyrite and chalcopyrite. measurements with a reversible electrochemical system. The
t”2 112- ~,)“2 electrode was platinum, and the electrolyte was 1O-5
E (fd -

(volts vs. S.H.E.) csf 112

td

(4 112 moles/cm3 ferrous ion in 5 x lo- 3 oxalate buffer, pH = 4. The

electrochemical reaction is
Pyrite
[Fe(C,O,),]~’ + C, 0,’ = [Fe (C, 04)J3 + e-. (7)
0.415 1.63 1.46
0.395 1.35 1.17
The heavy line in Figure 11 shows the variation in electrode
0.375 1.10 0.98
0.355 0.88 0.79 potential with time during the quiescent charging and dis-
Chalcopyrite charging of the electrode for the oxidation of the ferro-oxalate
0.195 1.70 1.55 complex. These curves can be analyzed by comparing the times
0.175 1.18 1.31 where the potentials are equal for charging and discharging.
0.15: 0.87 1.07
Thus
0.135 0.66 0.81
tl’2 = I,2
c td - (td - t1)“2, (8)

where t, is the charging time This method is independent of the

value of n, the reaction valence, and so is quite useful when
applied to systems where n is unknown. Table 2 shows the
results of carrying out this kind of analysis for the indicated
system. The results obey equation (8) closely.
C HALCOPYRITE The electrode potential was observed to be very sensitive to
rotation of the platinum electrode. Switching the rotator on
during either the charging or the discharging step caused a
rapid change in electrode potential to its steady state value, as
shown in Figure 11.
When similar experiments were conducted with chalcopyrite
or pyrite, the quiescent charging and discharging curves (Figure
I I 12) were qualitatively similar to the results obtained with the
0 2 4 6 reversible system above. However, when the charge-discharge
t (s) times were compared according to equation (8), the results in
Table 3 were obtained. As can be seen, the results are in poor
quantitative agreement. Furthermore, when stirring experi-
PYRITE
ments were carried out, neither mineral displayed a dependence
on stirring, as shown in Figure 12. These results are in agree-
ment with the frequency domain studies.

Implications of rotation experiments

The implications of the experiments described above, and by

0 2 4 6
Fink (1980), are significant in terms of understanding the IP
t (s)
mechanism. The difference in response between chalcocite and
FIG. 12. Plots of potential versus time for time-domain the other minerals indicates that two different physical pro-
measurements made with pyrite and chalcopyrite showing the cessesare present. The absence of a dependence on stirring for
lack of dependence on stirring of the solution. Stirring com-
pyrite and chalcopyrite suggests that, in general, description of
menced at the time indicated by the arrows. The solution used
was 10m3 mole/cm3 KCI. Potential is referred to the Standard the IP phenomenon by the classic Warburg impedance is tech-
Hydrogen Electrode. nically incorrect. For these minerals the rate-limiting step is not
 Mineral Interfacial Processes in IP 1113

CHALCOPYRITE pedance. This characteristic of the surface impedance is the

IN ICi’mole/cm’NaCI basis for our use of a Warburg-like impedance W,(o) in the
above analysis for the three minerals of our study. The esti-
mated values of W, for chalcocite are much smaller than those
obtained for pyrite and chalcopyrite. This is possibly due to a
higher mobility of active species on the chalcocite surface
(Cu ++ ions or adatoms) compared to the other two minerals.
We interpret surface diffusion as being in series with the solu-
tion diffusion of Cu+ ’ for chalcocite, therefore W,(o) is in
series with W,(o) in the equivalent circuit of Figure 8. At low
frequency, Z,(w) behaves capacitively; a behavior we have not
observed in the laboratory.
During the course of this study, it was observed that the
impedance spectra obtained for chalcopyrite were dependent
on the electrode potential. Extensive observations of the depen-
dence of the impedance spectra on the electrode potential have
been reported by Fink (1980). Some of the observed amplitude
spectra are given in Figure 13, along with the experimental
conditions under which they were observed. It appears that the
impedance was controlled by the electrode potential which, in
turn, could be changed by varying the rotation speed or by
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 6
applying a small dc current. Similar effects were noted with the
log,f (Hz)
addition of small amounts of CuSO, to solution. The values of
potential given in the figure were measured with a saturated
FIG. 13. Observed amplitude spectra and estimated values of W, calomel electrode. If the impedance at low frequency is con-
for the chalcopyrite electrode under the indicated experimental trolled by surface diffusion, then the implication is that the
conditions. Note the decrease in the interface impedance with
increasing electrode potential. A constant dc polarization cur- concentration of the active species is controlled by the electrode
rent was applied that was the same for the first three data sets, potential.
and then differed for each of the remaining two data sets.
CONCLUSIONS

Based on the simple electrochemical studies described here, it

is possible to make the following conclusions. In general, the
solution diffusion, which is in series with other electrochemical electrochemical basis of IP is not diffusion of aqueous species.
processes. As pointed out by Madden (personal communi- The copper sulfide minerals related to chalcocite (such as dige-
cation, 1983) the absence of solution diffusion impedance nite and djurleite) are an exception. For these minerals, which
implies a lower limit on the concentration of diffusing ionic can participate in reversible couples, diffusion of Cu+ ’ in the
species. Most research in the geophysical community to date electrolyte is thought to be occurring. The key to the IP phe-
has been misdirected, having been focused on the electrolyte nomena for other minerals is thought to involve surface-
rather than the electrode surface. The key to understanding the controlled processes. Surface diffusion, in particular, is con-
IP phenomenon lies in detailed investigations of the surface sidered likely since it predicts the correct frequency dependence
chemistry of the electrodes and is possibly related to surface and is independent of rotation.
diffusion processes or perhaps adsorption phenomena. Such These results point the way toward further research on the
processes would be independent of convection in the electro- electrochemistry of IP. It would appear that the primary con-
lyte. trol on the interfacial impedance is the electrode potential, as
As described by Angoran and Madden (1977) and Vetter shown here for chalcopyrite. Presumably the rest potential
(1967) surface diffusion has the proper frequency dependence controls the concentration of adsorbed species on the electrode
to match the observed spectra. Surface diffusion is a process surface which, in turn, controls the diffusion impedance. The
that is observed commonly in electrodeposition processes. It primary control on the rest potential of various sulfide minerals
accounts for movement of adsorbed ions or atoms to and from in situ would be the oxidation-reduction potential of the
reaction sites along the electrode surface. It is independent of groundwater. Further research on the electrochemistry of IP
convection in the electrolyte as produced by electrode rotation. should be directed toward understanding the dependence of
According to Angoran and Madden (1977) the impedance due impedance on the rest potential and on the effects of groundwa-
to surface diffusion is ter geochemistry.
1
z, (4 = z,(4 (9) ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
tanh (X, m)’

where Z, (0) is a Warburg-like term. X, is the distance between The frequency-domain measurements described herein were
reaction zones, which are assumed to be linear; D, is surface conducted by Phoenix Geophysics as part of an industry spon-
diffusivity. At high frequency, depending on X,, tanh() ap- sored research program on spectral IP. The authors would like
proaches 1, and Z,(o) behaves as a normal Warburg im- to thank the following companies for their permission to pu-
1114 Klein et al.

blish this material: Amax Minerals Exploration, William A. processesin the method of induced polarization: Presented at 52nd
Bowes, Inc., Chevron Resources Co., Cominco Ltd., Cyprus Annual International SEG Meeting, October 21 in Dallas.
Klein, J. D., and Hallof, P. G., 1982, Electrical properties of metallic
Anvil Mining Corp., Falconbridge Nickel Mines Ltd., Noranda mineral deposits of Ontario: presented at 52nd Annual International
Exploration Co., Phillips Petroleum Co., Riocanex, Inc., and SEG Meeting, October 20 in Dallas.
Serem Ltd. A special thanks goes to Jo Tigar for a very efficient Klein, J. D., and Pelton, W. H., 1976, A laboratory investigation of the
complex impedance of mineral-electrolyte interfaces: paper present-
preparation of the final manuscript. ed at the 46th Annual International SEC Meeting, October 26 in
Houston.
REFERENCES Klein, J. D., and Sill, W. R., 1982, Electrical properties of artificial
clay-bearing sandstone: Geophysics, v. 47, p. 1593-1605.
Albery, W. N., and Hitchman, M. L., 1971, Ring disk electrodes: Klein, J. D., and Shuev, R. T., 1978. Nonlinear impedance of mineral-
Oxford, Clarendon Press, 175 p. electrolyte interfaces: Part II. Galena, chalcopyrite, and graphite:
Angoran, Y. and Madden, T. R., 1977, Induced polarization: A prelimi- Geophysics, v. 43, p. 1235-1249.
nary study of its chemical basis: Geophysics, v. 42, p. 788-803. Madden, T. R., 1982, Investigation of the effects of different sulfide
Armstrong. R. D.. Bell. M. F.. and Metcalfe. A. A.. 1978. The ac. mineralogy on the types of surface reactions: Presented at 52nd
impeda&e of complex electrochemical reactions: dh. 3 in Electro- Annual International SEG Meeting, October 21 in Dallas.
chemistrv. v. 6. Chem. Sot. of London. Madden, T. R., and Marshall, D. J., 1959, Electrode and membrane
Berzins, T.: and ‘Delahay, P., 1953, Theory of electrolysis at constant polarization: Atomic Energy Commission rept., RME-3157.
current in unstirred solution. II. Consecutive electrochemical reac- Olhoeft, G. R., 1982, Warburg impedances at single water-mineral
tions: J. Am. Chem. Sot., v. 75, p. 420554213. interfaces: Presented at 52nd Annual International SEG Meeting,
Bockris, J. O’M., and Reddy, A. K. N., 1970, Modern electrochemistry: October 21 in Dallas.
New York, Plenum Press, 1432 p. Ostrander, A. G., and Zonge, K. L:, 1979, Complex resistivity measure-
Brennet, P., Jafferali, S., Vanseveren, J., Vereecken, J., and Winand, R., ments of sulfide-bearing synthetic rocks: paper presented at the 48th
1974, Study of the mechanism of anodic dissolution of Cu,S: Met. Annual International SEG Meeting, October 31 in San Francisco.
Trans., v. 5, p. 127-134. Pelton, W. H., Ward, S. H., Hallof, P. G., Sill, W. R.,, and Nelson, P. H.,
Dewitt, G. W., 1978, Parametric studies of induced polarization spec- 1978, Mineral discrimination and removal of mductive coupling
tra: unpublished MS. thesis, Univ. of Utah. with multifrequency IP: Geophysics, v. 43, p. 5888609.
Fink, J., 1980, Warburg impedance-what it is and what it isn’t: Shuey, R. T., 1975, Semiconducting ore minerals: Amsterdam, Elsevier
Presented at 50th Annual International SEC Meeting, November 19 Scientific Publ. Co., 415 p.
in Houston. Thornber, M. R., 1982, Natural polarization of sulfide ores: Presented
Halverson, M. O., Zinn, W. G., McAlister, E. D.! Ellis, R., and Yates, at 52nd Annual International SEC Meeting, October 21 in Dallas.
W. C., 1979. Some results of a series of eeoloetcallv controlled field Vetter, K. J., 1967, Electrochemical kinetics, theoretical and experi-
tests of broadband spectral induced pol&za&n: Presented at 49th mental aspects: New York, Academic Press, Inc., 789 p.
Annual International SEC Meeting, November 6 in New Orleans. Wait, J. R., 1982, Geo-electromagnetism: New York, Academic Press,
Hohmann, G. W. and Ward, S. H., 1981, Electrical methods in geo- Inc., 268 p.
physics, in Seventy-fifth Anniversary Vol. of Economic Geology, B. J. Wong, J., 1981, Induced polarization in disseminated sulfide ores con-
Skinner, Ed., Sot. of Econ. Geol. Publ. Co. taining elongated mineralization: Geophysics, v. 46, p. 125881268.
Klein, J. D., Biegler, T., and Horne, M. D., 1982, Mineral interracial
GEOPHYSICS, VOL. 55, No. 8 (AUGUST 1990): P. 1098-1100, 5 FIGS

Short Note

Transient electromagnetic responses of surficial, polarizable

patches

G. W. Hohmann* and G. A. Newman+

INTRODUCTION to provide additional insight. This material, as well as some

of that in Flis et al. (1989), was presented at the 58th Annual
Abnormal decay curves that are depressed or change sign International Meeting of the Society of Exploration Geo-
often are observed in coincident-loop and central-loop tran- physicists.
sient electromagnetic (TEM) measurements, particularly in
areas of conductive overburden. With the publication of COLE-COLE MODEL FOR IP
papers by Smith and West (1989a, b) and Flis et al. (1989),
the phenomenon, which is due to induced polarization (IP) in To account for the IP responseof a 3-D body, we use the
near-surface, weakly polarizable material such as clay, is Cole-Cole model with resistivity defined by
well understood.
When the current in a transmitting loop is shut off, strong
induced currents flow in the earth immediately beneath the
loop in order to sustain the magnetic field. Over time these
where p. is the low-frequency asymptotic resistivity, tn is
currents decay and in cross-section two spatial maxima
the chargeability, c is the frequency dependence, and T is the
move downward and outward (Nabighian, 1979). If the
time constant. Flis et al. (1989) illustrate phase values as a
near-surface material beneath the loop has an IP response,
function of frequency for typical IP responses. We use a
the material is polarized by the strong initial currents. Then
Cole-Cole model with parameters m = 0.1, c = 0.25, -r = 1
a slowly decaying discharge current produces a magnetic
ms to simulate a realistic clay response having a maximum
field in the opposite direction from that of the induction
phase of IO mrad at 200 Hz and phase angles of 5 to 7 mrad
current. Becauseof its slow decay, the magnetic field due to
in the conventional IP range from 0.1 to 1 Hz. Increasing 172
polarization current may be larger than the normal magnetic
to 0.5 and T to 100 ms simulates a sulfide IP responsewith a
field at late time especially if the surrounding earth is
maximum phase of 68 mrad.
relatively resistive so that the induction currents decay
rapidly. As a result, both the magnetic field and its time COMPARISON WITH 1-D RESULTS
derivative may exhibit sign changes.
Smith and West (1989a, b) studied layered and half-plane Figure 1 shows transient EM decay curves, calculated for
models, while Flis et al. (1989) mainly considered3-D bodies 1-D and 3-D models, which verify that IP effects observed in
at depth. Many other enlightening papers have been pub- the field over surficial patches are more pronounced than
lished on the subject; for brevity, we refer the reader to the those computed for a polarizable overburden layer. Dashed
bibliographies in the aforementioned papers. In this note we lines indicate negative voltages. These 3-D results were
discuss the responses of surficial 3-D bodies, computed calculated at the center of a 100 x 100 m transmitting loop
using the integral equation solution of Newman et al. (1986), with a step function current of IA. The loop is centered over

Presentedat the 58th AnnualInternational Meeting, Society of Exploration Geophysicists. Manuscript received by the Editor July 21, 1989;
revised manuscript received December 11, 1989.
*Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Utah, 717 W. C. Browning Bldg., Salt Lake City, UT 84112-l 183.
SSandia National Laboratory, P.O. Box 5800, Albuquerque, NM 87185.
01990 Society of Exploration Geophysicists.All rights reserved.

1098
 IP Effects in Transient EM 1099

a 300 x 300 m conductive, polarizable body at the surface of the transmitting loop so that induction currents are strong
the earth. The body is 50 m thick and has a low-frequency enough and remain long enough to polarize the body.
resistivity of 30 S1*m,while the resistivity of the surrounding These large IP effects only occur inside or very near the
earth is 300 a.m. Even though the IP response is typical of transmitting loop. Hence, to retain the advantages of a
the small responsesdue to clay in overburden, the transient moving source while avoiding IP effects, one should utilize a
voltage changessign at an early time between 0.5 and 1 ms. Slingram (separated loop) array. Computed transients (not
The 1 = D results in Figure 1 are for a similar model, with shown) over the polarizable surface patch for a receiver 50 m
the body extended horizontally so that it becomes a layer, as away from the edge of the transmitting loop show almost no
shown in the inset. Because the inductive response of the IP effect-only a slight depression of the decay curve at late
conductive layer is greater than that of the 3-D body, while times. Decay curves at a distance of 150 m are not affected
the polarization response, being due to current flowing by IP.
immediately beneath the transmitting loop, is similar for the
two cases, the sign change due to polarization currents DOUBLE SIGN CHANGES
occurs later. Comparisons such as that of Figure 1, along
with convergence checks, show that our numerical results Double sign changes have been observed in TEM data
for this difficult problem of a surficial 3-D body are valid. collected to determine permafrost thickness in Alaska.
Additional results (not shown) for this weakly polarizable Walker and Kawasaki (1988) showed an example of such
model demonstrate that the effect of IP diminishes rapidly anomalous behavior, which occurred at only a few sites in a
with depth of burial. When the depth to the top of the large survey. Based on the insight gained from our numerical
body is 30 m, the sign change occurs at 5 ms. For a depth of modeling and from a 1-D model published by Raiche et al.
100 m, the IP effect is negligible. To our amazement, we (1985), it is apparent that the first sign change is due to
found that even a small IP response of 3 to 4 mrad in the weakly polarizable, conductive material at the surface, and
conventional IP range, simulated by reducing c to 0.1, that the second change is due to an inductive response from
causesa sign change between 1 and 3 ms for the surficial3-D a deep conductive layer.
mode!.
10000
CENTRAL-LOOP PROFILES
_l_"s/~'-"\, i I *
1000 1
~----x-x
Central-loop profiles over the center of the same polariz- 100
-I /--K-L

->l~]-x-~<;zi_Y&=q
able path are shown in Figure 2. Again, dashed lines denote - x-x-x

negative values. These theoretical results are remarkably 5

similar to field results shown, e.g., by Smith and West
(1989a, b) and Flis et al. (1989). The positive responses at 0 3 i
\ ,+.--+--.+,
+-+-+A+, _*_----. +_+-+-+
early times followed by negative responses at late times o,

i*-*_*L*, ,x__-x--_x_
*-- ,A-*-*-*
indicate that the source is a polarizable, condcrcrivebody. .OOl 4r_-.--.ox\
/.--x-x-x
Figure 3 shows profiles for the same model, except that the .OOcil ! I
I I
1
M30R mw%j300R~m'
polarizable body has the same resistivity p0 as the surround- -500 -3M -100 300 500
ing earth. In this case the transient is only slightly depressed distancerlll

at late times. Evidently for the IP effect to be pronounced,

conductive material must be present immediately beneath FIG. 2. Central-loop profiles over the 3-D polarizable patch
of Figure 1. Positive anomaly at early times shows that the
patch is conductive; negative anomaly at late times is due
to IP.

> 1 5
o, ~-+-+-t-t_+_+_+_+_+-+-+-+-+-*

001-II-*_*lo *~__*__*_*_*-*-*
I I
0 0001' i x-x-2!L, x+-+--”
01 1 10 100 0001 “‘--_-r-y--
/ m00R.m W% 300Rm'
I
t Lmsl -5cc -300 -100 100 300 500

distance [ m i
FIG. 1. Comparison between central-loop response of surfi-
cial, weakly polarizable (m = 0.1, c = 0.25, 7 = 1 ms) 3-D FIG. 3. Same as Figure 2 except that the patch has the same
body and that of a layer with the same electrical properties. resistivity as the surrounding half-space. Weak early-time
Dashed curves denote negative response. Effect of IP re- currents do not persist long enough to polarize the body
sponse is more pronounced for the 3-D body, because the appreciably, so the only effect of IP is a slight depression at
normal inductive response decays more rapidly. late times.
1100 Hohmann and Newman

Figure 4 shows calculated results for such a case. The c = 0.25, and T = 100 ms to simulate a sulfide body with a
model is the same as that of Figure 1, except that a peak IP response of 68 mrad at 50 Hz. Other parameters of
conductive basement occurs at 500 m depth. The early-time, the model are the same as those of Figure 1. Comparing the
positive, inductive response from the 300 0-m upper layer decay curves for depths of 0,30, and 100 m in Figure 5 shows
decays rapidly, so that the negative, IP response dominates that the IP response diminishes rapidly as the depth to the
between 0.7 and 4 ms. Then the positive, inductive response body is increased. Note that the decay of the negative
from the 30 n-m basement dominates at later times. transient, which appears to be a combination of induction
and polarization decays, is less than the normal t -“* induc-
SULFIDE RESPONSE tive decay at late times.
In this case the sulfide body produces a negative transient
To determine whether inductive IP might be used as an that is detectable above a noise level of 1 nvim’ if its depth
exploration tool, we used Cole-Cole parameters m = 0.5, is 30 m but not if it is 100 m deep. To evaluate the effect of
body size,_we increased the depth extent of the body from 50
m to 100 m (not shown): the responses were almost the same
MODEL at all three depths. Based on these results for a highly
polarizable body, it appears that IP effects in central-loop
j”“,,n/. data could be used as the basis for an exploration technique
only for shallow targets. Another requirement is that the
host rocks be fairly resistive so that the normal inductive
response decays rapidly enough that the IP response can
dominate at late times.

>
10-2 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We thank Robert J. Smith for showing us numerous field

cases of sign reversals, which pointed the way to the
10-4
required model, and for encouraging our study. This work
was supported by Amoco Production Co., Arco Oil and Gas
0.1 1 10 100 Co., Chevron Resources Co., CRA Exploration Pty. Ltd.,
BHP Utah International, and Unocal Corp. in conjunction
t bl with the University of Utah EM Modeling Project. Addi-
tional support for G. A. Newman was provided by the
FIG. 4. Central-loop decay curve for the same case as that of Alexander von Humboldt Foundation, West Germany.
Figure 1, except for the deep conductive substratum. The
second sign change occurs when the inductive response of
the substratum becomes larger than the polarization re-
sponse of the surface patch.
REFERENCES

Flis, M. F., Newman, G. A., and Hohmann, G. W.. 1989. Induced-

polarization effects in time-domain electromagnetic measure-
ments: Geophysics, 54, 514-523.
Nabighian. M. N., 1979, Quasi-static transient response of a con-
ducting half-space-An approximate representation: Geophysics,
44, 17o(t1705.
Newman, G. A., Hohmann, G. W., and Anderson. W. L., 1986,
Transient electromagnetic response of a three-dimensional body
in a layered earth: Geophysics, 51, 1608-1627.
Raiche, A. P., Bennett, I,. A., Clark, P. J., and Smith, R. J., 1985,
164 - The use of Cole-Cole impedancesto interpret the TEM response
of layered earths: Explor. Geophys., 16, 271-273.
0.1
Smith. R. S., and West, G. F., 1989a, An explanation of abnormal
I IO 100
TEM responses, coincident-loop negatives, and the loop effect:
t bl Explor. Geophys., 19, 435-446.
- 1989b, Field examples of negative coincident-loop transient
electromagnetic responses modeled with pobdrizable half-planes:
Flo. 5. Central-loop response of a highly polarizable 3-D
Geophysics, 54, 1491-1498.
body at the surface of the earth and at two different depths. Walker, G. G., and Kawasaki, K.. 1988, Observation of double sign
Body has same geometry as that of Figure 1 but has reversals in transient electromagnetic central induction sound-
Cole-Cole parameters p. = 30 Q-m, m = 3. c‘ = .25, T = 100 ings: Geoexploration. 25, 245-254.
ms.
GEOPHYSICS, VOL. 57. NO. 8 (AUGUST 1992): P. 1014-1017. 8 FIGS.

Detecting organic chemical contaminants by spectral-induced

polarization method in glacial till environment

Heikki Vanhala*, Heikki Soininen*, and limo Kukkonen*

1985). Low-frequency effects have also been reported in field

ABSTRACT measurements (Towle et al., 1985).
The spectral effects observed have been attributed to
We present results that considerably extend the
interaction between clay minerals and organic molecules.
range of applications of spectral induced polarization Olhoeft (1985) explained the low-frequency effect by a
(IP) measurements in surveying soil contaminated by processwhereby organic molecules coat the surfacesof clay
organic chemicals. Soil/organic mixtures are polariz- particles, inhibiting the cation-exchange process. The phase
able even with very low contents of clay minerals,
increase in the case of toluene contaminated montmorillonite
even though the use of spectral IP has so far been has been attributed to clay catalyzed polymerization of
restricted to soils consisting predominantly of clay
toluene (King and Olhoeft, 1989).
minerals.
Conditions under which soil consists mainly of clay min-
Laboratory measurements made on contaminated erals are not always met. In large areas of northern Europe
(toluene, heptane, ethylene glycol) and uncontami- and North America, where the bedrock is covered by
nated glacial till samples show that organic chemicals
Quaternary glacial deposits, clay mineral soils are rare, or
have a distinct effect on the phase spectra. Theoretical even absent. Nevertheless, glacial deposits often produce a
modeling further indicates that the phenomena mea-
measurable IP response, due to the small amount of clay and
sured in the laboratory are also relevant and detectable mica minerals in them. Therefore, it may also be possible to
in field investigations. detect clay-organic reactions in glacial soil. We conducted a
series of laboratory IP measurements to study the detect-
ability of clay-organic reactions in glacial till with a very low
INTRODUCTION clay mineral content.

LABORATORY MEASUREMENTS
Geophysical methods have been used for mapping areas
contaminated by toxic wastes. The applicability of different
geophysical techniques depends on the type of contaminant Samples
and on the geological and hydrogeological setting of the
waste site. Organic chemical liquids form a problematic Uncontaminated samples were prepared by using glacial
group for geophysical studies because their poor conductiv- till and tap water as the electrolyte, and contaminated
ity restricts the use of conventional electric and electromag- samples were prepared by adding organic chemicals,
netic methods. namely, toluene (aromatic compound), heptane (nonpolar
The spectral induced polarization method (IP) can be used compound), or ethylene glycol (polar compound), to the
to detect organic contaminants when soils consist mainly of till-water mixture. The resistivity of tap water was 50-60 fi .
clay minerals (Olhoeft, 1985, 1986; Towle et al., 1985; m and its pH 7.5-7.9.
Sadowski, 1988; King and Olhoeft, 1989). In laboratory X-ray diffraction (XRD) studies showed that the glacial till
measurementsof samplesfrom real waste sites, two kinds of consisted mainly of feldspars, quartz, micas, and amphib-
spectral phenomena have been observed. At low frequencies oles. The maximum grain size was 1 mm, and the proportion
(<lo Hz), a phase maximum shifts toward lower frequencies of clay fraction (co.002 mm, biotite, plagioclase, chlorite,
or disappears altogether. At higher frequencies (>lO Hz), quartz, potassium feldspar, and kaolinite) was 2.5 weight
contamination causesa prominent phase maximum (Olhoeft, percent.

Manuscriptreceivedby the Editor November13, 1990;revisedmanuscriptreceivedDecember2, 1991.

*Geological Survey of Finland, SF-02150 Espoo, Finland.
0 1992Society of Exploration Geophysicists. All rights reserved.

1014
 Detecting Chemical Contaminants by IP 1015

In addition to natural glacial till, washed till and quartz of the high input impedance (>I GQ) of the apparatus.
powder milled from pure vein quartz (grain size ~0.3 mm) Measurements made with platinium electrodes (water sam-
were used in the measurements. We prepared the washed till ple, p = 60 R. m) gave standard errors of 0.6 mrad, 1.0 mrad,
from natural glacial till by washing out the fraction that was and 2.0 mrad at frequencies of 10 Hz, 1.0 Hz, and 0.1 Hz,
less than 0.063 mm in diameter, with the dominant mineral- and with acid-free steel electrodes, standard errors were 0.6
ogy remaining unchanged. The surfacesof washed till grains mrad, 1.4 mrad, and 2.9 mrad. The error with acid-free steel
were coated by dust-like material which, prior to XRD electrodes increases faster than with platinium electrodes
analysis was removed by an ultrasonic vibrator. The main with decreasing frequency. However, the difference at the
minerals identified were quartz and micas, namely musco- lowest frequency we used (0.1 Hz) was not remarkable. The
vite, biotite, and chlorite. The amount of kaolinite in the resistive samplesproduced instrumental and cable generated
dust-like coating fraction was less than 5 percent. capacitive coupling effects at the highest frequencies. The
After drying the till at room temperature, we homogenized phase increase and amplitude loss due to these effects were
it, added water (2 volume percent) and organic liquid (2 and measured and removed from each amplitude and phase
20 volume percent, except for ethylene glycol which was spectrum.
added 20 volume percent only) to the contaminated samples Each sample was measured several times, three times
and packed the mixture into chemically inert glass tubes, without disturbing the electrode-soil contact and then again
closing their ends with rubber plugs and the holes for the after removing and replacing the electrodes. The whole
electrodes with plastic tape. Figure I shows the sample procedure was repeated four times. Because of the high
holder and the electrode system. Samples were stored and resistivity of the samples, the electrode-soil contacts were
measured at room temperature. The maturation time before poor, accounting for a part of the measured spectra being
measurements was two-four days. noisy. However, the large number of data from each sample
Three sets of unwashed till sampleswere made, each with gave us the possibility of controlling the quality of the
two uncontaminated and seven contaminated samples; while measurements. Each resistivity spectrum presented is the
two sets were prepared from washed till, each consisting of mean of one measurement series, and the error bar repre-
two uncontaminated, two toluene (2 volume percent), and sents the standard error of the series.
two ethylene glycol contaminated samples. A further set of
sampleswas made from the quartz powder, consistingof two RESULTS

uncontaminated, two toluene (2 volume percent), and two

ethylene glycol contaminated samples. The phase spectrum of the uncontaminated till samples
Each set was prepared by first mixing all the soil material was typically flat at lower frequencies, the phase shift being
and water, and then adding the contaminant. After the about 10 mrad (Figures 2 and 3). The phase spectra of
electrical measurements of the set had been performed, uncontaminated samples from the same set were very simi-
another set was prepared. lar, while differing slightly from those of other sets (seen in
Figures 2 and 3); this may be a result of either variations in
Measurements the mineralogy or differences in the pore-spacetexture of the
samples.
Complex resistivity spectra were measured with the labo- Contamination resulted in attenuation of the phase shift at
ratory IP apparatus of the Geological Survey of Finland low to moderate frequencies. This effect is clearly seen in
(Eskola et al., 1984). The voltage was measured by inert Figure 3, where ethylene glycol causes attenuation of the
acid-free steel electrodes which when tested gave responses phase shift over the entire frequency range. For toluene
similar to those of platinum electrodes for both uncontami- (Figure 2) and heptane (Figure 4), the effect is best seen at
nated and contaminated samples. The frequency-dependent
metal electrode-electrolyte surface impedance (surface po-
larization) of the acid-free steel electrodes was measured to
be slightly higher than the surface impedance of the platin-
ium electrodes. However, the effect of the surface imped-
ance on the measurement result remains negligible because
loo04
/ o contaminated
1lo5
amplitude

CURRENT ELECTRODES

POTENTIAL ELECTRODES

BBER
UG FREQUENCY [Hz1

FIG. 2. Phase and amplitude spectra of uncontaminated and

FIG. 1. Glass tube sample holder. toluene contaminated (2 volume percent) glacial till.
1016 Vanhala et al.

the lowest frequency. Figure 2 shows the opposite effect; high frequencies in the washed till (Figure 5). The phase
toluene increases the phase angle at frequencies of 50 to 500 spectra of quartz sand were noisy, but the results did not
Hz. A weak phase increase also occurs when heptane is the suggestany effect due to the contamination.
contaminant (Figure 4).
The most prominent amplitude changes caused by con- ANOMALY PROFILES
tamination occurred in samplesof 20 volume percent toluene
and 2 volume percent heptane (Figure 4), in which the The apparent spectrum measured in the field was simu-
resistivities (at the frequency of 0.1 Hz) increased from lated by calculating phase anomalies for a slab model. The
11 000 fi * m to 15 000 0 . m and from 9400 R - m to 19 000 horizontal dimensions of the slab were 30 m x 30 m, its
R * m, respectively. The sample resistivity depends on the thickness was 5 m and the depth of burial was 1 m. A
packing of the mineral material to the glass tube, causing dipole-dipole array with a = 2 m and n = 3 was used.
amplitude variations up to 15 percent. That is why amplitude Complex resistivity values of the slab at different frequen-
changes seen in Figure 2 cannot be related to an organic cies were taken from the measured spectra of the contam-
contaminant. Ethylene glycol with resistivity of 8600 R . m inated samples, and values for the surrounding half-space
increased or decreased the amplitude, depending on the were taken from the uncontaminated samples (Figures 2 and
precontaminated resistivity of the sample material. 3). The modeling program was based on the integral equation
In the washed till, the phase attenuation due to contami- technique (Soininen, 1985).
nation was similar to that in the original till (Figure 5). The Figure 6 shows the calculated phase anomaly profiles for
effect of ethylene glycol was stronger than the effect of toluene contaminated soil at frequencies of 0.1, I .O, 10, and
toluene, with the latter failing to produce phase increase at 100 Hz. At 0.1 and 10 Hz, the phase anomaly above the
contaminatedarea is negative. The phaseanomaly at 100Hz is
positive, the anomaly maximum being 50 mrad. Figure 7 shows
the anomaly profiles for ethylene glycol; the anomalies are
negative at all frequencies. At low frequencies, the anomalies
10s
are weak but above 10 Hz they are stronger. The apparent
resistivity anomalies based on the amplitude of the measured
voltageswould in all casesbe too weak to be measured.
For comparison, we also calculated profiles using the data
for toluene-contaminated montmorillonite soil measured by
Sadowski (1988). Figure 8 shows the profiles at a frequency
of 100 Hz for three concentrations of toluene (5, 10, 20
volume percent). The amplitude of the anomaly increases as
the toluene content increases, with the maximum anomaly
being 80 mrad.
1000 CONCLUSIONS

0.1 1 10 100 rooo

Laboratory measurementsindicate that phenomena previ-
FREQUENCY [Hz1 ously attributed to reactions between organic chemicals and
soil consisting mainly of clay minerals can also take place in
FIG. 3. Phase and amplitude spectra of uncontaminated and
ethylene glycol contaminated (20 volume percent) glacial till.

loooi
I. I 0 ethylene glycol 1
10s

0 contaminated z
P
7
: 1045 phase
m

5
3.
1000
I + I
I I

- 1000 0.1 1 10 100

, I
Oil ; lb 100 1000 FREQUENCY [Hz1

FREQUENCY [Hz1 FIG. 5. Phase and amplitude spectra of uncontaminated,

toluene (2 volume percent), and ethylene glycol (20 volume
FIG. 4. Phase and amplitude spectra of uncontaminated and percent) contaminated washed till (grain sizes less than
heptane contaminated (2 volume percent) glacial till. 0.063 mm washed out).
 Detecting Chemical Contaminants by IP 1017

-80 1
%
&g -60 -

-60 - % -40 -

-20 -
a
-40 -
d 0 1 I
I I I

: -50 -25 - 25 50
-20 -
: DISTANCE [ml

FIG. 8. Calculated phase anomalies for toluene-contaminated

montmorillonite clay. Data from Sadowski (1988). Fre-
O-
quency 100 Hz, dipole-dipole array, a = 2 m and n = 3.
I I I I
-50 -25 - 25 50
glacial till. The spectral changesobserved show many similar
DISTANCE [ml featuresto thosedescribedfrom clay environments by Olhoeft
(1985, 1986), and it is conceivable that the spectralchangesin
FIG. 6. Calculated phase anomalies for toluene contamina-
tion (2 volume percent). Dipole-dipole array, a = 2 m and both casesare due to similar electrochemicalreactions,
n = 3. The similarity between the results from natural till and
washed till shows that mica and clay minerals fixed to
coarser silicate grains, rather than those in the finest till
fraction, are critical in enabling the low-frequency IP effect
(attenuation of the phase shift). On the other hand, the effect
of toluene at high frequencies (increase of the phase shift) is
related to the presence of the finest mineral fraction. The
different spectral behavior between the natural and the
-60
washed till at high frequencies may arise from variations in
the mineralogy or the pore-space texture of the material.
Laboratory measurementsand model calculations demon-
strate that contaminated areas can be mapped with the IP
method provided that sufficiently high frequencies (>50 Hz)
can be measured.
100 Hz
REFERENCES
\ 7
Eskola, L., Eloranta, E., and Puranen,R., 1984,A methodfor
10 Hz calculatingIP anomaliesfor models with surface polarization:
Geophys. Prosp.,32, 79-87.
King, T. V. V., and Olhoeft, G. R., 1989, Mapping organic contam-
ination by detection of clay-organic processes: Proc. AGWSEi
NWWAiAPl Conf. on Petroleum Hydrocarbons and Organic
Chemicals in Ground Water-Prevention, Detection, and Resto-
ration, 627-640.
: Klein, J. D., and Sill, W. R., 1982, Electrical properties of artificial
clay-bearing sandstone: Geophysics, 47, 1593-1605.
DISTANCE [ml Olhoeft, G. R., 1985, Low-frequency electrical properties: Geo-
physics, 50, 2492-2503.
- 1986, Direct detection of hydrocarbon and organic chemicals
FIG. 7. Calculated phase anomalies for ethylene glycol with ground-penetrating radar and complex resistivity: Proc.
contamination (20 volume percent). Dipole-dipole array, a = NWWAiAPl Conf. on Petroleum Hydrocarbons and Organic
2mandn = 3. Chemicals in Ground Water-Prevention, Detection, and Resto-
ration, 284-305.
Sadowski. R. M., 1988. Clav-organic interactions: M.Sc. thesis.
Colorado School of Mines _ -
Soininen, H., 1985, Calculating galvanic anomalies for an inclined
prism in a two-layered half-space: Geophys. Trans., 31, 359-371.
Towle, J. N., Anderson, R. G., Pelton, W. H., Olhoeft, G. R., and
LaBrecque, D., 1985, Direct detection of hydrocarbon contami-
nants using the induced-polarization method: 55th Ann. Internat.
Mtg., Sot. Expl. Geophys., Expanded Abstracts, 145-147.
GEOPHYSI(‘S, VOL. 50. NO. 5 (MAY 1985): P. 87CC371. 1 FIG.. I TABLE

Short Note
The determination of spectral parameters with
pulse-train induced polarization

R. J. G. Lewis*

It was suggested in Soininen (1984) on the basis of noise-free

data that pulse-train induced-polarization (IP) measurements I or v
are of little value in determining the spectral characteristics of decay
charging
complex resistivity. Here it is shown that, in at least some cases, curve, curve
use of appropriate techniques can readily obtain the Cole-Cole
parameters from pulse-train measurements with both noise-free c
data and data contaminated with low levels of random noise.
Consider the current waveform shown in Figure 1 as used in
-3T, -T/
Soininen (1984) and Tombs (1981) and in practice in some
4 4
commercial IP equipment. Practical equipment measures a
limited number of samples averaged over a time gate as shown
in the voltage waveform of Figure 1. The result ofTombs [1981,
equation (5)] is easily generalized to calculate the average
voltage V over the time gate from t, to t, :

V(r,. 1,) = Im i 1 (cos (nrc‘4) - cos (3nrr/4)}p(o) + CURRENT WAVEFORM

” , 11x
--¤ RECEIVED WAVEFORM
hc;. 1. Solid lines represent current and dashed curves the
voltage. The current cycle time is 2T and measurements are
usually made after 3 T:‘4 which is often taken as the time origin.
where Voltage values are obtained by averaging over the time window
from t,, to t,.
II = I, 3, 5, .

w = IIX T,
c = .5. and T = .25 s and attempts were made to obtain the
Im = imaginary part, Cole-Cole parameters of the ground by a process of nonlinear
least-squares using the algorithm of Brown and Dennis (1972).
and where p(w) is the complex resistivity of the ground at
All calculations used voltages for a set of ten consecutive gates
frequency o and 2T is the cycle time of the pulse train. In all
of width 75 ms starting 100 ms after current turn-off. Other
evaluations of such series 1 001 terms were accumulated in
gates were added in some cases to investigate the effect of the
4%bit arithmetic which was used for all calculations. The case sampling.
of interest here is when p(cc,)is given by a Cole-Cole dispersion Table 1 summarizes the results of the inversions. It is appar-
(Pelton et al., 1978) which has the form ent in case 1 that the ten late-time gates alone do not enable all
parameters to be recovered. In particular both R, and m have

L II’
1 very large errors. It appears that there is a tradeoff between R,
P(O)= R,, 1-m l- (2)
i 1 + (iwrY and ~1for such a sampling. This hypothesis is verified in case 2
where R, is constrained to its proper value and all other
where R,, is the dc resistivity, IM the chargeablity, c the fre- parameters are retrieved accurately. It is apparent from the
quency dependence, and T the time constant. work of Tombs (1981) that there may be difficulties in using a
A set of synthetic data was generated for various time gates sufficiently long charging time to determine R, accurately from
using equation (1) for the case T = 2 s. R, = 100 m, m = .95, the voltage before turn-olfin a practical situation. Accordingly,

Manuscriptreceivedby the Editor September17, 1984;revisedmanuscriptreceivedNovember 16, 1984.

*Geology Department.Universityof Tasmania.G.P.O. Box 252 C, Hobart 7001,Australia.
c 19X5Societyof ExplorationGeophysicists.All rightsreserved.
870
 Spectral IP in lime Domain 871

Table 1. The basic set of gates consists of 10 consecutivegates of 75 ms width delayed by .l s from current turn-off. The early gates are 10 ms wide
and start at 10 ms and SO ms after turn-off. The charging gates are each 10 ms wide and are consecutive immediately before turn-off. The asterisk
denotesa constrainedparameter. Resultsfor R, are roundedto the nearestunit and the other parametersto two significantfigures.

Determined
parameters
Residual sum -
Case Gates of squares RO 5 C m Noise

.25 .50 .52

Basic
Basic
1;; ; ;;‘s6 184
100* .25 .50 .95 ::
Basic + .lO x 10-s 186 .25 .50 Sl 0.
early
Basic + .14 x 10-7 100 .25 .50 .95 0.
charging
Basic + .21 x 10-l 102 .23 .47 1.0 3%
charging
Basic + .27 x 10’ 104 .25 .47 1.0 10%
charging
(Correct values 100 .25 .59 .95
for above)

I Basic + .81 x lo-’ 102 .22 .47 .65 3%

charging
8 Basic + .86 x 10-t 109 .12 .31 .85 10%
charging
(Correct values 100 .25 .50 .60
for above)

various samplings were investigated to see if the resolution of approaches a limiting value, models 7 and 8 were investigated.
R, and m could be improved. Case 3 has two early, narrow These have a correct value of m = .6. In this case 3 percent
gates added, each of width 10 ms and starting 10 ms and 50 ms noise degrades estimates of T most at about 12 percent and m by
after turn-off, respectively. The results clearly show that this is 9 percent. The errors are very large at the 10 percent noise level,
not a solution to the problem; this is fortunate since in a more exceeding 100 percent for z.
realistic model electromagnetic coupling effects may be impor- It is thus apparent that an appropriate sampling scheme with
tant at early times. Case 4 adds two consecutive 10 ms gates to pulse-train IP should enable reasonably accurate estimation of
the late gates immediately before turn-off. It is apparent that the Cole-Cole parameters of the ground if the noise levels are
such a sampling enables accurate determination of all parame- low. There may well be much better sampling schemes than
ters. those used here, which are strictly ad hoc. No sensitivity analy-
The parameters recovered in case 4 are good to six significant sis has been performed, so it is possible that in a noisy environ-
figures. Clearly this enables the wide-band frequency-domain ment parameters are not in fact well-resolved as found in the
response to be predicted accurately. It thus seems likely that frequency domain by Major and Silic (1981). Further, this work
Soininen’s method founders on the numerical difficulties in- does not address the fundamental nroblem in practical appli-
herent in a large, ill-conditioned matrix. cation of spectral IP: i.e., discriminating between electro-
The results are interesting in that averaging over a time gate magnetic coupling and IP efIects.
does not seem to degrade resolution of the parameters as might
be expected. Further, of all the parameters determined, the REFERENCES
chargeability, which is a quantity usually purported to be mea-
sured, is often subject to large uncertainties, particularly if the Brown, K. M.. and Dennis, J. E., lY72, Derivative-free analogues of the
sampling is inadequate. Levenberg-Marquardt and Gauss algorithms for nonlinear least-
The effect of added random noise upon parameter recovery is squares approximations: Numer. Math., l&289%297.
Major, J., and Silic, J., 1981, Restrictions on the use of Cole-Cole
investigated in cases 5 through 8. Random noise was added to dispersion models in complex resistivity interpretation: Geophysics,
each sample at 3 percent or 10 percent in terms of the size of the 46,Yl6-931.
Pelton, W. H., Ward, S. H., Hallof, P. G., Sill, W. R., and Nelson, P. H.,
smallest gate voltage present. The effects of the added noise are
1978, Mineral discrimination and removal of. inductive coupling
immediately apparent. At the 3 percent level the maximum with multifrequency IP: Geophysics, 43, 588-609.
error in the parameters other than m is 8 percent, but m is Soininen, H., 1984, Inapplicability of pulse train time-domain measure-
ments to spectral induced polarization: Geophysics, 49.826827.
virtually at the theoretical limit of 1. Increasing the noise level Tombs, J. M. C.. 1981, The feasihility of making spectral IP measure-
to 10 percent does not greatly alter this conclusion. Because m ments in the time domain: Geocxpl.. 19,91-102.
GEOPHYSICS, VOL. 40, NO. 5 (OCTOBER 1975), P. 851-864, 8‘ FIGS., 1 TABLE

RECENT ADVANCES AND APPLICATIONS IN COMPLEX

RESISTIVITY MEASUREMENTS

KENNETH L. ZONGE” AND JEFFREY C. WYN’NZ

Several years of accumulat,ing complex re- surements for serious geophysical interpreta-
sistivity spectral measurements have indicated tion. Correlation of field measurements with
that. there are &ill many unexplored areas in in- laboratory measurements on rare samples from
duced polarization surveying that need to be the same area. demonstrates that, strong electro-
investigated for a more complete understanding magnetic coupling can be acciu-ately removed
of t,he polarization process. In a,ddition to pro- from complete spectra without removing t,he im-
viding mineral discrimination capabilities, com- portant rock response.
plex resistivity spectra can be used to differen- Recent field and laboratory measurement’s in-
tiate between various barren host, rock responses, dicat,c that most, if not all, intluced polarization
to facilitat,e the complete removal of elect,ro- responses att,ribut,rd to magnetite arc not really
magnetic coupling, and to identify pipeline, due to this mineral but can he traced to a host
fence, and various other cultural coupling ef- rock alteration response. Also, characteristic
fects. host, rock signatures for sulfide environments
Results of field measurements are presented appear to vary according to loc*alit,yand t.ype of
in an effort t,o demonstrate the utility of and deposits making it impossible to provide a uni-
necessity for making complete spectral mea- versal set, of signatures for sulfide deposits.

INTRODUCTION apparent resistivity, percent, frequency effect,

New methods in mining geophysics are being and phase angle (which is equivalent to charge-
continually pursued in an effort to obtain the abilit,y). In addition, several new parameters are
most descriptive dat’a flor the smwllestjamount of available from the spectra: host rock response,
money and time Differing methods have met type and approximate quantity of minerxliza-
with varying degrees of success, but as of this t,ion, and additional information concrrning ver-
date the only electrical method which shows tical or horizontal rock disrontinuit)iea which
promise of providing discriminatory capabilities can be derived from electromagnrtic reflect,ion
is the low-frequency complex resistivity spectra data and used as an aid in interpreting resistivity
technique. pseudosections. By combining all of the above
In its present. measurement configuration, the information,, one can construct an apparent
complex resist,ivit,y method is a. technique which geologic cross-section of considerable detail
provides discrete spectral responses or signa- based solely on electrical measurements.
tures at, frequencies between 0.01 and 110 hz Probnhly the single most important aspect of
(Zonge, 1973). All standard induced polariza- complex resistivity mrasuremc~nts in the south-
tion (II’) parameters are measured directly: western U.S. environment, is the ability to
Paper presented at the 44th Annual International SEC Meeting, November 12, 1974. Manu-
script received by the Editor November 21,1974.
* Zonge Engineering & Research Organization. Tucson, Ark. 85712.
*U.S. Geological Survey, Denver, Colo. 80225; formerly Zonge Engineering & Research
Organization, Tucson, Aria.
@ 1975Society of Exploration Geophysicists. All rights reserved.
851
852 Zonge and Wynn

completely rcmow elrctromngnctic inductive For the last .several years, some authors have
coupling from the spectra, thw providing cou- been succrssfully measuring and apparently dis-
pling-free polarization pseudosections (Lynn criminating sulfide responses in the field (Zonge,
and Zongc, l!W: 1975). therefore in man: 19%) and in the laboratory (Katsube and
envirnnment~, the complex rtxi.Gtivity method Collett, 10X; Zonge, l’X2b). ildmittedly, man)
pro\-idr- jrwt :rl)ollt :I,. c.onilJctc :I .sllitt of mcn- problems still exist in thr srarch for differing
anrcmcnts a:: c;m lw oblnincd from a single sulfide response. But sewral thousand field mea-
~copli~.sic:dtrchiiiqlic. xurrmcnts have now drmonstratecl that certain
In this paper \vvcattempt to clcmollstrate the mineral discrimination in the firld can br
lltility of and in some c:wr.s thr nrcrssity for nchiewd.
making complrs resistivity (or CR) mraswe- More important than thr mineral discriminn-
mcwts in order to wparatc :mom:dirs raused b? tion aspert’ of sprctral measurements is the
cconomir minrralizntion typrs and tlio.qe caused identification of basic host rock rrsponses. By
by IX coupling, noneronomic polarization itsrlf, host rock type permits broad scale map-
~ourccs’, cultural effrcts, and odd geologic rn- ping of siibsurfacr geologic structurr and in
vironmrnts. The CR me:w;IIrrment l)rocws is conjunction with reeistirity and polarization
brirfly rrvirwed :tnd comp;trod with conveIl- permits detailed geologic srctions to be derived.
tionnl 11’ tcchniqurs. Following this, rsnmplrs
of lio.gt rork +n:lturcs and minrr:llization COMPLEX RESISTIVITY AND CONVENTIONAL IP

sprctra arc rsl)laincd and supl)ortrd by both The induced polarization methocl can be
laboratory and firld lI1C:~~lIrrnlellt.~.Finally, rs- virwrd as a special case or abbrwinted form of
amples of apparent prologic sections basrd on complex resistivity measurrmrnt whrre only one
CR. measurrments arc lnwrntctl, along with a or two frrqwnries are measured instrnd of a
section derived from drill holr and surfarc geo- multifrequency sprctrllm. The prrsent CR con-
logic+data, to demonstrate thr rrlatiw completr- figuration wed by thr aiithors proviclw discrrte
nws of this electrical mr:IsIirrnirnt 3l)proacli. frcqiirnc!- i’pcctra at frcqlirncies ranging from
0.01 to 110 hz. Odd harmonica (1, 3, 5, i, 9, 11)
HISTORICAL RACKGROUND
are pro\-idrcl for rach decndc to givr :I di.wWe
Onr of t!lc rnrlirst attrmpts at making ad- :tpprorimaiion to the trlic groimcl response owr
vancrd IP mens~irrmcnts vxs an iii-honse effort this intclrv:d,
initiated by Krnnecott Exploration, Inc., Figure 1 graphically displays the rrlationship
around 19GS. The rcwllt:: were reported by Van brtwwn con\-cntionnl frcqwncy domain IP and
T’oorhis ct al (1973) and al)lvxr to bc indrtrrmi- complex resistivity This is a complex-plane
natc,. Their problcmx cwlterctl around the rela- plot (nrgatiw imaginary ordinntr and positive
tive inaccur:icy of tlirir nw:i.~urrmrnt rquip- rral abscissa) which cli*lAnys an actual sprctrum
ment, and trchniqw and die limited range of derived from :I quartz porphyry brrccin laborn-
rock spwimcna. tory sample containing approsimntrly 5 prrrent
On thr basis of these data, T7aii J700rliis con- sulfides b\- volmiir. ITsing the mngnitndrs (Al,,
clwlrd that the true IP response is n constant M,) and 0.1 hz ph:we anglr (4,) shown, wr ob-
I)liasc function (,~imil:ir to the tyl)c B response tain the ,~tandard IP pnramrtcrs for this Sam-
di~w~ssctllater in t1ii.spaper) and that no possi- plr : 19 pc‘rcrnt I’FE, SO milliradinn phase shift,
bility c&t:: for mnkiii g miner;~l di*rriniinntioil and 96 maw cliugc~abilit~~ (rmpiricnlly drter-
mc:l,wremrnis. minrcl to br approsimatrly 1.2 timrs thr 0.1 hz
1\IcPhar Groph~+s rccrntly :mn~~m~ed (Hal- ]hS:c~ :mgle)
lof, 19X) :i Ion--frequency 11’ ph:~sr system Sewr:rl :~r,nurnc~nt,~ li:i\-r rmwtl over the rr-
moclclrd after the Kcnnccott mrthod with the laiionship brtwrc~n PFE, l)h:isr anglr, and
:rtlv:iiitngc~of approsim:ltc El\1 colipling rr- chargc~:tl~ility.Rrfrrring to Figure 1, it can be
moval’ bnscd on a const:lnl-phasr II’ rrsponsr. xrrn that PFE and phnsr angle measurements
Sufficirnt data arc: Eathertd to affrct n rudi- approximate a qu:~clrat~wr set with the PFE
mrntary dc colll)ling wmo\al, but no capability bring proportional to the iI)-phxv romponcnts
exists (nor is clnimcd) to provitlr nny type of :tnd the phase anglr proportional to the out-of-
cawativc wtim:it(~ for die pohrizltion source. phasr components. It can br sh0n.n that for
 Complex Resistivity Measurements 853

lmog
I
-.3*.

-.?-

1.0 HZ
-_I ..
. 0.1 HZ

.
.

PFE =
MI -Mz x 100% (0.1 IO 1.0 Hz decade)
M2

PIG. 1. Graphic relationship hetwecn frequency domain II’ and complrx rcaktivity.

CHARGEABILITY (MGS .I9731 0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

I 1
a (ZERO, 1974)

0 1 2 41 5 6 7

(ZERO, 1974)
!‘\\?__?N 6 .._L__?/

I 2 3 4 5 6 7
I

PFE (ZERO, 1974) P I f i I I

PFE (ZERO, 1974;

1.4 1.5 1.5

FIG. 2. A comparison of chargeability, phase

angle, and PFE over a barren/minrrxlizrd area FIG. 3. A compnrison of phn~c> anglr and PFE
with no cultural coupling. over a barren area contaminntrd by pipelines.
854 Zonge and Wynn

smoothly varying minimum-$nsc functions (a surwy in south-central Arizona and compares

sgccificntion which includes the normal rock PFE, ph:w angle, and chnrgcalGt y over an
polarixntion r(yxxw), I’FIC ij :rpprosim:\tcl~ awn containing small amounts of sullidcs and
equal to --O.lS timrs tlio ph:~w angle in mil- roptamin:ltcd by three pipclinch :md n lend-
lir:ldinns (Zongc ct al, 192). sheathed trlc~~hone cnblr. Note that charge-
Figure 2 dcmowtrate;; the csccllcnt corrcln- ability 2nd I)habr an& do not rorrclatc at all
tion bctwvccnI’FE, ph:iar, and ch;lrgrability mcn- with l’FE, l)ut cloAy agtw wit Ii cnrh other.
Surcmcnts over nn :tren dcvoid of fcnccs, pipe- From thrsc figures, three fentlirc:: stand out.
lines, rtc. This rsnmplr was chobrn ns it First, in culturally clcnn arc;+ l’FI7, phase, and
Ivovidrs high polnrization v:~lucddue to a ncnr- chnrgf:ibilit y ai~I)c:\r to corrrlatr very closely.
surface sulfide body nnd nrgntive vnluw from Srcond, in nrcns rontnminntctl by culture
n shnrp ront:\ct of high rwistivity contrast. (frncw, ~~ilwlinw. etc.), die coilpling effects
Figure 3 contains data obtained on :L line in contributed appear to bc nonminimum phase in
ccntrnl Arizona over a sulfide-bnrrcn arcn tra- nature nnd PFE rcwlts di\-ergc from charge-
vcrscd by natural gas pilwlines. Thi:: pscudo- ability nnd phaw nnglc mcwuwmcnts. And
section displnys thr correlnt ion brtn-rcn phnse third, by mcnsuring both phnse :~nd PFE, one
and PFE over thr luiicolltnmiliatcti right half can obtain a very good idea of n-hen cultural
and the relative noncorrelntion under the pipe- coupling is intcrferring with gcwral survey
lines on thr left half. results.
Figure 4 displays the results on onr line of a Due to the vnri:tblc nature of culturnl cou-

0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II
I I 1 t I I I I I I 1

CHARGEABILITY (MGS, FEB 1973)

FIG. 4. A comparison of char~cnbiliiy, phase angle, slid PFE ill a11WCRalmost completely contaminated
w-ilh culture.
 Complex Resistivity Measurements 855

pling, each survey situation can provide differ- IMAG

ent results, but by measuring both I’FE and
phase (or chnrgenbility~ and noticing the de-
I TYPE H-l

gree of correlation in the data, one can deter-

mine with n rc:won:lblc amount of certainty the
influence of this roul)ling. PFE and phase angle
information c:m be obtained from standard
complex resiSti\-ity redultd, provided dnt:\ over
a single decade is a~;lilnblc, or from any other
system th:lt mexure~ both magnitude and phase
at, sewral frcqwncica. TYPE H-2

CR SPECTRA AND HOST ROCK RESPONSE

In an effort to categorize rock signntures, w-e

have used a. spectral clasaificntion scheme to 7
‘”

describe basic background or host. rock signn-

tures. these are currently referenced as types
A, B, and C and are shown in idenlized form in
Figure 5. In addition, occasional nonconforming
spectra, such as those in Figure> 6 :lppear and
are so far uncsplaincd. These plots graphically
demonstrate that some rocks can dwercly com- TYPE M-2
ylicate an 11’ pscudo~ection obtained from n
survey run o\-er them. I I I +REAL
0 I. 1.0

FIG. 6. Idcalizcd rcprescntalic~n of the responses

of three nonconforming host ITN~I;tylwa mcasarcd
in the field and labol,ntory.

Type A rrsponsc is chnrnvtc~rizcd 1~)’ nn out-

of-phase component which tlwwws with in-
crcnsing frcqucnry. It is IISII:III~ associated with
strong nltcrntion, sulfide min<~wliz;xtion includ-
ing pyrite, and graphite anti wmc rlap. Type
B is chxxctrrizcd by an orit-of-phxc rom-
IMAG
poncnt which is constant for all frequencies.
I TYPE B It has brcn arsocintcd with modrratc nltew-
tion, low pyrite/mixed miiwrxl cnvjroninents,
and transition zones brtwvccn types A and C.
Type C dcscribcs an out-of-11hnsc component
which incrcwcs with inrrcwing frequency and
is ucu~lly nl;tioci:lted with WCYII;alteration such
as rhloritiz:~tion ; it has bcc71 l”ound in alluvial
areas, frwh volcanic rock,<. :lnd limcstonc.
Typw A and C appear to hc most pre\alcnt
in the southwwtcrn U.S. :rntl :I lxq~ondernncc
of the type B occ~urrcnrc~nplw;w~ in the north-
west :~nd Canada. At this timc no reason is
given for thi,: exrcpt, that for ihc areas wc have
mcnsured, alteration id gcncwlly more cxtrcme
in the southwst than in die northwest.
Very few type A rcsponSw hnvc been ob-
served in Inborntory s:mpl(~;; which do not
856 Zonge and Wynn

ok/ .i .8 .9
I
1.0

FIG. 7. Response of severely weathered basalt with FIG. 8. Response of a highly altered andesite
plagioclnse totally altered to kaolin (lab sample). with accessoryeericite and K-feldspars. Plagioclase
laths and ferromagnesian minerals are heavily re-
placed by fine-graincd chlorite, and disseminated
contain sulfides. Responses of t,wo such non- magnetite is partially replaced by hematite (lab
mineralized samples are shown in Figures 7 sample).
and S. Figure S is included because of its ex- on our computer graphics terminal used for
tremely anomalous nature. It is an unmineralized data reduct,ion. This is included to demonstrate
tygc A response for a rock that includes chlor- the data reduction/plotting process. (The alpha-
ite, sericitc, and K-feldspar. Virtually all field numeric data are printed on top of t,he graphics
spectra which have been observed to date and data only to save paper.) At’ the present t’ime
which display a type A response arise from the first six nonzero harmonics (I, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11)
rocks which contain sulfides in some quantity. of each transmitted pulse (.l, 1.0, 10 hz with
Figure 0 is a reproduction of a plot obtained 0.01 hz optional) are plotted and printed out

X54,57’ Rl00,103 N=l fi5300’

El 1

1
oC’y;‘ECTED REhL AND INfhG!NARY
0 30 0.9497Et00
0.5966E+00 ;. y&+3:

0.50 0.9211Et00 0:7085E-01

0.70 0.9054Et00 0.6515E-01
v 0%6Eee--~biissE_Bt
?Z 7 0:8868E+00 0 WE-01 0.9 1.0
1.00 0.8873E*00 0.6732E-01
3.00 0.8486E+00 0.6252E-01
5.60 0.8244Et00 0.5978E-01
7,00 0,8110E+00 0.5826E-01
5.00 0.801X+00 0.569iE-01
11.00 0.7541E+00 0.5601E-01
10.00 0. i’374E+00 0.5564E-0 1
30.00 0.7651E+00 0,5010E-01
5C1.80 0.?4.54E+00 0.4641E-01
78.08 n, :-;48E+00 0.4397E-01
PO,00 tj.ZhE+00 0.4233E-01
‘&%bWr 0. iZli’
0 E050
+00 Cttf 0 0.0;3
41’6E-81ffS.lr
lxxx 0.255 r~~.~r 0.670 %xti: 0.738
4.5QQ XtIX 0.133 W#J: 110 0
.X I t.lEW=DLD?

FIG. 9. Response of rock with pyrite and chalcopyrite in a kaolinized extrusive (B.C., Canada).
 Complex Resistivity Measurements 857

in normalized form. The harmonics of each

transmitted frequency arc l’lotted as a sepn-
rate unit. The quality of o\~~lnp between the
ninth and eleventh harmonics of the lower
block with the first hnrmonic~of the next higher
block provides one indication of the data qual-
ity. In Figure 9 the slashes (/) are printed at
each harmonic, and in nddit ion an asterisk (“)
FIG. 10. Response of rocks with syngenetic is primed for the 1.0 and 10.0 he fundnmcntuls
pyrite in carbonaccon;i limcstonc veined and dis- as a, visual aide in checking the overlap. Figure
scminated.
7 and all subsequent spectra are derived from
this type of plot.
Figures 9 through 14 are spectral plots of
field results obtained from different locations
in the U.S. and Canada. They display varying
degrees of type A host rcsl)onse with mincral-
ization responses superposed. All of the field
spectra in this report have lwcn confirmed with
drill hole data unless otherwise noted.
Figure 15 is probably die flat&t8 type B
k--+ .;
RE
laboratory sample response wve have measured
.8 .9 1.0
t’o date and is a reproduction of the original
FIG. 11. Response of rocks with pyrite and computer output showing the* reduced data. This
chalcopyrite disseminated and in Teins in a
kaolinized monzonite porphyry. constant phase response ws obtained from a
massive bull quartz with h:rir and veinlet gold
in economic quantities.

FIG. 12. Response of rocks with pyrite, covellite, 8

and chalcocite in blebs in a thorouyhly altered
+t .S 1.0”
quartz porphyry.
FIG. 14. Response of pyrite, vhnlcocite, and prob-
able chalcopyrite in a monzonite stock.

---05

110. 10. 1.0 0. I .Ol

.S 1.0”’
I

.S 1.0
FIG. 13. Response of rocks with pyrite and
chalcopyrite in blebs and veins in a granodioritc FIG. 15. Response of massive, (bull) quartz with
porphyry. hair and veinlet gold (lab sample).
858 Zonge and Wynn

IM It.4
-.I --.05
I
110.
0.1
A-A

ok+ .9 Lo”’
4

6.9 I:0
FIG. 16. Response of rocks with economic molyb-
FIG. 18. Response of pyrite-chalcopyrite in a
denim emplaced in veinlets in a metaquart,zite.
granodiorite porphyry.

FIG. 17. Response of rocks showing argillic al- ii9 CO

teration with quartz sericite and minor pyrite in
an intrusive host (approximately a quartz mon- FIG. 19. Response of pyrite-chalcopyrite in a
zonit~e), quartz monzonite porphyry.

Figures 16 through 19 are field examples of rocks undergoing weak alteration such as
mineralized t,ype B responses from several dif- chlorit,ization almost always display a type C
ferent mining districts. A brief description of response.
each rock is given in the figure captions. Figure 20 is a spectrum derived from a
The type B response cominues t’o be an carbonaceous limestone with an exceptionally
enigma since we have measured very flat re- smooth type C response, and similar spectra
sponses in the field from rocks which have been
have been observed in field data as well. Figures
both economically mineralized (Figure 16) and
21 through 24 are field results, all from barren
relatively nonmineralized but well altered (Fig-
areas and all displaying typical type C re-
ure 1’7). However, when a “lumpy” spectrum
sponses.
showing pyrite and- chaicopyrite resonances
The continuing discussion on the role of
superposed on a type B response is measured,
magnetite in producing IP responses should
the ground has always been mineralized in
be commented upon here. To date, we have not
proportion to the response (Figures 18 and 19).
conducted a CR survey over an area containing
Usually enough data are available in a CR. field
survey to assign sulfide or nonsulfide significance magnetite (or hemo-ilmenite) which produced
to type B spectra depending upon the sur- polarization responses as large as reported by
rounding host rock response. Elliot and Guilbert (1974). However, in all
To date we do not have any confirmed re- cases where a solid polarizat’ion response (such
ports of significant mineralization found in a as Figures 24 and 25) was attributed to mag-
type C host environment. As mentioned pre- netite, upon measuring the electrical properties
viously, this response is found in alluvial areas, of cores gathered in the area we found that the
over fresh volcanics and limestones. Barren response was associated with chloritization.
 Complex Resistivity Measurements 859

FIG. 20. Response of carbonaceouslimestone (lab sample).

-.05

I
110.

&--G+
( RE
i 1.0

FIG. 21. Response of alluvium (pediment of FIG. 23. Response of barren fresh limestone.
epidotized volcanic origin).

That is, a type C response is obt,ained from

chloritized samples with or without mngnet,ite,
and there is little difference hrtween signatures.
Mom work must bc done in t,his area, but
at the present time it dots not. appear that’
disseminated magnetite contributes a significant
amount to the polarization process.

HOST ROCK SPECTRA SUMMARY

Table 1 summarizes IP anti CR parameters

for each of the preceding plots with phase angle
in m&radians (+.1), chargrnbility derived from
phase angles in mv-set per volt (M), percent,
OI.RE
.9 1.0 frequency effect over the 0.1 to 1.0 hz decade
(PFE), apparent, resistivit,y in ohm-m (p.),
FIQ. 22. Response of barren quartz monzonite
porphyry. dipole-dipole a-spacing in ft (a), and n-spacings
860 Zonge and Wynn

RE
4
.8 .S 1.0

FIG. 24. Field spect,ra with and without coupling for nonminerslieed bi0tit.e quartz diorite with biotite
heavily chlorit,ixed.

in terms of multiples of a. (71.). In addition, polarization pnrnmrtcrs (31, 32, and 33 milli-
comments on the apparent source of the polnr- radians, rrqxrtively), but they are type A, B,
ization response.are given. and C reqjonses, respectively. The area pro-
The primary purpose for prrscnting this ducing the sprctrum of Figure 12 contained
body of data on mineralized and unminernlized pyrite, chnlcocite, and chnlcopyritc; Figure 16
spectra is to demonstrate that nrither lnbora- came from an economic molybdcnite environ-
tory nor field rock responses are due entirely ment,; and Figure 24 was prodtlced over an
to mineralization, nor are the phase angle re- area hosting barren chloritized rock.
sponses always flat as claimed by Van Voorhis Whcthcr or not one accepts mineral dis-
et al (1973). For es:unple, compnrc Figures crimination arguments, t,he host rock rrsponse
12, 16, and 24. All three hnvc roughly the same alone will qxxate areas wit,11 :I high prob-

Table 1. IP and CR parameter summary, with a description of the polarization source.

$1 M PFE PA II
Figure millirad mv-sec/voIt. .1-l. ohm-m f? spacing Polarizat,ion source

106 126 x.2 9.5 - - kaolin

69 83 11. 122.5 -- - ext,remely complex
220
79 95 12. 22s 200 py/cpy/kaolin
264 42. 500 ; pyrite (syngetlelic)
8X 105 13. 7:: 200 6 py/cpy/kaolill
37 4.4 i7i 300 py/cv/cc/qtx-sericite
31
21 26 3 7 102 300 : py/cpy/kaolill-qtz-sericite
42 61 6.2 97 1000 1 py/cpy/kaolill?

16 1!I 1 .n --
49.5 -- gold
jr; 4.7 ,552 300 molybdenite
37
32 44
16
5 ,4
2.0
460
792
500
500
4 py/kaolin-qiz-sericite
py/cpy/Fe-Oxides
14
13 15 2.1 165 500 .: py/cpy/qtz-sericite

35 6.9 14,317 - carbonaceous limestone

206 7 1.1 68 1000 1 alluvium
22 10 12 1.6 184 200 2 barren fresh illt.rusive
23 3: 0.9
5.1 700
169 1000
200 barren fresh limestone
24 3: : chlorit,ixed biotite
25 14 li 3.8 857 - - chloritizrd biotit,e
 Complex Resistivity Measurements 861

IM
s-.I

110. IO.
A.== -

01 , RE
.8 .S 1.0
FIG. 25. Response of nonmineralized biotite rluartz diorite wit,h biotite heavily chloritized. Sample taken
from drill hole within the field location of Figure 24.

ability ‘of sulfide content from t,hose where with 3 fairly detailed interpretation, based
the response is due to barren rock or alluvial strict,ly on electrical measurements, to augment
clay polarization effects. It is an accepted fact known or inferred geologic struct,urc. The au-
t,hat standard II’ is a notoriolls anomaly gen- thors are still learning in tllis area, and this
erator, and a method for discriminating among type of interpretation has otlly recently been
responses would be desirable. The CR spectral provided as a service.
approach is one s’uch method. Figure 213 presents one c>sample of a CR
Additionally, the CR spectral measurement, survey over a barren nrcn near Snfforcl, Ariz.
approach facilitat,es the complete removal of The figure shows resultant apll:trent resistivitiea,
inductive coupling, and it, is exceptionally useful 0.1 hz phase angles, and a derived apparent
for removing false anomalies in areas of high geologic section. The spectr:Ll response of the
surface conductivity, such as, the southwestern volcanics was a relatively rtc’rp type C, and
U.S. The importance of this capability probably the fill material west of 11~~fault or contact
exceeds t)hat of host rock diPcriminntion in the provid(ld :L combination C/l3 response. This
southwest, where CR has been 1~~1 most, ex- CR survey was rim in ardor IO detcrminr the
tensively for t,hat, purpose. source of apparent, polarization anomalies found
Figure 24 shows the original and dccouplcd by tw-o previous II’ surveys in the area. One
data for a type C response, and Figure 25 dis- was a 2000 ft, dipole-dipok. frequency-donlain
plays the spectrum from ;I core sample taken II’ survey, and t,he other W:W n 1000 ft, tlipol(~-
from the same area. Notice the decoupled sprc- dipole, phase-measuring II’ survey.
trum and core spectrum have t,he Saxncbasic sig- The decoupled 0.1-11~ 1,11:1rc~ angle pseudo-
nat,urc indicating that coupling was adequately section indicates a weak :Lnomnly at dcpt 11,
removed. Host, rock responses have been dis- much less than that, found by the previous
cerned t,hrough coupling wherr the resultant, surveys. The idrahzcd gcxoltrgic section was
response was less than 5 percent of the original con&uctrd from apparent rcwistivity and dc-
coupled dat,a. coupled phase data plus EM reflective coupling
and host, rock spectral data. A subsequent drill
ELECTRICALLY DERIVED GEOLOGIC SECTIONS
hole at station 4 confirmctl die prcsencc of
As ment’ioned previously, the combination of fresh unmineralizcd volcanicaS at 1150 ft as
information from apparent reeistivit,y, polar- predicted from the host rock rclhponsr.Informa-
ization, host rock response, mineralization re- t,ion from the drill hole at station 6 is not
sponse, and EM rrflection coefficient provides available at, this time but th(, Imxsencr of barren
a formidable tool for mapping subsurface geo- volcnnics nppcars to be confirmed by outcrop
logic structure. One can provide the geologist near the east end of the lincb.
862 Zonge and Wynn

FIG. 26. L4ppnrent resistivity decoupled phase angle, and CR derived

grologic section for a field survey over it barren arm near Stafford, Ariz
 Complex Resistivity Measurements 863

I ,
INTERPRETATlbN
(BASED DN ABOVE ONLY)
-2 -I 0 I 2*3 4 5 6 7 <B 9 < IO

2000R-M. 500 n -M. f looon-M. g 5ooD n-u

i

MINERALIZATION

TABULAR RESPONSE
CLOY TO SURFACE
EXTENDING TO DEPTH

FIG. 27. Apparent resistivity and decoupled phase angle pseudosections over a mineralized area in nort,hern
Arizona.

Figures 27 and 28 prrscnt data obtained CONCLUSIONS

and derived from a mineralized are:t in Arizona.
Through extensive field measurements and
Figure 27 shows standard apparent resistivity
increasrd maturity in CR dat:~ reduction, it has
and phase angle information, .while Figure 25
bccomc obvious that the main benefits of com-
presents an idealized geologic section derived plcx rcsistivit,y spectral mcwurements are (1)
from electrical measurements and an apparent complete coupling removal, (L’) host rock re-
geologic section derived from drill holrs located sponse identification, and (3) mineral discrim-
near stat)ions 1, 3, 4, and I). ination, in that, order.
Spectral data indicate the qqxarrnf, ptJar_iza- The rsnm~~lcs of geologic interpretation are
tion high is a sulfide response due primarily to rcprescntntive of the type of results that, can
pyrite increasing with depth and grading into bc obtained from complex rwistivity spectral
chalcopyritc to the wdt. Spectra to the east mca,wremcnts at. this t,imc. Ah t lie authors gain
more cspcricnce in CR interpretation, it, is
of station G indicate mostly barren rock; thi::
cspectcd that more advantagtati of the system
was confirmed by the drill hole at, station 0.
will develop along with inrrcwed accuracy in
The ot’hcr three holes indicated increasing chal-
interpretation The nccurac~~ should be im-
ropyrite progressing to the west. Figure 18 is proved by the ieccnt dcvrlol)ment~ of an nd-
one of the spectra mensurctl on this survey vanced CR system, which is currcnt~ly undcr-
(receiver at 2, 3; transmitter at 4, 5). going field tests.
864 Zonge and Wynn

,*#

PY .;
INCREASED CPY IN<:REASED 8 - BC
CPY
BARREN ?
1
. . ..-_.a_ \ .~
IN;yRT;;

TYPE B MIXED A/B

GEOLOGIC SECTION INFERRED

FROM CR DATA ONLY

GEOLOGIC SECTION INFERRED

FROM DRILL HOLES AND
SURFICIAL GEOLOGY

dh

NUMBERS :
Ct = Sandstone ctdp = Gronodiorite porphyry
Dm = Limestone Rhy : Meta - Rhyolitr .Ol = % cu

FIG. 28. Idealized geologic section derived from electrical measurements and apparent geologic section
derived from drill holes for the northern Arizona site.

REFERENCES Wynn, J. C.. and Zonge, K. L., 1975> Electro-

magnetic coupling, its intrinsic value, its re-
Elliot, C. L.. and Guilbert. J. M., 1974, Induced moval. and the cult.ural coul)ling problem:
polarization response attributed to magnetite Geophysics, this issue, p. 831-850.
:md certain Fe-Ti osidc minerals: Paper prc- Zongc, K. I,., 19723, In-situ mineral discrimination
wntcd at the 44th Annual Int.ernationnl SEG using a complex resistivity method : Geophysics,
Rlecting. Dall:~s. Trx., November 11. v. 38. p. 197.
Hallof. P. G.,, 19i4, The IP phase measurement 1972h. Electrical properties of rocks as ap-
and inductive coupling: Geophysics, \-. 39, p. plied to geophysical prospecting: Ph.D. dieserta-
650-655. tion, I:nivereitv of Arizona, Tucson.
Kntwhc, T. J., and Collrit. J,. S., 1973, El&rical 1973. Minicomnuter used in mineral ex-
cliarnctcristic diffcrcntiation of sulfide minerals ploration, or backparking a box full of bits into
~;o$bor:ttory techniques: Geophysics, v. 38, p. the bush : AIME Trans., v. 258, p. 24-26, March
1975.
Van Voorhis. G. D., Nelson, P. H., and Drake, Zonge, K. L., Sauck, W. A., aad Sumner, J. S.,
T. I,.. 1973, Complex resistivity spectra of 1972, Comparison of time frequency and phase
porphyry copper mineralization : Geophysics, mrasurrmcnts in induced polarization: Geophys.
v. 3s, p. 49-60. Prosp., v. 20, p. 626648.
GEOPHYSICS. VOL 49. NO. 6 (JUNE 1984); P. X26827. 3 FIGS.

Short Note

Inapplicability of pulse train time-domain

measurements to spectral induced polarization

Heikki Soininen*

The method of induced polarization (IP) is based on the applying Ohm’s law. one can write voltage V at instant t as
frequency dependence of resistivity of rocks. In spectral IP the (Tombs, 1981)
apparent resistivity is measured at a wide-frequency band (e.g.,
1.‘I024 4096 Hz). The apparent resistivity depends upon the
distribution of the resistivity of the earth according to the laws
of electromagnetism. On the basis of their spectral measure-
v(r) = Im
! cos (wT,4) - cos (30T/4)]

ments Pelton et al. (1978) proposed that variations in mineral ~(0) exp(iof) , (1)
texture give rise to variations in the frequency spectra of resis-
tivity. It should thus be feasible to use these spectra to discrimi- where
nate between, say, graphite and sulfides.
Im = the imaginary part,
The frequency domain and the time domain are equivalent in
a linear and causal system, the domains being interrelated i = the imaginary unit (i* = - l),
through tne Fourier transform. The time domain is attractive in
w = m/T,
that the whole transient can be recorded in a single measure-
ment. Hence, there are devices in commercial use that record and
spectra in the time domain by measuring the voltage transient
n=l,3,5....
at a number of instances after the current pulse has been
switched off. The primary current signal in these devices is If V(t) is known at k instances, the following matrix of a linear
generally a pulse train composed of pulses of finite duration. set of equations is obtained by taking the k terms from the
The pulse train has advantages over the single pulse because it infinite series of equation (1)
permits the measurements to be repeated and thus improves
the signal-to-noise (S:N) ratio of the measurements.
Interpretation, however, is difficult in the time domain be-
cause Ohm’s law. which is in the form of the product in the
frequency domain, transforms to convolution in the time
domain; so the transient voltage measured at each instance of
time is dependent upon the whole frequency band. Conse-
quently, to make the interpretation more rigorous, one should
be able to transform the time-domain data to the frequency
domain in such a way that the accuracy of the information
transformed corresponds to that of frequency-domain measure-
ment. In the following, however, it will be demonstrated that
the information obtained from time-domain measurements
using the repetitive square pulse current cannot be transformed
in practice to the wide-band resistivity information of the fre-
quency domain.
Assume that the current pulse train is composed of alter-
nating positive and negative pulses of T/2 duration, separated EICENVALUES
by off periods of T/2 duration (50 percent duty cycle). By first
expanding the pulse train to the Fourier sine series and by then FIG. 1. Eigenvalues lOOOh,/&,,,, in decreasing order.

Manuscriptreceivedby the Editor September14, 1983;revisedmanuscriptreceivedDecember 14. 1983.

*Geological Survey of Finland, Kivimiehentie 1, SF-02151 Espoo 15, Finland.
,~ 1984 Society of Exploration Geophysicists. All rights reserved.

626
 Pulse Train Time-Domain IP 827

FIG. 2. The calculated time-domain transient.

FIG. 3. Original and calculated phase spectra of resistivity

V=AZ, (2) well formed. By substituting the k’(t) values calculated into the
1000 x 1000 set of equations (2), one can solve 500 complex
where V is the vector of transient voltages, A is the k x k matrix
p(o) values between 0.25 and 249.75 Hz. These values should, of
describing the primary signal and sample system, and Z is the
course, be identical to the corresponding values of the original
vector formed from the real and imaginary parts of p(o). Equa-
Cole-Cole spectrum. This not the case, however; the p(o) values
tion (2) enables us to solve k/2 complex p(o) values at a fre-
calculated differ greatly from the true values. This can be seen
quency band of n/T.. . (k - l)n/T.
in Figure 3, which shows the original phase spectrum of resis-
The decaying transient must be sampled densely to achieve a
tivity and at a few frequencies the spectrum calculated from the
wide frequency band. Consider a pulse of, say, 1 s duration. Let
set of equations (2). In practice the situation would be even
v(t) be known at 1 ms intervals. If 1000 nonzero terms are
more serious since the real field data are more inaccurate than
taken from series (l), the system will be described by an A
the calculated voltages in this synthetic example.
matrix 1000 x 1000 in size. The properties of the system matrix
The outcome of the above analysis also explains why Tombs
A can be studied by means of eigenvalue analysis based on
(1981) did not succeed in discriminating between graphite and
singular value decomposition (Lanczos, 1961). Figure 1 gives
sulfides and between massive and disseminated sulfides when
the calculated eigenvalues in decreasing order. The values were
he used alternating pulse trains in his time-domain measure-
scaled so that h,,, = 1000. Figure 1 shows that the system
ments. Likewise, Johnson et al. (1981) measured decay curves
includes very small eigenvalues, the majority being practically
both on drill cores and in the field. The shapes of the transient
zero. The A matrix is thus almost singular. This means that the
curves of the sulfides and graphite did not differ markedly from
time-domain system does not contain enough information to
each other in their measurements either.
permit one to determine the whole frequency band. The small
To summarize the outcome of the present eigenvalue analysis
eigenvalues also mean that even the slightest errors in the
and the results of the measurements by Tombs (1981) and
measured transient voltages V lead to large errors in p(o) when
Johnson et al. (1981), one can conclude that pulse train IP
solving the set of equations (2). The singularity of the system
measurements in the time domain do not include wide-band
means in practice that the frequency band is narrow. The
spectral information and that their amendability is more or less
singularity can largely be attributed to the fact that in the
that of conventional IP measurements conducted at a narrow
measure& tramicnt the basic frequency of the primary pulse
frequency band. If the wide-band frequency spectrum of the
train is dominant over the higher harmonics. The use of a
resistivities is applied to mineral discrimination, the measure-
longer pulse would only shift the frequency band; it would not
ments should not be carried out in time domain using a pulse
affect the outcome of the reasoning.
train excitation.
Note that the conclusions drawn above cannot be applied
directly to the time-domain EM. In EM the time derivative of
the magnetic field is measured rather than the field itself. Thus
REFERENCES
the receiving process compensates for the I/w dependence of
the spectrum of the primary field. Johnson,1. M., Lafleche,B., and Webster,B., 1981:SpectralIP param-
eters obtained from the time-domain measurements:Presentedat
The result obtained from the eigenvalue analysis can also be the 51stAnnual International SEG Meeting, October 11-15, in Los
illustrated by the following computation. Let p(w) obey the Angeles.
Cole-Cole dispersion model with the parameters of R, = 100 Lanczos,C., 1961,Linear differentialoperators:London, D. Van Nos-
trand Co.
R.m, m = .95, 7 = .25 s, and c = 0.5. Let the duration of the Pelton, W. H., Ward, S. H., Hallof, P. G., Sill, W. R.,,and Nelson,P. H.,
primary pulse once more be 1 s.The V(t) are calculated at 1 ms 1978, Mineral discrimination and removal of Inductive coupling
with multifrequencyIP: Geophysics,v. 43, p. 588-609.
intervals by using 1000 terms of the Fourier series (1). Figure 2 Tombs,J. M. C,., 1981,The feasibilityof making spectralIP measure-
gives the calculated time transient. Note that the transient is mentsin the timedomain: Geoexpl.,v. 19,p, 91-102.
GEOPHYSICS, VOL. 50. NO. 5 (MAY 19851: P. BlC-819, 8 FIGS., 4 TABLES.

Heikki Soininen*

ABSTRACT ent frequency dependence, on the other hand, is very

I employed numerical modeling to examine the for- close to the value of the original frequency dependence.
mation of the apparent resistivity phase spectrum first The apparent time constant is commonly also near the
of a polarizable prism situated in a polarizable half- true time constant of the petrophysical spectrum. The
space, and second of two polarizable prisms joined in an values of the apparent spectral parameters of the pol-
unpolarizable half-space. The calculations were done arizable half-space are all close to their petrophysical or
using the integral equation technique. The frequency true values.
dependence of the resistivity of the polarizable medium The apparent spectrum of two polarizable prisms
is depicted by means of the Cole-Cole dispersion model. builds up in a complex fashion. Nevertheless, by mea-
The effect of a weakly polarizable half-space may be suring the spectra at a number of points along a profile
handled by simply adding the phase angle of the half- crossing over two formations differing in time constant,
space to the apparent phase due to the body. The ap- the various components can be discriminated from the
parent spectral parameters can be inverted by fitting the apparent spectrum even if the difference in time con-
sum of two Cole-Cole dispersion model phase spectra to stant is small. As the conductivity contrast decreases,
the apparent phase spectrum. Of the parameters de- the share of the spectrum of the formation in the appar-
scribing the prism, the apparent chargeability is smaller ent spectrum increases. Similarly, the formation with the
than the chargeability of the original petrophysical smaller time constant is in a more advantageous posi-
spectrum because of geometric attenuation. The appar- tion than the body with the greater time constant.

INTRODUCTION m = the chargeability (Seigel, 1959),

The objective of the spectral induced-polarization (IP) c = the frequency dependence,

method is to determine the distribution of resistivity of the T = the time constant (s),
Earth at a frequency band of several decades. Principally owing
to differences in mineral textures, the petrophysical resistivity w = the angular frequency (rad/s),
spectra of rock types differ from one other, and hence the
and
spectra can be used for such purposes as identification of miner-
alilation types (Pelton et al., 1978). i2 = -1.
With the aid of numerical modeling, Soininen (1984a) exam-
The potential theoretical transform of a petrophysical spec-
ined the formation of the apparent spectrum in the case of a
trum into an apparent spectrum preserved the functional form
polarizable prism situated in an unpolarizable half-space. The
of the apparent spectrum as a Cole-Cole model. Further, of the
resistivity of the prism was given by the Cole-Cole dispersion
Cole-Cole parameters inverted from the apparent spectrum, the
model
frequency dependence c, was very close to its petrophysical

1 1\
1 value, and the time constant T,, was generally less than one
+(iwTy (’ decade from the time constant of the petrophysical spectrum.
The present study begins with an examination of the forma-
where tion of the apparent resistivity spectrum of a polarizable prism
Z(w) = the complex impedance (a), situated in a polarizable half-space. Second, it examines the
formation of the apparent spectrum of two polarizable prisms
R, = the value of Z(w) at zero frequency (a), joined in an unpolarizable half-space. The problem of steady

Manuscript received by the Editor May 14, 1984; revised manuscript received October 29, 1984.
*The Geological Survey of Finland, Geophysics Department, SF-02150 Espoo 15.Finland.
,C 19X5 Society of Exploration Geophysicists. All rights reserved.

810
 Apparent Resistivity Phase Spectrum 811

current flow has been solved using the integral equation tech- is three decades (ri = 6.4 s and r2 = 6.4E - 3 s).
nique (Eskola, 1979). The spectra were calculated at a frequency As the chargeability of the environment increases, the appar-
band of l.OE - 5 . 3.16E + 4 Hz, although in field measure- ent spectrum, especially at high frequencies, approaches the
ments the bandwidth is usually narrower. It is important, how- petrophysical spectrum of the environment in shape. Toward
ever, to understand how the galvanic system behaves at high lower frequencies, the apparent spectra differ from the spectrum
frequencies as well, so that the true IP spectrum can be dis- of the environment, becoming increasingly similar to the spec-
tinguished from the inevitable noise of inductive coupling. trum of the prism. Further, as the conductivity contrast is
The present examinations were done in the frequency reduced, the effect of the prism spectrum increases in the appar-
domain; this is more advantageous than the time domain for ent spectrum.
both theoretical treatment and practical spectral measurements
(Soininen, 1984b). I restrict the discussion to the phase spectra Spectral inversions
of resistivity. This is sufficient for describing the frequency
behavior of the IP polarization (i.e., minimum-phase-shift) According to Soininen (1984a) it is possible to represent the
system, because the various spectral components are inter- apparent resistivity spectrum of a polarizable prism (with Cole-
related unambiquously through the Hilbert transform. The Cole dispersion) in an unpolarizable environment by means of
present examination emphasizes principles, so the behavior of one Cole-Cole dispersion model. Consequently, it might be
the spectra is presented only for the gradient array, which (with possible to represent the apparent resistivity spectrum in the
this method of calculation) is the simplest for numerical calcu- case of a polarizable prism in a polarizable environment (again
lations. The behavioral relations of the spectra presented also with Cole-Cole dispersion) by the product of two Cole-Cole
apply qualitatively to the more general electrode configura- dispersion models (Pelton et al., 1978). I now examine the
tions. validity of such a model in greater detail by fitting the phase
ONE POLARIZABLE PRISM spectrum of the product of two Cole-Cole dispersion models
IN A POLARIZABLE HALF-SPACE (i.e., the sum of the dispersion model phase spectra) into the
The anomaly spectra examined here were calculated for a apparent spectra of Figures 224 using the finite-difference
vertical, rectangular, polarizable prism situated in a polarizable Levenberg-Marquardt algorithm (Brown and Dennis, 1972).
half-space (Figure 1). The resistivities of the prism and the Table 1 shows the results of the inversions carried out on the
half-space are described by the Cole-Cole dispersion model. In anomaly spectra of Figure 2. The apparent spectral parameters
the followmg the ratio of the direct current resistivity of the and the error of the fit are given for each value of the time
environment R,, to that of the prism R,, is called the conduc- constant of the environment. In the top row the conductivity
tivity contrast. contrast was 1, in the middle row the value is 5, and in the
Figures 2 to 4 show the spectra calculated from various bottom row the value is 20. We see that the error of the fit is
values of parameters of the Cole-Cole model. The apparent small in all the inversions, but it increases slightly as the con-
spectra were calculated on the surface directly above the center ductivity contrast diminishes and as the difference in the time
of the prism. Curve A illustrates the true resistivity spectrum of constant of the prism and environment spectra increases.
the prism and curve B the true spectrum of the environment. Of the inverted parameters describing the spectrum of the
Curve 1 depicts the calculated apparent spectrum with conduc- prism, the apparent chargeability m,, remains smaller than the
tivity contrast 1, curve 2 with the conductivity contrast 5, and chargeability of the petrophysical spectrum because of attenu-
curve 3 with the value 20. ation of the spectrum. The reduction in the share of the prism
In Figure 2, the values m, = 0.63, c, = 0.32, and r, = 6.4 s
were used in the Cole-Cole model to define the resistivity of the
prism. The chargeability of the environment niz is one-tenth the
chargeability of the prism (m2 = 0.063) and the frequency de-
pendence c2 is the same as that of the prism (cZ = 0.32). The
time constant rZ of the environment was varied so that in
Figure 2a the difference between the time constants of the
petrophysical spectra of the prism and the environment is one
decade, in Figure 2b two decades, and in Figure 2c four dec-
ades. We see that as the difference in time constants increases,
the spectrum of the prism becomes increasingly differentiated
from that of the environment in the apparent spectrum. Fur-
ther, as the conductivity contrast decreases, the share of the
spectrum of the prism in the apparent spectrum increases.
The chargeability of the environment m2 was one-tenth that
of the prism as given in Figure 2. In the following, we examine
how the increase in the chargeability of the environment affects
the formation of the apparent spectrum. In Figure 3, a value of
pi = 0.63 was given to the chargeability of the prism, and the
chargeability of the environment was varied as m2 = 0.63,0.35,
and 0.063. In Figure 4, the chargeability of the prism is corre-
spondingly m, = 0.95 and those of the environment m, = 0.95,
0.63, and 0.095. The difference in time constants in this example FIG. 1. A prism in a polarizable half-space, AB = 2 000 m
al2 Soininen

Table 1. inverted apparent parameters for a prism and a homogeneoushalf-space. The sum of two Cole-Cole phase spectra. The time Constant of the
environment is varied. Conductivity contrast 1, 5, and 20, m, = 0.63, mz = 0.063, ct = C, = 0.32, 71 = 6.4 S.

;sj m,, ~ Cal -

T

6,’ ma2 (‘a2

L2
(4 Error

0.64 0.10 0.32 0.095 0.32 0.75 l.lE ~ 7

0.067 0.32 z 0.065 0.32 0.65 2.4E - 7
0.022 0.32 5:8 0.063 0.32 0.64 6.5E - 10

0.064 0.14 0.32 2.4 0.060 0.32 0.070 9.2E ~ 7

0.072 0.32 4.6 0.061 0.32 0.064 8.lE - 8
0.024 0.32 5.8 0.062 0.32 0.064 2.7E -- 9

0.00064 0.14 0.32 2.2 0.055 0.32 0.00065 2.5E -~ 6

0.072 0.32 4.5 0.060 0.32 0.00064 1.8E - 7
0.024 0.32 5.8 0.062 0.32 0.00064 6.OE - 9

Table 2. Inverted apparent parameters for a prism and a homogeneoushalf-space. The sum of two Cole-Cole phase spectra. The chargeability of the
environment is varied. Conductivity contrast 1,5, and 20, m, = 0.63, cI = c2 = 0.32, ~~ = 6.4 s, r2 = 0.0064 s.

Trill L2

m2 (s) %2 c.72 (4 Error

0.63 0.13 0.32 2.3 0.57 0.32 0.0055 1.8E - 5

0.067 0.32 4.1 0.60 0.32 0.0063 2.5E - 6
0.022 0.32 5.9 0.62 0.32 0.0064 2.lE - 7

0.35 0.14 0.32 2.3 0.31 0.32 0.0061 3.lE - 6

0.070 0.32 4.6 0.33 0.32 0.0064 3.2E - 7
0.023 0.32 5.8 0.35 0.32 0.0064 1.8E - 7

0.063 0.14 0.32 2.3 0.056 0.32 0.0067 1.9E - 6

0.072 0.32 4.5 0.060 0.32 0.0064 1.4E - 7
0.024 0.32 5.8 0.062 0.32 0.0064 4.2E - 9

Table 3. Inverted apparent parameters for a prism and a homogeneous half-space. The sum of two Cole-Cole phase spectra. The chargeability of the
environment is varied. Conductivity contrast 1, 3, and 20, m, = 0.95, c1 = c2 = 0.32, 51 = 6.4 s, rz = 0.0064 s.

Ll Ld
m2 ma1 CC!1 6) ma2 Cd (4 Error
--
0.95 0.18 0.33 0.94 0.31 0.008 1 l.lE - 4
0.099 0.32 ::; 0.94 0.32 0.0065 1.9E - 5
0.033 0.32 5.7 0.95 0.32 0.0064 1.7E - 6

0.63 0.24 0.32 1.3 0.63 0.32 0.0065 l.lE - 5

0.11 0.32 3.9 0.63 0.32 0.0064 5.3E - 7
0.034 0.32 5.6 0.63 0.32 0.0064 2.1E - 8

0.095 0.26 0.32 0.11 0.32 0.0085 1.1E - 5

0.11 0.32 ::: 0.096 0.32 0.0064 5.3E - 7
0.037 0.32 5.5 0.095 0.32 0.0064 1.5E - 8

spectrum in the apparent spectrum at large conductivity con- half-space are all very close to their petrophysical values, but
trast values is manifested as a reduction in m,,_ as the conduc- for a low conductivity contrast the parameters deviate some-
tivity contrast grows. In all inversions the value of the apparent what more from their petrophysical values than they do for a
frequency dependence cU1is the same as the value of the fre- higher conductivity contrast.
quency dependence of the petrophysical spectra. A crucial spec- Table 2 shows the spectral parameters inverted from the
tral parameter for mineral discrimination, the time constant, is apparent spectra of Figure 3; Table 3 shows the corresponding
also close to the time constant of the petrophysical spectrum, apparent spectral parameters of the spectra of Figure 4. Once
varying between 5,, = 2.2 s and 5.8 s (the time constant of the again the error of the fit is low in all inversions. It is somewhat
petrophysical spectrum being T, = 6.4 s). greater at a prism chargeability of m, = 0.95 (Table 3) than at
The apparent spectral parameters describing a polarizable m, = 0.63 (Table 2). Furthermore. the fit deteriorates slightly
 Apparent Resistivity Phase Spectrum 813

when the conductivity contrast between the prism and the 3

LOG10 PHRSE IHRROI

environment is low and when the chargeability of the environ-

ment increases.
Of the inverted parameters, the apparent frequency depen-
dence c,, is the same as cr of the true spectrum (except in line 1,
Table 3). Values close to the petrophysical value were obtained
for the time constant of the prism. Again the apparent spectral
2
parameters describing the half-space are very close to their true
values.
From the inversion results given in Tables 1, 2, and 3 it is
clear that if the petrophysical resistivity spectra of a polarizable
half-space and of the prism situated within it can be described
by the Cole-Cole dispersion model, the apparent phase spec-
trum can be described very well by the sum of the phase spectra (b) 1
of two Cole-Cole dispersion models.
The phase spectrum of the half-space contributes almost
unattenuated to the apparent spectrum, and thus the values of
the apparent spectral parameters describing the half-space are
close to the values of the parameters of the petrophysical spec-
trum. Of the apparent parameters of the prism, the frequency
0 ,/
dependence co2is very close to its true value; similarly, the time
,,*’
constant, for its natural range of variation, is close to the time B *’
constant of the petrophysical spectrum. COLE-COLE PARAMETERS

Ill : .63 ll2 I .063

Cl = .32 C2 I .32
TWO POLARIZABLE PRISMS TRUl = 6.4 TRUP = 6.4E-2
IN AN UNPOLARIZABLE HALF-SPACE
-1 I I I I I I I I I II
-5 -3 -1 1 3 5
Use of the broadband IP method as an aid in identifying
LOG10 frequency (HZ1
mineralization is generally based on the difference in the time
constants of the resistivity spectra of the mineralization types.

LOG10 PHRSE IHRRD) 3 LOG10 PHRSE (HRROI

3

2 2

(a)

I 1

,’

COLE-COLE PRRRtlETERS ,/ ’ COLE-COLE PRRRtlETERS

Ml I .63 HZ = .063 ,/ nl : .63 M2 =

Cl = .32 c2 = .32 ,/ CL : .32 C2 = .063
.32
TRUl = 6.4 TRU2 = 6.4E-1 ,/’ TRUl : 6.4 TRUL c 6.4E-4
B:
I I I I I I, I I ,I I I, I I I II 11 I
-5 -3 -1 1 3 5 -6 -3 -1 1 3 5
LOG10 FREQUENCY I HZ I LOG10 FREQUENCY IHZI

FIG. 2. The petrophysical phase spectra of (A) the prism and (B) the polarizable half-space (dashed lines). Conductivity contrast 1, 5,
and 20 for curves 1, 2, and 3. Difference in time constants (a) 1 decade, (b) 2 decades, (c) 4 decades.
814 Soininen

3
LOB10 PHRSE (HRRO) Hence, in the case of several polarizable bodies, the problem is
how to discriminate the components with different time con-
stants from the measured apparent spectrum.
In the following, I examine how an apparent spectrum is
built up in the case of two vertical, rectangular prisms joined
together, a configuration which is polarizable with different
dispersions (Figure 5). Of the Cole-Cole parameters describing
the resistivity of the prisms, the value of chargeability is the
same, m, = m2 = 0.95, in both prisms in all the spectra present-
ed. The frequency dependence is also the same: c1 = c2 = 0.32.
The spectra calculated are depicted in Figures 68. The true
phase spectra are shown as dashed lines, and the calculated
apparent phase spectra are shown as solid lines. The spectra
00 1
were calculated at the surface using a gradient array. Curve 1
was obtained from measurements above the center of prism 1,
and curve 2 was obtained from measurements above the center
of prism 2.
The difference in the time constants in the spectra given in
Figure 6a is three decades (pi = 0.1 s, zZ = 100 s); the conduc-
tivity contrast (direct current) of each prism with its environ-
0
ment is 1. Note that the peaks of the spectra calculated over the
prisms clearly differ from each other. Thus formations differing
COLE-COLE PRRRnETERS
in time constant can be identified from the apparent spectrum.
nl q .63 n2 : .63 Nevertheless, the spectra calculated at different sites do not
Cl = .32 C2 : .32 have the same shape even though the petrophysical spectra
TAIJI I 6.4 TAUP : 6.4E-3
(time constants excepted) do. The spectrum calculated over
-I I I I ,,,,,,,I prism 1 (ri = 0.1 s) is closer in shapesto then original pet-
-5 -3 -1 1 3 5 rophysical spectrum than is the spectrum over prism 2 (r2 =
LOG10 FREQUENCY (HZ1
100 s).

J- LOG10 PHASE InRROl LOG10 PHRSE (IIRROI

3-

!- ,-

W
1

COLE-COLE PARMETERS ,*’ COLE-COLE PRRRBETERS

,/

I
nl = .63 n2 : .36 tl I' nl q .63 n2 = .063
Cl = .32 C2 = .32 Cl = .32 c2 : .32
TRUl = 6.4 TAU2 : 6.4E-3 TRUl = 6.4 TAUP = 6.4E-3

I I I I , , , , , , , -1 I I I , I , 1 I, ,,
-5 -3 -1 1 3 6 -5 -3 -I 1 3 5
LOG10 FREGUENCY (HZ1 LOG10 FREGUENCY [HZ1

FIG. 3. The effect of the chargeability of the environment on the apparent spectrum. Chargeability of the prism m, = 0.63,
chargeability of the environment (a) m, = 0.63, (b) m2 = 0.35, (c) m, = 0.063.
 Apparent Resistivity Phase Spectrum 815

In the following (Figure 6b), the spectra were calculated with LOG10 PHASE IflRAD)

the same spectral parameters as above except that the time

constant of prism 1 is 10 s, i.e., the difference between the time
constants of the prisms is only one decade. The peaks of the
apparent spectra measured over the prisms still clearly differ
from each other. By measuring the spectra at different sites
along a profile crossing over the prisms, formations with differ-
ent time constants can still be distinguished from each other in
principle, even if the difference in their time constants is as
small as one decade. In practice, of course, the noise superim-
posed on the measuring data makes the situation more difficult
than the idealized situation examined here.
In the spectra in Figure 7 the resistivity of prism 2 has been 0-r)
reduced; thus in Figure 7a the conductivity contrast of prism 2 1
with the environment is 5; in Figure 7b, it is 20; and in Figure
7c, it is 100. As the conductivity contrast increases, the share of
the spectrum of prism 2 in the apparent spectrum diminishes, so
that the spectrum measured at point 2 approaches the spectrum
measured at point 1. At a conductivity contrast of 100, the effect
of prism 2 is barely discernible.
Figure 8 shows the apparent spectra calculated with the same
spectral parameters except that the conductivity contrast of
prism 1 (with the smaller time constant) with its environment COLE-COLE PARRtlETERS

has been reduced. The trend is similar to that in Figure 7; the nl I .95 fi2 e .63
I .32 C2 : .32
share of the spectrum of the formation in the apparent spec- Cl
TRUl : 6.4 TRUP : 6.4E-3
trum diminishes as the conductivity contrast grows. Neverthe-
less, if Figure 8c is compared with Figure 7c, the body with the I I I I I I II 11 1
-5 -3 -1 1 3 5
smaller time constant can be perceived more readily than the
LOG10 frequency (Hi!1

3 LOG10 PHRSE IIIRROI

3 LOG10 PHRSE IMRRO I

2 2

(a)
1
(4
1

0 ,/
/’
,/’
COLE-COLE PRRRHETERS COLE-COLE PRRRHETERS
6 *’
Nl = .95 tlz = .95 ni = .95 M2 : .095
Cl I .32 C2 I .32 Cl = .32 C2 = .32
TRIJI : 6.4 TRW : 6.4E-3 TAUl = 6.4 TAU2 I 6.4E-3

I I I I, , , , ( , , -1 1 I I I I I I I ,,I
-5 -3 -1 1 3 5 -5 -3 -1 1 3 6
LOG10 frequency [HZ1 LOG10 frequency (HZ I

FE. 4. The effect of the chargeability of the environment on the apparent spectrum. Chargeability of the prism mt = 0.95,
chargeability of the environment (a) m, = 0.95, (b) m2 = 0.63, (c) m2 = 0.095.
818 Soininen

body with the larger time constant. This is because as the

spectra differ from each other only in the time constant, the
relaxation models at all frequencies always give higher absolute
20 m
values of resistivity to the body with_the~smaller time constant.
Hence the effective conductivity contrast of the body with the
/ smaller time constant is lower, and its impact on the total
spectrum is greater than that of the body with the greater time
constant.
An important point about Figure 8 is that the spectrum
f calculated over prism 2 drops very rapidly at high frequencies
even though it is at the high frequencies that the adjoining
petrophysical spectrum of prism 1 has the peak. This spectral
260 m
behavior is understandable if I point out that at calculation
point 2 the phase anomaly of prism 1 is negative owing to the
geometry, and it attenuates the apparent spectrum.

Spectral inversions

The apparent phase spectra of resistivity produced by two

polarizable prisms were built up in a complex fashion from the
petrophysical spectra of prisms. This is because the apparent
FIG. 5. Two polarizable prisms joined to each other,
AB=20OOm. spectra are affected not only by the petrophysical spectra of the
prisms, but also by their geometry and mutual attitude. The
quantitative effect of this factor was verified by fitting the phase
spectrum of the product of two Cole-Cole dispersion models
into the apparent spectra described. Table 4 gives the results of
the inversions of the spectra of Figures 6a and 7. For each value

1, 2, 1, 2,
LOB10 PHRSE IMRROI LOO10 PHRSE I tlRROl
3 3

*---
.--y,‘.y--‘__
*,. -. -.,
n-l 1 2

,/’ ,/ %. ..
,/ .‘ .‘,*
,/’ .‘
,/ \ .‘,,
,I \
,a,’ /’ .‘ .‘,,
6‘
,/’ ,r*’ \ ,‘,
2
\
2
,,,’ / *‘,, i

0
2 : / .‘
:
,/’ :
(a) W :
,/’ :
\
1: :

11
\

COLE-COLE PARAtlETERS COLE-COLE PRRRMETERS

\
ROl : 5000 R02 = 5000 ROl = 6000 RO2 = 6000
Ml : .95 M2 : .96 Ml E .96 tl2 = .96
Cl = .32 C2 : .32 Cl = .32 C2 D .32
TAUl 2 .lO TRUZ = 100 TAlJl 5 10 TRIJZ = 100
HALFSPACE RO = 5000 HRLFSPRCE RO = 6000

I I I I, I I , , , , I I I, I I1 I I I I
-5 -3 -1 1 3 5 -6 -3 -1 1 3 5
LOB10 FREQUENCY I HZ 1 LOO10 frequency IHZI

FIG. 6. The effect of the difference in time constants of the prisms on the apparent spectra measured at various points of the profile.
The difference in time constants (a) 4 decades, (b) 1 decade.
 Apparent Ftesistivity Phase Spectrum 817

of conductivity contrast, the first line presents the inverted 1, 2,

LOO10 PHRSE (tlRRO1
parameters of the apparent spectrum calculated at point 1 and
the second line gives the apparent parameters of the spectrum
calculated at point 2. Note that the error of the fit is rather
large, Similarly, the inverted apparent spectral parameters
differ substantially from the parameters of the petrophysical
spectrum.
The inversion results are clear numerical evidence that, in
shape, the apparent spectrum is not simply the sum of the
apparent phase spectra of the prisms, but rather it is built in a
more complex fashion. Therefore, direct inversion does not give
an estimate for the values of the petrophysical spectral parame-
ters of a model of several bodies.

SUMMARY

The numerical examination presented indicates that the

effect of a polarizable environment on an apparent phase spec-
trum can be readily approximated by summing the pet-
rophysical phase spectrum of the host medium with the appar-
ent phase spectrum caused by the model in an unpolarizable
COLE-COLE PRRRIIETERS
environment.
If the petrophysical spectra of the media can be described by ROl = 6000 RO2 t aab
n1 = .96 H2 : .SS
the Cole-Cole dispersion model, the spectral parameters are Cl = .32 c2 s .sa
mu1 = .I0 TRU2 : Iair
HRLFSPACE RO : 6000
1

, 1 I,, I I I, I1
-6 -3 -1 1 3 6

LOO10 FREQUENCY Iii2 I

1, 2, 1, 2,
LOS10 PHRSE [RRRDI LOO10 PHRSE (NRA0 I
3

m 1 2

2 l’

(4

COLE-COLE PRRRHETERS COLE-COLE PARRMETERS

ROl z 6000 R02 = 1000 11

ROl q 6000 R02 : sa
Ill : .96 tl2 : .96 Ill = .96 tl2 :: .S6
Cl : .32 c2 = .32 Cl : .32 c2 D .32
TRUl I .lO TRU2 3 100 TRUl E .lO TRUL 3 100
HALFSPRCE RO z 6000 HALFSPACE RO = 6000

1 I, , I I I I, I, I I, I, I I I I,1
-6 -3 -1 1 3 6 -6 -3 -1 1 3 6
LOO10 frequency [HLI LOO10 frequency I HZ I

FIG. 7. The formation of apparent spectrum at various points of the profile. The conductivity contrast of prism 2 with the
environment has been increased. Theconductivity contrast is ca) 1, (bj 20, (cl iOt3;
818 Soininen
1, 2,
obtainable by inversion from the apparent phase spectrum by 9
LOO10 PHASE IRRRO 1

fitting into it the sum of two Cole-Cole phase spectra. The

values of the apparent spectral parameters describing the pol-
arizable half-space are very close to the corresponding true
values. Of the parameters describing a polarizable formation,
the apparent chargeability is smaller than the chargeability of
the petrophysical spectrum because of attenuation of the spec-
trum. The apparent frequency dependence on the other hand is
very close to its petrophysical value. The apparent time con-
stant, crucial for mineral discrimination, is also close to its true 2

value for its natural range of variation.

In the case of several polarizable bodies, the apparent spec-
trum is built up in a complex way, and it depends on the mutual
(b)
attitude of the bodies as well as on the electrode configuration
used. With this model, the apparent phase spectrum can no
longer be described simply as the sum of the spectra of its
components.
On the basis of the numerical calculations, however, some
1
qualitative conclusions can be drawn concerning the behav-
ioral relations of the spectra. The aim of spectral measurements
may be the mapping of different parts of a formation that differ COLE-COLE PRRRRETLRS
in their time constant. By making measurements at various
ROl = 260 R02 D 6000
points along a profile crossing over the formation, the compo- Ill : .S6 fl2 = .86
nents that differ in time constant are discriminated from the Cl = .32 C2 :: .92
TRUl = .lO TRU2 = 100
HALFSPRCE RO = 6000

0 I I I I I I I I I I I
-6 -3 -1 1 3 6

LOO10 frequency f HZ 1

1, 2, 1, 2,
3 LOO10 PHRSE [IiRROl LOO10 PHASE IRRROI
SI-

2 2

(4 (4

COLE-COLE PARRNETERS COLE-COLE PARRNETERS

ROl = 1000 RO2 : 6000 ROl : 60 R02 E 6000

Ml = .96 t42 = 46 n1 = .96 tl2 = .Sb
Cl = .a2 c2 : .32 Cl I .a2 ce q .32 \
TRlJl = .lO TRU2 = 100 TRUl = .lO TRU2 : 100
HRLFSPACE RO = 6000 HRLFSPACE RO : 6000 \

00 -6 -a- _i- I 3- 6
0 r I
-b
I
-I
, I I I I, I I1
6
LOO10 FRCPUENCY I HZ I LOO10 ;imE9UENC:~ IHZI ’

FIG. 8. The formation of apparent spectrum at various points of the profile. The conductivity contrast of the prism 1 with the
environment has been increased. The conductivity contrast is (a) 1, (b) 20, (c) 100.
 Apparent Resistivity Phase Spectrum 819
Table 4. Inverted apparent parameters for prism at points 1 and 2. The sum of two Cole-Cole phase spectra. The conductivity contrast of prism 1 is
varied. m, = m2 = 0.95, c, = c2 = 0.32, rl = 0.1 s, T, = 100s.

Cond. Tal Ta2

contrast ma1 ClZl 6) ma2 ccl2 (4 Error
- -
1 0.22 0.37 0.0028 0.50 0.23 0.033 4.3E - 4
0.19 0.45 0.0063 0.51 0.31 13.8 8.3E - 4

5 0.51 0.30 0.0062 0.011 0.43 387 1.5E - 4

0.35 0.37 0.0063 0.26 0.30 40.0 4.2E - 4

20 0.35 0.33 0.0011 0.18 0.38 0.18 1.9E - 4

0.44 0.34 0.0063 0.085 0.30 67 1.4E - 4

100 0.44 0.32 0.038 0.047 0.37 0.28 5.6E - 5

0.47 0.32 0.061 0.011 0.32 248 4.2E - 5

apparent spectra, even if there is only a small difference in time REFERENCES

constants. Brown, K. M., and Dennis, J. E., 1972, Derivative-free analogues of the
In a system with two polarizable bodies, the spectrum of the Levenberg-Marquardt and Gauss algorithms for nonlinear least
body with the smaller conductivity contrast tends to be domi- squares approximations: Numer. Math.,,lB, 289-297.
Eskola, L., 1979, Calculation of galvamc effects by means of the
nant. Similarly, it is easier to distinguish a formation with a method of sub-areas: Geophys. Prosp., 27,61&627.
small time constant adjacent to a body with a larger time Pelton, W. H., Ward, S. H., Hallof, P. G., Sill, W. R.,, and Nelson, P. H.,
constant than it is to distinguish a body with a large time 1978, Mineral discrimination and removal of mductive coupling
with multifrequency IP: Geophysics, 43,5888609.
constant. This is an advantage in the identification of sulfide Siegel, H. O., 1959, Mathematical formulation and type curves for
mineralizations, remembering that the time constant of sulfides induced polarization: Geophysics, 24,547-565.
Soininen, H., 1984a, The behavior of the apparent resistivity phase
is generally up to four decades smaller than that of graphite. spectrum in the case of a polarizable prism in an unpolarizable
half-space: Geophysics, 49, 15341540.
~ 1984b, Inapplicability of pulse train time-domain measure-
ments to spectral induced polarization: Geophysics, 49,826827.
 GEOPHYSICS, VOL. 39, NO. 3 (JUNE 1974), P. 321-339, 18 FIGS

THE MAGNETIC INDUCED POLARIZATION (MIP) METHOD

HAROLD 0. SEIGEL*

The magnetic induced polarization (MIP) lous polarization, rather than providing physical
method derives information relating to the in- property information. It tends to emphasize in-
duced polarization characteristics of the earth duced polarization effects in highly conducting
through measurements of the magnetic fields bodies. It has special merit in certain problem
associated with galvanic current flow. In the time areas, for example, where highly conducting ovcr-
domain, transient magnetic fields due to polariza- burden exists, or where the surface conditions
ticn current flow are meacdred. In the frequency render grounc! contact difflcu!t.
domain, either the change in magnetic field with The results of field tests are presented where
frequency or the phase shift of the magnetic surveys using the MIP method have been carried
field at a single frequency may be measured. out over “massive” and dissetninated types of
The MIP method responds to regions of anoma- sulfide bodies or graphitic zones.

INTRODUCTION lished, however, that the method has shortcom-

The method of geophysical prospecting which ings, both theoretical and practical. IP is known
we know as the induced polarization (II’) method as a ponderous and, therefore, costly method. Its
was first conceived and put into use in 194X. The cost, per unit of survey line covered, is commonl)
time domain techniques were developed and em- two to four times that of a ground electromag-
ployed by the Newmont group in 1948 (Wait, netic survey, and five to ten times that of a
1959), and the frequency-domain techniques fol- magnetometer survc)-. Despite attempts to rc-
lowed some 5 years later largely through the move the restriction (Hohmann et al, 1970), the
initial efforts of the MIT group (Marshall and method has remained strictly attached to the
Madden, 1959). Since that time both technqiues ground with the attendant requirements for lint
have been in active, successful, and somewhat cutting and human transport. The ncccssity of
competititive use in mineral exploration through- making good ground contact with both current
out the world. An article by the writer (Seigel, and potential electrodes has been a major im-
1970) reviews the recent state of the IP art for position in areas of loose, dry (sandy), or frozen
both domains. soil.
There is little doubt remaining in the minds of On the more theoretical level, the IP method
the worldwide mineral exploration community suffers from a limitation imposed by “masking
that the IP method provides a unique tool for the effects” associated with extreme resistivity con-
detection of certain types of sulfide ore deposits trasts. This problem occurs when there is a highly
of low intrinsic conductivity, in particular, the (ionic) conducting la),er, either surface or sub-
porphyry coppers and the bedded lead-zinc de- surface which tends to short-circuit the electrical
posits. Its advantages over other geophysical voltages and thus mask the effects which might
methods in the detectability of such deposits arise from burietl, metallic conducting bodies. A
have been clearly demonstrated. It is also estab- series of interbedded conducting and resistive

Presentedat the 41st Annual International SEC Meeting, November 9, 1971,Houston, Teu. Manuscript received
by the Editor April 6, 1973;revisedmanuscriptreceivedNovember 26, 1973.
* ScintrexLtd., Concord,Ont., Canada L4K 1B5
@ 1974Societyof Exploration Geophysicists.All rights reserved.
321
322 Seigel

layers lying between the surface and a polarizable where M is the dipolar current moment= -mj,
body will effectively mask the IP response of m is the chargeability of the medium, and j is the
such a body. current density vector. M, is the normal com-
The IP workers have learned to live with these ponent of M out of the surface S bounding the
limitations and to accept them as a consequence volume 1’, and ~7is the conductivity of the ex-
of some immutable law of nature, always to be terior medium.
part of our geophysical burden. The present paper Sow, in the absence of free current sources
will demonstrate that some of these limitations within the polarizable medium and, in the case
are not necessarily so fundamental nor per- that m and (T are constant, the volume integral
manent. As has been shown (Hohmann et al, vanishes, leaving
1970), it would appear necessary that the ener-
gizing IP current should be passed galvanically
through the ground. It is not fundamental, how-
ever, that IP measurements may only be made b)
measuring electrical voltages on or in the ground. Thus, the potential distribution (and current
Measurements of magnetic fields on or over the flow) in the exterior medium due to polarization
ground, due to current passage in the ground, can effects in the interior medium is equal to that of a
also give information as to the I!? characteristics. distribution of current sources, on the surface
It is the object of this paper to present the theore- bounding the interior medium, with amplitude
tical and experimental basis of an II’ method equal to the normal component of the vector
employing magnetic field rather than electric M= -mj. The interior polarization current flow
field measurements. Lvc will call this method the is -ntj, i.e., it is antiparallcl to the ohmic current
magnetic induced polarization (WI’) method. density vector and proportional to it. There is,
We USC the term “method” rather than “tech thus, a natural conservation of polarization cur-
niquc” for MIP because, as we will see below, it rent flow across the surface of the interior medi-
differs in several fundamental respects from the um.
traditional electric field II’ method (EIP). At the point P outside the polarizable body, the
electric field due to polarization eff ccts is due only
THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
to the external polarization current flow j,. This
In this section, the mks system of units will be is the subject of all BIP measurements. At the
employed throughout. We will also, for simplic- same point, however, if the corresponding mag-
ity, ignore the magnetic fields of the current in netic fields arc measured, there will be contribu-
the power cables feeding current into the ground.

Basis of method

There are two ways of approaching the tbeoret-

ical representation of the method. Both may be
derived from the writer’s presentation of the
mathematical basis of the EIP method (Seigel,
1959). The first relates to the derivation of the
time domain response based upon a volume di-
polar distribution of current sources. It is shown
therein (p. 550) that the potential + at an exterior
point P (Figure 1) due to a volume distribution of
dipolar (IP) sources in a polarizable medium may
be represented by:
0

FIG. I. Volume distribution of dipolar current

sources.
 Magnetic Induced Polarization 323

tions from both the external and internal polariza- where j, is the polarization current density vector.
tion current flows (Figure 2). We may also express H, as the change in H, due
It will be noted that the exterior (or return) to polarization effects as follows:
secondary currents j, differ in sense from the
primary current in some regions of space and are (Aj, X r/r3)da. (5)
H, = AH, = :,
in the same sense in other regions. For this reason sss 1
the polarization magnetic field due to return cur-
rents may tend to reduce the magnetic field due However, AjPE c; (dj,ldai)Aui, where (T%is the
to the internal polarization currents in certain conductivity of the ith region in the earth. In the
regions of space and add to the magnetic field time domain Au,“---llz;u; (Seigel, 19.59), where
in other regions of space. The net effect of the WZ;is the chargeability of the ith domain, and

sss
two current flows will be examined in certain
cases below. H, e - :, c miui 3,
Let us now examine the various magnetic ficltls * v aui (6)
due to the primary and polarization current X r/r3dC
flows.
The primary (ohmic) magnetic field is given b,

H, = :, (j, X r,ir3)tfi,
.US 1 (3
(Biot-Savart Law), Referring to Figure 2, we note that in the time
domain the polarization magnetic fields due
where 1’ is the entire volume through which the to current flow within the body differ in sense
primary current density vector j, flows. The con- from the primary magnetic fields directly over
tribution to the magnetic field of the current in the body. In the EIP method the primary and
the cables feeding the ground will be considered secondary fields usually have the same sense, since
in a separate section. The secondary (polariza- j, and j, are in the same direction in the region
tion) magnetic field is given b!, over the body.
In the frequency domain, the significance of
H, = 1 (j, X r/r3)hT A&i depends on the nature of the measurement
(4)
4lr sss I’ being made. If the pertinent measurement is of a

ss I
/-+

\
\-
---

---_--
V
M

S
mi, ni

mol

-I’
(JO
-

31--
2 Y
‘

*
Jo
- PRIMARY CURRENT

--+ POLARIZATION CURRENT

FIG. 2. Ohmic and polarization current flows around a polarizable body.

324 Seigel

change of magnetic field amplitude with a change a horizontally stratified medium (Figure 3). The
in frequency Af, then point P at which we wish to determine the mag-
netic field due to current flow is at a horizontal
Au; (PFE)i
_-= _~, distance R from the current source and a vertical
Ui distance Z above the source.
Since a point source of current must_ be sup-
where the (I’FE)i is the usual resistivity percent plied, we may, to provide a complete circuit, con-
frequency effect of the ith medium. sider that we feed the point source by a cable ex-
tending vertically downwards from it to great
depths. By axid symmetry, the magnetic fields at
P is horizontal and perpendicular to the plane of
the figure. By Ampere’s law, the combined field
of the point source and the cable feeding it are
zero. The field of the point source is therefore
given as the negative of the field of the cable, viz
If the pertinent measurement entails the out-of- (e.g., Keller and Frischknecht, 1066, p. 288)
phase component of the magnetic field, we may
express the conductivity of the ith medium as H, = I(1 - cos O)/brR, (10
ai(l+j tan O,), where 8i is the phase angle of the where
conductivity of magnitude 6, (assumed complex cos 0 = (Z)/(Z* + R2)1’2. (11)
due to induced polarization).
It is interesting that this equation holds for any
arbitrary horizontal layering, so that magnetic
fields associated with galvanic current flow in the
earth are basically independent of the layering,
X r/r3 dv.
providing only that the layering is horizontal. If
Thus, regardless of method of measurement, the both C and P are on the surface of the earth, then
calculation of the MIP response of an earth
made up of a number of discrete domains, each
___R_____rp
with its own conductivity (piand induced polariza-
f-
tion characteristic, (chargeability, PFE, or phase
angle) is made as follows: (1) Solve the corre-
sponding steady state current flow case (Laplace’s
equation) to determine the distribution of jp, the
primary current flow throughout the earth. (2)
Calculate aj,/a log (T; and integrate djJ6J log ri
Xr/r3 over the whole earth (the order of the
integration and differentiation may, of course, be
reversed.) (3) Multiply each integral by its cor-
responding IP characteristic and add. For all but
very simple geometries, these quantities are diff-
cult to calculate in closed form, and computer
computation is required.

Whereas the calculation of the magnetic field

associated with current flow in the earth is fre-
quently difficult to perform, quick solutions may
be obtained in the case of an axially symmetric
FIG. 3. Normal magnetic field due to current
current flow. Let us consider the case of a point flow from a current source within a horizontally
source C of current strength Z amperes buried in stratified medium.
 Magnetic Induced Polarization 325

H, = I/4nR. (12)
If we have two current electrodes (source and
sink) a distance 2R apart on the surface, the re-
sultant horizontal field in the mid-region will be

H, = 1/27rR. (13)
For example, for R=SOO m, Z= 1 amp, H,=3.18
X10-’ amp/m, or 0.4 gammas. It is apparent
that practically achievable magnetic fields are
not large!
In accordance with equation (lo), the primary JO JO
magnetic field will vary slowly with elevation of
the point P above ground when C is on the sur-
face. For example, in the case cited above, with
two electrodes 1000 m apart at 100 m elevation,
the field in the mid-region is still 80 percent of FIG. 5. The sphere in a uniform field.

the equivalent surface field. Stefanescu (1959)

and Stefanescu and Nabighian (1962) have solved not to the local magnetic field strength. Even
the more complex problems of the magnetic field though the ratio of polarization/primary mag-
due to galvanic current flow in the presence of netic fields is to be used as a measure of the IP
two-dimensional inhomogeneities in the earth, characteristics of the earth, strictly speaking,
such as a vertical contact between two media of these two quantities are not very closely related.
different conductivities or a vertical dike of finite In all other electrical, magnetic, or electromag-
thickness. There will, of course, be a normal mag- netic methods, the primary field quantity meas-
netic field present due to the primary current in ured is itself the source of the secondary disturb-
the external cable linking the current source to ance so that the ratio of the two expressions is a
the two current electrodes. This “cable field” is natural, normalized expression of local physical
largely vertical if the surface of the earth is rea- property differences.
Dipolar fields.-Polarization fields are, in the
sonably plane. Therefore it is mainly orthogonal
to the magnetic field due to the current flow in external medium, basically dipolar type fields,
the earth. Therefore, for the present rhscussion, when one thinks of the external polarization fields
we will neglect the cable field contribution, re- as being associated with surface charge distribu-
turning to it to discuss its inductive effect. tions of opposing signs on points of current entry
and exit. Figure 4 represents horizontal polar
Polarization magnetic fields current sources, each of strength Z amp, separated
In what is to follow it must be borne in mind by a distance 6. By differentiation of equation
that the magnetic fields of local polarizable bodies (10) with respect to R, we obtain, as the horizon-
are related to the local earth current density and tal dipolar magnetic field at the surface point P,

HD = N[c~s e - CSC~e(i - cos e)]/4+, (14)

where N=Z6. When 0+0, i.e., directly over the

dipolar source, the magnetic field reduces to

HD = :V/8aZ2. (15)

Thus, immediately over its axis, the magnetic

field of a dipolar current source drops off as the
inverse square of its depth, as compared to the
inverse cube of the depth in the case of the elec-
tric field (EIP).
FIG. 4. Magnetic field of a horizontal dipolar source. The sphere.-A sphere of radius u (Figure S),
326 Seigel

conductivityai, and chargeability nz; is imbedded Directly over the sphere we find that
in a uniform medium of conductivity cr,, and
chargeability mo. A uniform (horizontal) current Hs, = - 2a3mijiu0/3(ui + 2u0)Z2, (21)
flow of densityj, (in amperes per square meter) is
and
assumed to be present in the external medium
away from the sphere. There will result a uniform ff,Te = a”mijiu0/2(ui + 2u0)Z2. (22)
horizontal current flow in the interior of the
sphere with a current density given by The effect of the exterior (return) polarization
current flow is, thus, to reduce the maximum
ji = 3UijO/(Ui + 2ao) magnetic field due to the interior current flow by
(16) at most 7.5percent. The two approximations men-
(e.g., Stratton, 1941).
tioned above, if removed, would give rise to a
At the point P the polarization magnetic field lesser reduction.
contribution due to the internal current flow is Also, directly over a spherical body the mag-
given by equation (6) as netic field due to polarization current flow in the
body drops off as the inverse square of its depth.
HAT, = - 2a3miaoji X r/3r3(ui + 2uo)
In the case of EII’ an inverse cube law applies.
(17)
for r >> a. Elongated conductilzghodies.-Conducting sul-
fide bodies constitute an area of special interest
Directly above the center of the sphere the magni-
for the MLP method because they can concentrate
tude of the polarization magnetic field is given by
considerable amounts of current which would nor-
Hsi = - 2a3miuoji cos 0/3r*(ui + 2~0). (18) mally flow in their long dimension. As an example
of-this current concentration effect, the case of a
Stratton (1941) also shows that the primary conducting prolate spheroid in a uniform field has
field disturbance in the medium external to the been solved in closed form. Figure 6 shows the
sphere is equivalent to that created by a hori- current concentration factor along the long (ma-
zontal axis dipole at the center of the sphere and jor) axis of the ellipsoid (pipe-like body) as a
of strength function of a/6, the ratio of its long axis to short
uj - uo axis, and uJu0, the ratio of its conductivity to the
47rjo -__ aa. conductivity of the external medium. It can be
( Ui + 2f10 ) seen that for large values of this conductivity
By differentiation in accordance with equation ratio, values of a size which are often observed in
(6), we find that the external polarization current the field, the current concentration factor is
flow approximates that due to a dipolar current limited only by the axis ratio. Concentration fac-
source of moment tors of 100 or more can readily be anticipated for
many ore bodies.
N, = 4sa3mijiuo/(u; + 2uo), (19) Similarly, Figure 7 shows the current concen-
tration factor in the plane of a tabular body, rep-
and with its axis antiparallel to the main primary
resented here by an oblate spheroid. Once again,
current flow.
for large conductivity ratios and small thickness/
Based upon equation (14), the polarization
diameter ratios, which are typical of many tabu-
magnetic field contribution due to the external
lar-type, strata-bound sulfide zones, current con-
current flow will be given approximately by
centration factors in excessof 100 can be achieved.
Hse = u3mijiuo[cos o - csc* O(1 - cos o>]/ In both cases the interior current flow along
the long axis of the conducting body has a linear
r*(ui + Zuo). (20)
sensitivity to conductivity changes for conduc-
This equation is actually an overstatement of tivity ratios up to about the order of the long
Hs, because it ignores the fact that the return axis/short axis. Thus, the polarization response is
polarization current does not actually flow also enhanced approximately in proportion to
through the sphere. It also ignores the effect of j;,i’o when the current flows primarily along the
the earth’s surface on the external polarization long axis of the body.
current flow. Since it is difficult to calculate the exact polar-
FIG. 6. Longttudinal current amplification factor for a prolate spheroid in
a uniform field.

FIG. 7. Traverse current amplification factor for an oblate spheroid in a

uniform field.
328 Seigel

H, = [(l - costQ/tan0r
I 7
I ,+j - (1 - cos &)/tan &]1/47rZ.
zl
1 ,/ ,’ 82; These fields are in opposition above the length of
the body but add beyond the ends of the body.
+, /-:[
L--I L
_/
-----t1 Figure 9 shows the combined secondary mag-
netic fields due to the idealized body of Figure 8
FIG. 8. Simplified representation of current flows for L=SZ. Two traverses are shown. One is
for a horizontal pipe-like body. longitudinal, along the line directly over the body,
the second is transverse, across the center of the
body.
ization magnetic field solution to the above cases,
AMaZogy with gravity vcspoltses.-There is an
it is convenient to represent at least the pipe-like
interesting analogy between the horizontal mag-
body by the simplified form of Figure 8. The rep-
netic field associated with a horizontal current
resentation consists of a line current flowing along
element (orthogonal to the field) and the vertical
the length 2L of the body, terminated by two
gravitational field associated with the same ele-
point current sources of equal amplitude and
ment. Thus, when the current flow through a
opposite sign. The lint current represents the
body may be assumed to be uniform and in the
internal (polarization) current flow, and the point
horizontal x-direction, the resultant magnetic
sources represent the sources of the external
field contribution in the y-direction (orthogonal
(polarization) current flow. The field due to the
to x and horizontal) has the same form as the
internal current flow is given by
vertical gravitational attraction of the body.
Hi = I(sin 0r - sin Q/&Z. It follows also that the MIP response from
(23)
spherical bodies will follow an inverse square law;
The field due to the exernal current flow is derived from horizontal cylinders, it will follow an inverse
from equation (10) as first power law; and from sheets or dike-like

a-iIA

FIG. 9. Longitudinal and transverse profiles for a pipe-like body. Target: Linear horizontal conductor
14 ft long at 1.4 ft depth; current entry and exit at ends only. L= longitudinal traverse over body.
T = transverse acrosscenter of body.
 Magnetic Induced Polarization 329

bodies, the response will have an even slower at- PFE for the effect of induction using the phase
tenuation with depth. All other electrical, electro- angle at two frequencies or PFE values spanning
magnetic, or magnetic prospecting methods (in- two sets of frequencies. The assumption is also
cluding EIP) have attenuation with at least an made in obtaining these corrections that the phase
additional power of depth. angle or PFE due to induced polarization is es-
Cable i&z&on eficc/s.-There are four sources sentially constant over the range of frequencies
of magnetic field associated with galvanic current used.
flow in the earth: (a) Direct, primary (ohmic) In the time domain, the electromagnetic induc-
current flow from one electrode to another, obey- tion effects are not so simply expressed. However,
ing Laplace’s equation; (b) polarization current the equivalent approximation can be made by
flow in the interior and exterior of polarizable extrapolating from the short time (cffectivel)
bodies (MIP effects); (c) current flow in the high-frequency) portion of the transient curve to
power cable; and (d) eddy current flow due to determine the correction to the longer time por-
induction by the incident primary magnetic field tions of the transient curve.
of the power cable. Of these, only item (d) will The only corrections for induction that have
produce effects that may be confused with (b). been made in the field tests which follow were in
Induction effects that may be associated with the case of the Maggie porphyry copper deposit,
current-carrying cables have been examined by where the phase angles were appropriately cor-
numerous authors for specific geometries of con- rected using information from two or more fre-
ducting bodies; e.g., for the sphere (\Vait, lYSl), quencies. The PFE correction indicated above
the cylinder (Wait, 1952), and the thin sheet becomes worthwhile only when inductive effects
(Keller and Frischknecht, 1966). In the frequency are truly severe.
domain (sinusoidal waveform) all these solutions
have some common characteristics. At sufficiently EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
low frequencies the quadrature anomalous com-
ponent predominates over the in-phase compon-
ent. ln addition, the quadrature component is The model used for the initial study was an
nearly proportional to the frequency. As the fre- aluminum screen, 14 ftX 10 ft, buried in clay soil
quency increases, the in-phase component rises with its long dimension horizontal and its width
initially as the square of the frequency. vertical. Its upper edge was buried at 1 ft (thus
The simple closed loop conductor model as it extended from 1 it to 2 ft in depth). One cur-
used by Keller and Frischknecht (1966, p. 27% rent electrode was approximately 9 ft from one
281) likewise indicates a quadrature component end of the body, and the second current electrode
proportional to frequency, and an in-phase com- was some hundreds of feet further away.
ponent proportional to the square of the frequen- Figure 10 shows the time domain MIP results
cy at sufficiently low frequencies. from this model, using standard Mk VII times
Thus, at the low frequencies commonly em- and notations (2 set current on-off, integration of
ployed in EIP or MIP (0.1 to 10 hz), three factors the area under the transient curve from 0.15 set
emerge: (a) There will be less inductive effect in to 1.1 set). A transverse traverse across the center
the in-phase (PFE) measurements than in phase of the body (Figure 10a) and a longitudinal trav-
angle measurements; (b) the quadrature com- erse along the top of the body (Figure lob) are
ponent due to induction (and thereby the ob- shown. As was to be expected from Figure 9, the
served phase angle) will be nearly proportional to chargeabilities from the longitudinal traverse are
frequency; and (c) the in-phase component due to everywhere unidirectional (negative), whereas
induction will be nearly proportional to the square those from the transverse traverse are strongly
of the frequency. Thus, the induction contribu- negative over the body (130 msec peak) and drop
tion to the PFE will be proportional to the differ- to small positive wings (20 msec peak) on the
ence of the squares of the two frequencies em- flanks. The central peak is, of course, associated
ployed. with the interiorpolarization current tlo~, i~he~-
The above rules may be used to derive ap- as the reverse field is due to the return current

proximate corrections to the phase angle and flOW.

330 Seigel

a.) TRANSVERSE TRAVERSE

’ w/
b“.‘’
.-. 2ow
Aluminium ,screen target

b)LONGlTUDINAL TRAVERSE

Aluminiu% s
‘ creen target
FIG. 10. MIP results. aluminum screen model.

Field tests if it is desired to emphasize high-polarization

The present development of MIP is proceeding bodies which are also of relatively high conduc-
simultaneously in both the time domain and the tivity, the current direction may be parallel to the
frequency domain and with more than one basic formational strike. The field tests from which re-
method of measurement in each domain. As in sults will be presented below were all carried out
EIP, each domain has its special merits for differ- using the parallel current technique (longitudinal
ent applications. current flow).
While MIP measurements could be made with The basic test equipment used on the field tests
one or more moving current electrodes, as with may be discussed in detail in a later paper. An
most EIP arrays (except gradient) its merits ap- evolution of apparatus took place, of course,
pear particularly clear when used with a fixed cur- starting with laboratory-type devices laboriously
rent array. Current electrodes are established at transported over the ground and culminating in
points several thousand feet apart, and MIP mea- the first generation of production-type field
surements are made on lines running at right equipment.
angles to the anticipated geologic formation In the time-domain tests, standard transmitters
trends. The magnetic field component measured is (e.g., IPC-7 type) with power ratings of 2.5 kw
the horizontal component orthogonal to the line and 1.5 kw were employed. In the frequency
joining the current electrodes, i.e., orthogonal to domain tests, a crystal controlled transmitter of
the primary current direction in the mid-region. 2.5 kw capacity and a frequency range from 0.1
This current direction may be transverse to the hz to 218 hz was employed.
formations, as in the case of EIP procedures; but, The basic magnetic field detector that was
 Magnetic Induced Polarization 331

evolved specifically for this program is now desig-

nated the MFM-3 (Figure lla). It is a vector
magnetometer of an advanced fluxgate type. Its
specifications include a sensitivity of about 100
mv/gamma and a noise level of about 10 milli-
gammas peak-to-peak over the frequency range of
0.1 hz to 10 hz. It has a flat frequency response
from O-1000 hz.
The time-domain receivers employed started
with the IPR-7 (single integration). After this
proved to yield insufficient information on certain
deposits, it was replaced by IPR-8 (six-channel
integration as shown in Figure lib), which was
able-to give useful information in a broader range
of deposits..
The frequency-domain receiver which evolved
from this program is now known as the IPRF-2
(Figure 11~). It has several unusual features.
Basically, it operates directly on a single square
wave current form and automatically compares
the relative amplitude and phases of the funda-
mental and third harmonic components of the
square wave. The term “relative phase” here
implies that the third harmonic acts as a time or
phase reference for the first harmonic. ‘The phase
angle actually measured is

e = 3e, - es/. (25)

Here 0, is the phase shift of the fundamental
magnetic field component with respect to the
transmitted signal, and en, is the corresponding
phase shift of the third harmonic component.
This phase shift is unusual in two respects.
First, it requires no radio link or crystal clock for
phase reference. Second, it automatically re-
moves (to a first approximation) the effect of
induction by the cable field (see section on induc-
tion, above).
The earlier frequency-domain measurements FIG. I I. (a) MFM-3 fluxgate magnetometer.
and, indeed, the bulk of the measurements re- (b) IPR-8 six-channel time domain receiver.
(c) IPRF-2 frequency domain receiver.
ported on herein were obtained using laboratory
type lock-in amplifiers and a radio link from the
transmitter to supply the necessary phase refer- normalized with respect to the primary field am-
ence. Individual amplitudes and phases at one or plitude and expressed in the usual “msec” units
more frequencies were measured. of chargeability of this type of receiver.
The observed horizontal primary magnetic The frequency domain results shown in these
field amplitudes have been normalized with tests are either the observed phase angles in de-
respect to the primary current and the geometry grees, at a single frequency (Figures 12, 17, 18), or
of the system and expressed in dimensionless “normalized phase angles” in degrees (Figures
form as “normalized amplitude.” The integral of 13, 15, 16). These normalized phase angles are
the time-domain transient (model study only) is derived by dividing the calculated quadrature
 Seigel

ht.1 P

E 1.P

FIG. 12. Field test results. Cavendish Township line E.

components at each point by the theoretical Township, south of Gooderham, Ont. has de-
primary field at the center of the survey line, for veloped into a standard geophysical test location
the prevailing primary current and geometry. for eastern Canadian mining geophysicsts. A
The reason for presenting the normalized quantity report by McPhar Geophysics (McPhar, 1967)
rather than raw phase angles is to suppress pos- shows the results of testing a number of standard
sible large phase variations which may appear in geophysical methods, including EM and (fre-
low field regions near the extremities of a line. quency domain) IP on the grid lines of this area.
Obviously both forms of phase-angle presenta- The area is believed to be underlain by Precam-
tion are valid; they are used to bring out different brian sediments chiefly crystalline limestones con-
aspects of the data. taining disseminated-to-massive sulfides.
Cavendish Township, O~~tavio.~Cavendish The results of test line E are shown herein, to-
 Magnetic Induced Polarization 333

gether with the corresponding McPhar frequency- zone shows relatively low MIP response.
domain IP and resistivity data (0.31 and 5.0 hz), The fact that no reverse polarization indica-
dipole-dipole with 200 ft spacing and n= 1. For tions have been obtained means that the appro-
the present MI9 test, current electiodes were priate retunr polariz&un~ currents are eitber at
placed about 2400 it apart, one about 800 ft considerable depth or are beyond that portion
from 10 W on line C and the other about 800 ft of the line surveyed.
from 5 W in line E. Belmont Township, Ontario.-The Ontario De-
Figure 12 (line E) shows the MIP phase angles partment of Mines has employed a test area in
at 6 hz, normalized magnetic field amplitudes and Belmont Township, which lies about 3 miles
the corresponding McPhar resistivity , and PFE north of the village of Cordova Mines in south-
data in profile form. The PFE data shows that eastern Ont. It is held by Syngenore Explorations
the entire line section has anomalous polarization Ltd., who kindly gave permission for our tests to
since all values are in excess of 4 percent. This be carried out. The property is underlain by Pre-
compares to a normal background of less than 1 cambrian sediments and volcanics, with the form-
percent in unmineralized rocks. Within this region er consisting largely of black argillites, well miner-
are two zones of increased PFE and decreased alized with pyrrhotite over considerable widths.
resistivity, zones which have been interpreted bq Figure 13 shows a composite of various geo-
McPhar to lie in the positions shown by the physical traverses over line 4 N of the Belmont
“bars” on the baseline of the profile. The western Township grid. The MIP curves of normalized
zone, between 16 W and 18 W, has a much lower phase angle and normalized magnetic field am-
apparent resistivity than the eastern zone. plitude at 6 hz are included. The current elec-
The MIP profile shows unidirectional ano- trodes for this test were on the base line, about
malous results overt its- whole length with phase St30ii north and 2200 it south of line 8 N. Posi-
angles in excess of 1 degree (positive) peaking tive phase angle peaks of 8.5 degrees and 6 de-
broadly from 15 W to 20 W, which includes the grees occur at about 3 W and 5 W. These loca-
westerly conducting zone. This point is also pre- tions coincide with marked current concentra-
cisely on a strong electromagnetic and self-po- tions indicated by the magnetic field amplitude
tential axis. The magnetic field amplitude curve curve and are flanked by reversed phase angles
shows minor, erratic behavior in this region. The indicating the effect of return polarization current
maximum observed phase angles are of the order flow.

of 6 degrees in the anomalous area. For comparison purposes, the in-phase hori-
While still somewhat anomalous, the easterl) zontal loop response (SE-600, 1600 hz, 200 ft

F%. 13. Field test results. Belmont Township line 4 N.

334 Seigel

IW
CURRENT 1

FIG. 14. Layout plan showing electrodes, MIP test, Lone Creek Area, B.C.

coil separation) profile is shown. This profile current electrodes.

shows a multiple conductor between about 250 Figure 15 shows the results of these tests.
ft and 800 ft west. These results are, therefore, Normalized phase angle measurements, as de-
wholly consistent with the MIP data. scribed above, are presented. For all positions of
Lone Creek area, British Columbia.-The next the current electrodes, strong MIP responses, to
test area is located in the Lone Creek area about between 6 degrees and 8 degrees, are observed;
20 miles northwest from Spences Bridge, B. C. the contact is indicated approximately by the
Highly altered sediments of two distinct types point of inflection of the phase curves.
run through this property. There is a contact The EIP curve yields similar results, although
between graphitic schists on the northwest (resis- the reason for the local chargeability peak at 2 W
tivity of the order of 10 ohm-m and EIP time- is unknown.
domain chargeability of the order of 40 msec) Maggie porphyry copper dcposil-Britislr Co!-
and dolomites and sericite schists on the south- unzbia-Another test area is on the Maggie cop-
east (resistivity of about 1000 ohm-m and charge- per deposit owned by Bethlehem Copper Corp.
ability of about 3 msec). These electrical proper- Ltd. It is located in the Cache Creek area, B.C.
ties were well known from an earlier EIP survey. The deposit was discovered by exploratory drill-
The purpose of this test was to determine the ing, first with percussion drilling and later
MIP response of such a contact between materials diamond drilling.
of such contrasting physical properties. This is a typical porphyry copper deposit with
A longitudinal current array was used (Figure disseminated pyrite and chalcophyrite, of the
11) with electrode separation of about 3200 ft. order of about 5 percent-6 percent average, in a
Three different sets of current electrodes were large zone of altered quartz feldspar biotite
employed: CICy (both outside of the graphitic granite of Eoccnc age. Oxidation is very shallow.
schist), C& (straddling the contact), and Ci& The zone is covered with overburden, as much as
(also straddling the contact). Phase angle mea- 400 ft thick, in the bottom of the valley. The ter-
surements were made at 6 hz frequency at 100 it rain is very difficult, rising steeply on the west.
intervals on this line. Using the same array, EIP The current electrode separation employed was
measurements were made with potential dipoles approximately 5000 ft, centered on station 4 W
along the current flow direction; CiC2 were used as and orthogonal to the line surveyed. Frequency-
 Magnetic induced Polarization 335

LEGEND

A-* c; c’e NORMALIZED PHASE ANGLE

0-o c; CI . .

0-a c, C? - .
x---x E I P CiiARGE*SILI*I

/*\

IQ-- 10

DISTANCE
0 I , I I 1 I
7w SW 3w ‘lw 3w 2w IW 0 IE ZE 3E
I

FIG. 15. Field test results, Lone Creek area, B.C. Frequency, 6 hz.

domain measurements were made here at a vari- test area was over the Kalamazoo porphyry cop-
ety of frequencies. An EIP time domain traverse per deposit, located eight miles north of Oracle,
was also carried out on this line using a 3 electrode Ariz. (Lowell, 1968). The deposit lies in igneous
array with 400 ft spacing. rocks, primarily Precambrian quartz monzonite
Figure 16 shows the MIP and EIP data on this intruded by a Laramide monzonite porphyry.
!ine. The former are in normalized phase ang!es~at These igneous~rocks-are in a depositional contact
2 hz, corrected for induction on the basis of a with Gila conglomerate of Tertiary age. The ore
linear increase of phase angle with frequency. zone lies at depths which are largely in excess of
The EIP chargeabilities exceed 50 msec from 1500 ft but is overlain by a halo of greater than
about 16 W to 4 E, dropping progressively to 5 percent pyrite which comes within about 1000
both sides of this region. The MIP response peaks ft (at its closest point) of the surface. The ore
at about 2.2 degrees at about 8 W, dropping body contains of the order of 500 miiiion tons,
slowly to the west and rather sharply to the east. averaging about O.&O.7 percent Cu. The deposit
It even goes somewhat negative east of 8 E. This is being developed by Magma Copper Co.
is probably due to return polarization current MIP phase-angle measurements were made at 6
flow in the thick overburden in this region plus a hz, on a line striking longitudinally along the top
decrease in the chargeability of the body. of this body, and using a longitudinal current
The MIP results here clearly indicate the pres- spread about 6000 ft long. In addition, the results
ence of this porphyry copper body, although they of an earlier time domain EIP survey were kindly
differ in detail from the EIP results. made available to the writer by Xewmont Ex-
Kalamazoo copper deposit-Arizona--The last ploration Ltd. In the latter survey a dipole-dipole
 Seigel

FIG. 16. MIP and EIP data, Maggie porphyry copper deposit.

array was employed with a = 1000 f t and M= 1 to only in the two prophyry copper cases and arc
12= 6. The data for ?z= 2 is shown here. seen to give rise to increasingly negative trends
Figure 17 shows the various geophysical results on the phase-angle curve with increased fre-
on this traverse, as well as the geologic section quency, distance from the current cable, and re-
(from Lowell, 1968). Positive phase angles are gional conductivity. The presence of valid II’
observed ranging from 1 degree to 2.4 degrees, effects is confirmed by the fact that in no case is
peaking generally over one of the nearer-surface there to be seen a proportionality of phase angle
sections of the pyritic zone. The ICIP profile peaks with frequency at the lowest frequencies em-
broadly in the same area. The peak value is ployed.
about 38 msec. The shape of these curves is most interesting.
The normalized magnetic field amplitude curve The screen model and Belmont bodies produce
also peaks broadly in this region suggesting a con- phase responses which increase progressively as
centration of current in a subsurface conducting the frequency dccrcascs, down to the lowest fre-
zone. quency employed (2 hz). The other casesall show
phase angles which increase as the frequency is
Frequemy variation response increased up to some value between 6 hz and 30
Figure 18 shows the variation of MIP phase hz, falling thereafter. The first two cases are
angle with frequency at one locality for each of what might be termed highly conducting bodies,
the 5 field cases and the model test reported on whose conductivities are 1000 times or more
above. These data are uncorrected for induction higher than their environment. The latter cases
effects. The latter effects appear to be significant arc more disseminated and less highly conducting.
 Magnetic Induced Polarization

FIG. i 7. Fidd-kst- iesults and geological se&on a&r Lowe!! :! 968)

An analysis of equation (Y) shows why this is will approach zero as the resistivity contrast be-
so. For a body of a given geometry the significant comes too large, dcpcnding on the body geometry,
factor in its MIP response [from equation (9)] is of course. For very highly conducting bodies this
product may reach its maximum value at a rela-
aj, 4, tively low frequency, that is, increasing the fre-
-__
a log u du quency and, therefore, the body conductivity may
actually reduce the body’s MIP response.
Now u will progressively increase as the frc- If this characteristic oi highly conducting
quency is increased. The factor aj,/&r, however, bodies (to give an MIP phase peak at very low
 Seigel

I I I I I I II I II I I, I I

t s . 5 to 14 30 *s 30 40 SO 55 I?., *so
frequency HERTZ

F3G. 18. Variation of MIP phase angle with frequency.

frequencies) and of moderately conducting bodies Difficult prospecting areas of this type would
(to give a phase peak at higher frequencies) is include the Western Australian nickel deposits
found to be consistent, then we have an excellent and the Cyprus copper deposits, both of which
tool for differentiating between massive and dis- occur in moderately conducting, high polarization
seminated sulfide bodies as IP sources. Such a tool environments.
would be important, for example, in searching for
massive sulfide bodies in a polarizable environ- CONCLUSIONS

ment (e.g., disseminated sulfides, basic intrusives The MIP method is a viable, novel way of mea-
and sericite alteration, etc.) of lesser conductivity. suring induced-polarization effects in the earth
 Magnetic Induced Polarization 339

without the necessity of ground contact by the Canadian government under their PAIT pro-
detector system. It is equally applicable to the gram. This assistance is gratefully acknowledged.
detection of disseminated and massive sulfide In addition, I wish to thank Newmont Explora-
bodies and offers some possibility of differentiat- tion Ltd. and Bethlehem Copper Corp. Ltd. for
ing between these two broad types. their support and assistance in the Kalamazoo
The MIP method provides a detection of areas and Maggie tests, respectively, and for their kind
of anomalous polarization rather than a mcasure- permission to release the results herein presented.
ment of a physical property, although in cxccp- I am indebted to Mr. Douglas Pitcher for his
tional cases physical properties can be deduced assistance in the editing of this paper.
from it. It offers the potential of detection of II’
responses through even highly (ionic) conducting REFERENCES

overburden and of rapid reconnaissance, coupled Hohmann, G. VV.,Kintzinger, P. R., Van Voorhis,G. D.,
with excellent depth penetration. Some of these and Ward, S. H., 1970, Evaluation of the measure-
ment of induced polarization with an inductive sys-
advantages have yet to be demonstrated in prac- tem: Geophysics, v. 35, no. 5? p. 901-915.
tice, although there seems to be no reason to Keller! G., and Frischknecht. b ., 1966, Electrical meth-
doubt their validity. Much theoretical and com- ods m geophysical prospecting: New York, Pergamon
_
Press.
putational work has still to be performed to Lowell, J. D., 1968, Geology of the Kalamazoo ore body,
provide guidance for the prediction and interpre- San Manuel District, Arizona: Econ. Geol., v. 63, p.
tation of field results. Recent improvements in _^_ _. .
f&%654.
Marshall, D. J., and Madden T. R., 1959, Induced
field instrumentation have been made in order to polarization, a study of its causes: Geophysics,
_ v. 24,
achieve greater efficiency and sensitivity. p. 790-816. -
McPhar Geophysics, 1967, A geophysical case history,
At the present time one of the more attractive Cavendish Township, Ontario: unpublished report.
aspects of the MIP method is its potential for Seigel, H. O., 1959, Mathematical formulation and type
reconnaissance surveys. In relatively open coun- curves for induced polarization: Geophysics, v. 24,
no. 3, p. 547-565.
try it is amenable to vehicle or helicopter support, --- 1970, Induced polarization method: Mining in
inc!uding the !aying of the power cable and the Canada.
Stefanescu, S S, 1959; Uher dieMagnetischeWirkung
magnetic field measurements. The detector may
einiger heterogener Medien in der elektrischen
also be mounted in a ground vehicle, although the Bodenforschung: Z. Geoohvsik. v. 24. D. 175-183.
vehicle will have to be stopped momentarily for Stefanescu, S. S:, and Nal%ghian, M.; 1962, Uber
Magnetische Storfelder als folge senkrechter Schick-
each measurement. There appears to be a possi- tengen im Gleichstrom: Rev. Roum. Geol. Geophys.
bility that an airborne version of an MIP detec- Geograph., no. 6. p. 139-155.
tor can be developed. Stratton, J, A., 1941, Electromagnetic theory: New
York and London. McGraw-Hill . _I
Book Comoanv.
The advantages of the MIP method in areas of Inc., p. 206. ’
loose, dry, or frozen soil and rock cover are ob- Wait, J. R., 1951, A conducting sphere in a time varying
magnetic field: Geophysics, v. 26, p. 666672.
vious. __ 1952, The cylindrical ore body in the presence
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS of a cable carrying an oscillating current: Geophysics,
v. 27, p. 378-386.
Part of the substantial costs of this program ---_ (editor)! 1959, qvervoltag_e research-and geo-
have been borne by financial assistance from the physical applrcations:I,ondon, l’ergamon Yress.
GEOPHYSICS, VOL. 40, NO. 2 (APRIL 1975), P. 309-324; 18 FIGS.

THREE-DIMENSIONAL INDUCED POLARIZATION AND

ELECTROMAGNETIC MODELING

The induced polarization (IP) and electro- ductivity contrasts the dipole-dipole IP response
magnetic (EXI) responses of a three-dimen- of a body five units in strike length approximates
sional body in the earth can be calculated using that of a. two-dimensional body. lioving an II’
an integral equation solution. The problem is line off the center of a body produces an effect
formulated by replacing the body by a volume similar to that of increasing the depth. IP re-
of polarization or scattering current. The in- sponse varies significantly with conductivity con-
tegral equation is reduced to a matrix equation, trast; the peak response occurs at higher con-
which is solved numerically for the electric field trasts for two-dimensional bodies than for bodiw
in the body. Then the electric and magnetic of limited length. Very conductive bodies can
fields outside the inhomogeneity can be found produce negative IP response due to E1I induc-
by integrating the appropriate dyadic Green’s tion. _4n electrically polnrizable body produccx
functions over the scattering current. Because a small magnetic field, so that it is possible to
half-space Gwen’s functions are used, it is only measure IP with n sensitive magnetometer.
necessary to solve for scattering currents in the Calculations show that horizontal loop IX
body-not throughout the earth. response is enhanced when the background re-
Numerical results for a number of practical sistivity in the earth is reduced, thus confirm-
cases show, for example, that for moderate con- ing scale model results.

INTRODUCTION similar to that given by Hohmann (1971) for

For too long, electrical prospecting methods two-dimensional bodies, The integral equation
have been limited by a lack of adequate inter- is reduced to a mntris equation, which is solved
pretation aids. In order to interpret data, numerically for the scattering current in the
geophysicists have had to rely on scale model body. Then the electric and magnetic fields at
experiments, analytic solutions for bodies of any point outside of the body can be found 1~:
simple shape, and, more recently, numerical integrating the appropriate half-spare dyadic
solutions for two-dimensional models. All of Green’s function over the volume of scattering
these terhniques are useful, but they all have current.
limitations. The three-dimensional problem is comider-
The purpose of this paper is to describe a ably more difficult than the two-dimensional
numerical solution for calculating the induced one. A large number of unknowns must be used
polarization (IP) and electromagnetic (EM) to model even a small three-dimensional body,
responses of three-dimensional bodies buried in and each unknown electric field is a vector
the earth. A theoretical solution, in the form quantity. In addition, the kernel of the integral
of an integral equation, is derived in a manner equation is a complicated dyadic Green’s func-

P:~prr presented at the 43rd Annual International SEG Meeting, October 25, 1973. Mcsico
City. Manuscript received by the Editor May 10, 1974; revised manuscript rtceivrd July 15,
1974.
* Kennecott Exploration, Inc., Salt Lake City, Utah 84104.
@ 1975 Society of Exploration Geophysicists. AI1 rights reserved.

309
310 Hohmann

tion involving second derivatives, rather than a

simple scalar Green’s function.
We have, however, computed useful results P
SURFACE OF EARTH
for realistic models. Some esamplcs are given / 777fx

/*I
below following the derivation of the numerical r;

solution.
DE
INTEGRAL
EQUATION
DERIVATION
Consider the configuration shown in Figure 1. ’
The earth is taken to be n half-spnrc of con-
Y oi 02

ductivity (TV,esccpt for a rectangular inhomo- L

grnrity having conductivity (T?.Relel-nnt dimcn- t 5

z W
sions are depth D, width II’, strike length L, and
depth extent DE. The earth is esrited by im- Fro. 1. Three-dimensional model
pressed magnetic or rlectric currents, whirl1 are
denoted by M, and J,, respectively. V X V X Et - k2E, = --/a,, Jt
&xwell’s equations (in mks units) in the -VXM,, (7)
frequency domain (P’~’ time dependence) ran
he written as follows: V X V X E, - Ic’E, = --&p, Ja. (8)

The solution to (i) is just the electric field

- V X E = iwpH + M, (1)
due to impressed clcctrir and magnetic sources
V X H = (c + iwc)E + Jg. (2) in the presence of a l~on~ogencou::half-spnrr
and is obtained in the usual manner. To solve
For the purposrs of this paper, we assume that
(8), we treat J, as an ordinary source current,
the magnetic pcrmcnbility in the earth is that
i.e., multiply by the nppropriatc d\adic
of free space and neglect displacement currents
Green’s function and integrate over the vol-
in the earth.
ume of the inhomogeneity (Tai, 1971). Thus,
Harrington (1968) shows that an integral
equation for the electric field can he derived 1,:
rewriting (2) in the earth ad E,(r) = 1 S(r, r’). J3(r’) d1”, (9
v
V X H = u,E + J. + J., (3) where $j(r, r’) is the dyadic Green’s function
where relating the elect,ric field at a point r to a current
element at a point r’, in the presenceof the earth-air
J. = (~2 - u,)E interface. The dyadic notation is necessary
(4)
because in general the elect,ric field at r is not
is a polarization or scattering current, which
oriented in the same direction as its source
exists only in the inhomogeneity.
current at r’.
Taking the curl of (1) and substituting for
Although (TVcan be made a function of position
v x H, we obtain an inhomogrneous yector
within the body, for simplicity we consider it to
ma\-c equation for electric field
be constant here. Thus, substituting (4) into (9)
and adding the incident and scat,tered fields,
VXVXE-h?E
we obtain
= -iwdJ, + Jx) - V X M,, (5)
E(r) = E,(r) + (uZ - uI)
with k’ = w?~L,,E,,
in the air, and P = iw,u..,,a,
in the earth, including the inhomogenetity. . v $j(r, r’) .E(r’) d I”. (10)
.r
We nest set
Equation (10) is a singular, inhomogeneous
E = E, + E,, (6) Vector Frcdholm integral equation of the second
where Ei and E, denote the incident and scat- kind, to be solved for the lmknown electric field
tered fields, respectively, which satisfy the in the body. Then the electric fidd at n point
following equations : outside the body can be found by use of the
 Three-Dimensional i,P and EM Modeling 311

pame equation. Sote that, because of the singu- field is constant in each cell. Then the integral
larity, the dyndic Green’s function must be can be approximated by a finite summation
considered as a gcncrnlized function (T’an
Blade1 1961). E(r) = E,(r) + (u2 - ai)
The dyadic Green’:: function i.q given b!
Van Blade1 (1961) RH .n$ /VmS(r, r’) dV’.E,. (13)

s(r, r’) = $ [/~,“g - VV’]G(r, r’), (11) Notice that, although the electric field is taken
to be constant in each cell, the integration over
where 9 is the identity dyadic and G is the the rapidly varying Green’s function is retained.
scalar Green’s function, which for a whole space, -4pplying the relation (Van Blndel, 1964))
is given by

with
G(r, r’)
-,k,R

= !---
4sR ’
(1%
we obtain
s”
VGdV =
s
s
G dS, (14)

R = /r - r’j,
and E(r) = E,(r) + “,” “$r(r, r’) .E,, (15)

k, = (-Q.&T,)? where r is the dyadic Green’s function for a

For a body in a half-space, an additional term, cubic volume of current, unlike 9, which applies
which is given below, must be added to (12). to an infinitesimal current element. Following
In (ll), V’ refers to derivatives with respect to Harrington (1968), we write r as the sum of two
the primed coordinates. components, representing current and charge
For simplicity in setting up a matris solution, sources. Thus
we solve the integral equation (10) using the
method of collocation with pulse subsectional r = rA + rp, (16)
functions (Harrington, 1968). WC divide the where
body into IV cubic cells of dimension A, as
shown in Figure 2, and as~umc that the electric
rA = k,’
I“, Sa(r, r’) dV’, (17)

rp = L$(- 0’ ~nS,(r, r’) as’, (18)

with

SA = (3, r’)S, (19)

and

9, = c
i=l
-VG(r, r’)ui. (20)

Subscripts A and ‘p refer to the vector and scalar

potential contributions, respectively. In (20)) r’
is given by

r’ = r, + (-l)! + u,,

where uj is a unit vector in t,lie 2, y, or 2

FIG. 2. Rody divided into cubic cells. direction, i.e.,
312 Hohmann

Ill = f, elements of the m&x are themselves 3 ~3

matrices, given by

and I,, = 2=3 r,, - d,,. (24)

n1
UI = i. Once (23) is solved for the field in the body,
the electric field at any point outside the body
Thus, to avoid convergence problems caused
can be calculated from (15). To compute the
by the double derivatives in (II), we have
magnetic field at any point,, apply Faraday’s
divided the dyadic Green’s function into two
law,
parts: the one arising from c~urrents~ is denoted
by subscript A, and the other, which is due to
positive and negative charges, is denoted by H = -2; V X E, (25)
subscript v. The charge distributions occur at
discontinuities in scattering current, which, in to (15), noting t.hat V XV 2 0. Thus
turn, occur at, boundaries of the cubic cells.
Equation (18)) then, implies integrations over H(r) = J%(r) + (G - (~~1
the six faces of the nth cubic cell.
In more concise notation, the electric field at 2s V X !j%(r, r’) dT7’.E,, (26)
,,=I v,
the center of cell m is given by writing (15)
in the form where H, is the incident, or homogeneous-earth,
magnetic field.

(21) DYADIC GREEN’S FUNCTIONS

Let us divide the dyadic Green’s functions in

Rearranging (21), we get
(19) and (20) into primary and secondary
parts, denot,ed by superscripts P and S, respec-
tively. The primary part is due to :I whole space
of conductivity ol, while the secondary part
(22) accounk for the eart,h-air interface. Then
in which
SA = SAP + $A’, (27)
ti :m=n
I and
dmn =
‘i 0: m # 72, SP = 8,’ + CC. (23)

where 0 is the null dyadic. It can be shown that, in dyadic notation,

Writing (22) for each of the N values of m -ik,R
produces a partitioned matrix equation, SAP = :z 9, (29)

[Cl. [El = - Pi1 , (23) -ik,R.s

to solve for the electric field in the body. The SAS = -r&z + y&i - ;z- iL, (30)
s

and

(XI- z’)y,%% + (z - z’)Qf + (z - z’)y,%h

9,” = +(Y -
L Y'hff + (Y - Y’)Y,~f + (Y - Y’hIW

+(z + z’)-Y,2P+ (2 + Z’)Y*2f + (2 + 2’)Y.a I > (32)

 Three-Dimensional IP and EM Modeling 313

rap= ,$(- 1)’l,.SFr’(r,r’) (lS’, (41)

and

IQ = 2 (- I)’ A* $jBs(r, r’). (42)

The secondary parts, given by (39) and (-l’J),

arise from image currents and charges, which
we treat as point sourres. However, hecau~c
the primary parts arc singular and are due to
sources close to the observation point, the
y4 = (ik,Rs + 1) “z;; , (36)
s integrations in (38) and (41) must hr carried
out.
Ul = (A” - ky)
The shape of the cell is not important for the
r = [(z - 2’)’ + (y - y’)*l”* volume integration. If we replncc thr cubic ccl1
by a spherical cell of equal volume, we can
R = [r* + (z - z’)~]“~,
integratethrough the singularity in (3s)
Rs = [r2 + (z + z’)‘]“,‘ analytically to obtain

(ik,n + l)e-‘k’” - 1 : m = n,
r’ Amn = 9. (43)
-iklRmn
e
3x- [sin (kia) - k,a cos (k,a)] : m # n,
1 I mn

and where J, and J, are Bessel functions of with

order 0 and 1.
Now consider the volume integration in (17). R Tin = jrm - rJ.
With the addition of the secondary contribu-
tions to account for the earth-air interface, we Here a is the radius of the spherical cell.
have The surface integration (41) is more difficult
to approsimate. From (IS), (31), and (41),
ra = rAp + rAs, (37)
with

rAp = k,’

and .Is, (rfn- r’)ujy3 CM’. (44)

ras = k,’ A” Sas(r, r,), (39) For the low frequencies and short distances of
interest in geophysical exploration yzr,given by
where raf’and rAS are the primary and secondary (35), can be expanded as follows:
parts, respectively, of the current contribution to
the’dyadic Green’s function.
For the charge contribution we have, from (18)

rp = rqp + rqs, (40) Then a typical diagonal element of I?$,,,,, (the

with one relating E, to discontinuities in J,) is given by
 314 Hohmann

;)z]“2
I[ (
lrk,2 a2+ x, - 2, - (__I)”

- /2_ - x, - (-l)l4) ) (48)

which replaces the term (klzA2/2/2) in (47) for

. 5, - 2, - (-1)’ $)dy’ dz’, (46) m = %.
Finally, a typical of-diagonal elemenl of I$,,,
(the one relating E, to discontinuit,ies in ,I,) is
with
given by

R =
K x, - x, - (- 1)” $)”
P(rv)
I‘ c mn = E zg
(-1)’

l/2

+ (Ym- Y’Y + (2, - 2’)’

1 .

Integrating the first term analytically and ap- .(zm - x’) dx’ dz’, (49)
proximat,ing the others yields with

P(zr)
I- ” 7nn = $g (-1)’ [Q, + (% R= (x, - x’)” +
( Ym - y, _ c-l)’ $
>’
-ii_- +(Z?. I/2
- Z'T
k,” A2
3
2, - x, - (-I)’ $1 , (47) 1.
Integrating t,he first term analytically and ap-
with
proximating the others yields

R = rm -r, - (--I)‘%li,

Here Q, is the solid angle subtended by the

face of the cell under consideration. Note that - i hF)(xm - &,)I ) (50)
for m = n the solid angle subtended by the two
opposite faces of the cell is 4x/3. To increase in which
the accuracy of the second term in (46) for
r‘ n = TL,we approximate the square face by a R = rm - r,‘ - (-1)’ 4 )I,
circular disk of t,he same area (radius = a) I
and integrate analytically to obtain and

T = In j&n- +)+ [(%a+4)’+ (Y-n - $)2]1’21

- C-l)’ +)’+ (z-n
z l(zm.
- t) + [(xm_ - t-0’ ;)”+ (z-.- $y2[
- ;)’ + (CL*
+ j(Z_?. - g2+ (h - C-1)’ g2+ (G+%,3”‘1
++)+ [(x-_
In

+$)’+ (Y,,- C-1)”$)’+ (h +~)2]“2[

l(%+;) + [(x_.* ’
 Three-Dimensional IP and EM Modeling 315

with IP models

To model IP. wc MC n complcr inhonlo-

geneity conductivity specified in term:: of ph:1+13
?Jmn= ?Jm - L/n, (~4in milliradians (Van Voorhis ct al, 1973) :1n(1
calculate the phase of the 1)otrnti;ll tliffcrrnc,cb
zm,, = 2,” - 2,.
between receiver elcctrodc.~. In order to inrlllclc~
METHOD OF COMPUTATION EM effects, it is necessary to conipiitc~ t lw
potrntial diffcrencc by intograting the olcrtric
The partitioned matrix [g], whose elements
field over the receiver dipole. It is convcnicxnt
are given by (24), is symmetric except for
to plot the IP response as a pcrccntagr of tlio
negligible asymmetries in the secondary part of
intrinsic response in the body (B1 perc(‘nti,
the Green’s function, due to the use of point
which then applie:: to various IP pnr:m~ctor.s,
matching. Hence, it is only necessary to store
such as phnsc, percent frequency cffcrt, :~ntl
3N(3N + 1)/2 matrix elements for a model
cliargrnl~ilit y.
divided into N cells. We solve the matrix equa-
tion (23) by the Choleski technique (Ralston, Because of the many possibilities for thco-
1965). reticnl and programming errors. it is important
For example, dividing a body into 100 cells to verify the acriirac!- of any new numcric:11
rrsults in a 300 by 300 complex matrix requiring solution. Figure 3 show:: two self rhccks for
90,300 words of computer storage. Choleski dipole-dipole IP: ronvcrgcnrc and reciprocity.
factorization of this matrix, which is close to The model is n rondllrtivr cube which is two
the largest that can be solved on the University units (dipole lengths) on a side; its depth i::
of Utah UNIVAC 1108 computer, requires one unit. Figure 3 shops two sets of computn-
about three minutes of computrr time Once tions: one with the body divided into ,C cell::
the matrix is factored, the electric field in the and the other with thr body divided into 64
body can be calculated for any number of cells. Results for the two cases arc ncarl!
sources, in about five seconds per source, by identical, indicating convergence. The trans-
use of forward and back substitution. Calcu- mitter was to the left and the receiver to the
lating the matrix elements also requires a large right) for each cnlcnlntion. ?;otc that reriprocit!
amount, of computer time about 100 set for a is satisfied: Results arc the snmr when thr
300 by 300 matrix. transmitter and rrceivcr arc interchanged.
The integrals for the secondary parts of the Figure 4 shows a comparison between nn-
Green’s functions-y, and ys in (33) and (34)- merical results and scale model data (Hallof,
must. be evaluated numerically. WC compute 1967) for a thin body with a strike length of
each one as the sum of an alternating, decrras- eight units. The agreement in this case is rs-
ing series, whose terms consist of integrations cellent, but comparisons for larger rondurtivit~
between zeros of the Bessel functions (Hoh- contrasts are not as good.
msnn, 1971). With this method, a Hankel As a final check for IP, we show in Fignrc 5
transform can be computed in about 0.1 sec. a comparison with Snyder and Merkel’s (19X)
However, rather than compute the integrals theoretical results for a polnriznble conductive
for each matrix element, we compute and store sphere excited by a buried current clcctrodr.
them once on a grid of r and z + z’ values, at We al~l~roximnted the sphcrr by a cube of the
intervals of 0.1 skin depth. Then we use bi- same volume, as shown in the cro.+-section on
linear interpolation to calculate y, and y? for the right. The plan view on the left compnrrs
each matrix element. the contoured IP responsr for the two methods
of computation. The II’ values for the integral
NUMERICAL RESULTS equation solution pertain to the total electric
Both the IP and EM responses of a three- field at, n point, while those for the sphere arc
dimensional body can be calculated by specify- derived from thr potential difference between
ing the frequency and source-receiver configura- ends of n one-unit dipolr oriented radially from
tion. The examples that follow illustrate the the current electrode. Howrvcr. even though the
accuracy and versatility of the method. two models are not exactly thr same, thr Cal-
316

FIG. :S. Convergence and reciprocity check for dipole-dipole 11’.

culated IP values are in cscellcnt agreement. nbles us to evaluate systematically the effects
We find similar agreements with dipole-dipole of a number of different model pammeWs on
sphere models (D. D. Snyder, personal com- IP response. For example, figure (i shows how
munication) over a broad range of conductivity st,rike length affects the dipole-dipole IP re-
contrasts. sponse of a body that is two tinits in width
This three-dimensionai numerical solution en- and four in depth extent. ‘The depth to the top

I I I I I I I I
I I I I
SCALE MODEL

FIG. 4. Comparison bet,ween nlLmerica.1results and scale model data (Ilallof, lWi7).
 Three-Dimensional IP and EM Modeling 317

SPHERE/

PLAN VIEW CROSS SECT ION

FIG. ,T. Comparison with theoretical resrllts for a sphere (Snyder and AIerkel, 19i3).

FIG. 6. Effect of strike length on IP response; W = 2, DE = 4, D = 1, and p?Ipl = 1.

318 Hohmann

of the body is one unit, and there is no re- cuts the 11’ response in half, because the
sistivity contrast. There is a large increase in amount of polarizable material contributjing to
IP response as the strike length increases from the response is halved. Then moving the line
two to five units, but only a small change one unit off t,he end of the body further re-
when the strike length increases further. For duces the anomaly by a factor of two for this
practical purposes, the II’ response of a body rrsistirity contrast.
five or so units long is equivalent to that, of a It is easy to model a dipping body by dis-
two-dimensional body unless the body is very placing the cubic cells into which it is divided.
conductive. This observation is important, be- Figures 8 and 9 illustrate the affect of clip on
cause it is much less eupcnsivc to model n large, the IP response of conductive and resistive
comples body by the use of a two-dimensional bodies, respectively. Each ccl1 i:: one unit, on a
terhnique, such as that given by Coggon (1973). side, and the strike length is five units. For
Figure 7 shows the effect of moving the IP the conductive body, the highwt IP response
line along strike. Results are shown for three occurs on the side opposite the direction of dip,
positions: the center of the body, the end of the while for the resistive body the highest rc-
body, and one unit off the end of the body. sponsc is in the direction of dip.
Moving the line away from the center pro- In general, however, partirillarly for dips
duces an effect similar to that of increasing the greater than 30 degrees, it is diflicult to dis-
depth of the body. Roughly speaking, moving tinguish a dipping body from a vertical body
the lint from the center to the end of the body on the basis of dipole-dipole data. Interfering

I I I I I I
I , I ,
I
r
I I
, I
PLAN VIEW

FIG. 7. Effect of o&et ting IP line from center’ of body. Same body as FigtIre 6 will 1, = 5.
 Three-Dimensional IP and EM Modeling 319

FIN. 8. IP responseof a dipping condtlctive body; I, = 5, ps/p, = 0.2.

bodies, resistivity chnngca, nnd electrode posi- Figure 10 show peak dipole-dipole II’ response
tioning can product similar asymmetric effects. as :I function of conducti\-ity rontmst for three
Coggon (19i3) noted the same lack of dip reso- theoretical models: (1) n thin two-dimensional
lution for the dipole-dipole nrmy for two- body (Coggon, 19%) : (2) n 2 x 5 x 4 (W x
dimensional bodies. L x DE) three-dimrnsionnl body; and (3) R
Iiesistivity contrast strongly affects IP re- sphcrc of radius one (D. D. Snydw, personal
sponse. Sicgcl (1959) showed that the II’ re- communication). All are buried nt :I depth of
sponse of R small sphere is maximum when it one dipole length.
is twice as conductive as the surrounding earth. For the three-dimcnPionn1 bodies the mnsi-
320 Hohmann

mum response occurs for UJU, between 1 and TWO-DIMENSIONAL

10, while for the two-dimensional body it occurs “r
between 10 and 100. Comparisons with other 40
c
two-dimensional models (C. M. Swift, personal THREE-DIMENSIONAL
communication) show that in gencrnl IP re-
sponse peaks at lower values of a,/~~ for bodies
of limited length. The position of the peak
seems to be controlled by the elongation of the
body.
Drill hole IP measurements are useful for
locating “near-misses.” Figure 11 shows numeri-
cal results for one configuration. B current
electrode is located at the surface of the earth,
and IP measurements are made in a drill hole 5’1‘10.10. Peak dipole-dipole IP response for scpa-
b,y use of a short receiver dipole. B polarizable, rations l-6, as a function of conductivity contrast,
conductive body is located at a depth of 2 for a three-dimensional prism, a sphere (D. D.
Snyder. personal communication), and a thin t.lvo-
arbitrary units. The numbers in Figure 11 are dimensional body (Coggon, 1973).
the percent of intrinsic II’ response t,hat would
be measured in, vertical ddl holes at various
dist’ances from the body. The arrows show the raturc (Q) potentials for a nonpolarizable,
direction of the quudrnt~ure electric field, which conductive body at a frequency of 1 hz. The
is due to induced polarization, at each point. incident potentials are shown on the left. The
We can think of t,he quadrature field as due to total potent,ial is t,he sum of the incident’ and
induced dipoles oricntcd in roughly the same scattered potentials. For compnril;on, Figure 13
direction as t)he incident field. By convention,
the sign of the IP response is positive when the
,CURRENT ELECTRODE
vertical components of the quadrature and in- \1/
phase fields arc in opposite directions and nega- /~/////////////////////
t,ive when they are in the same direction. -o* ‘0% ‘0, 4, ;3’ ,-3’+4- *
Because the IP response is asymmetric, one \ I--
can use two or more currents electrode positions
to determine where the responsive body lies in
relation to the drill hole. The highest response
for a conductive body occurs when it is located
between the drill hole and the current electrode.
The IP response is given by

P = Kg/( vi + V,“),
where YaQis the scattered quadrature potential,
V,” is the scattered in-phase potential, and V,
is the incident (homogeneous earth) potential.
Now the scattered in-phase and quadrature
fields are roughly symmetric about the body,
while the incident’ field decays with distance
from the current electrode Hence, the IP rc-
sponsc is grcntcr on the fnr side of the body,
because the total in-phase field is smaller.

Electromagnetic coupling
Comparing EM coupling and 11 potentials is FIG. 11. IP response (B, percent) in vertical drill
an informative csercise. In Figure 12, we have holes: li’ = 0.2. L = 2, DE z 2. D = 2, and
p!/pI F _O.J:Arrows show direction of quadrature
plotted the scattered in-phase (R) and quad- rl&IIo field
 Three-Dimensional IP and EM Modeling 321

2
-310

- 199

-146 _,2
-115

-94
/
-80 24 42 22 3 /2-r, 3 22 42

FIG. 12. In-phase (K) and qrladratlwe (Q) potentials; W = 2, L = 6, DE = 3, D = 1, p1 = 100 ohm-m,
PP= 1 ohm-m, ‘~2 = 0, f = 1 hz, and dipole length = 96 m. Quadrature due to EM corlpling.

shows calculated potentials for the same model, due to IP. Note that the scattered quadrature
except that the body is less conductive and potentials for the two cass are opposite in
the frequency is reduced to .Ol hz to eliminate sign. For IP, the scattered quadrature field is
EM induction. Also, the body has a polariz- caused by induced dipoles oriented in approxi-
ability ‘pa of 50 milliradians. mately the same direction as the incident field,
In Figure 12 the scattered quadrature potcn- while for EM the induced dipoles are oriented
tin1 is due to EM coupling; in Figure 13 it is in the opposite direction. Hence, due to EM

FIG. 13. In-phase (R) and qrladratlwe (Q) pot,entials. Same model as Figure 12, except p2 = 10 ohm-m,
pJ = 50 milliradians, and f = .Ol hz. Quadrature dlle to IP.
322 Hohmann

effects, negative IP anomalies can occur over ,u.amp,/m, or about 0.6 gamma. Curves are
very conductive bodies. shown for polarizable (cps = 50 milliradixns)
and nonpolarizable bodies. Thr in-phase field
Magnetic field wwasuremSentof IF is the same for both cases: There is a large
Normally, we measure eledric field in an IP peak due to the concentration of current in
survey. However, an electrically polariznble t,he conduct& body. However, there is a 15
body also produces an anomalous magnetic field, +mp/m( ,- .Ol!Sgamma) quadrature anomaly
which can be calculated from equnt,ion (X). for t,he polnriznble body. Thus, lheoretically it
Figure 14 illustrates one model that we have appears feasible to measure IP effects through
used to evaluate the possibility of IP surveying t,he magnetic field, especially since the normal
with a highly sensitive magnet,omcter. The targrt would be larger t,han the lwdy considered
source is a 300-m grounded wire that, carries here. However, an analysis ‘of t,h(~usefulness of
10 amp of current. It is parallel to the long magnetic 11’ measurements is br).ond the scope
axis of a small conductive body. The receiver of this paper.
measures the in-phase and quadrature com- Electromngnet,ic induction is an important!
ponents of the horizontal magnet,ic field H,. consideration for the geomet#ry of Figure 14.
Figure 15 sh,ows the calculated horizontjal The horizont,al magnetic field directly over t,he
magnetic field in pamp/m for a traverse over body is shown in Figure 16 as :I function of
the center of the body, which is located at frequency. The pronounced variation with fre-
z = 0. The transmitter frequency is 1 hz. quency is due to EM induction, which is large
The peak in-phase field over the body is 600 for this configuration. Hence, in order t,o elimi-

FIG. 14. Geometry for ralculnting the magnetic field IP anomaly.

 Three-Dimensional IP and EM Modeling 323

I I I I I I
o-lzo -90 -60 -30 0 30 60 90 120°
X (meters)

FIG. 1.i. Horizontal magnetic field H, for traverse over the center of the body in FigtIre 14. Frequency =
1 hz: current = 10 amp.

nate EM effects, it is necessary to measure the the bottom; both are in percent of the free-
magnetic field at low frequencies, as with elcc- space field. These values were calculated by
tric field. dividing the body into 2 x8 ~6 = 96 cells;
thus, the cell size A was about one skin depth
Horizohal loop EM
in the body.
It is possible to calculate the EM response The surprising result is that decreasing the
of a small three-dimensional body for any field background resistivity increases the EM re-
technique. Figure 17 illustrates the geometry sponse-both R and I. The in-phase response
for modeling horizontal loop EM. Figure 18 shows a greater increase, so that the phase is
shows the theoretical scattered EM field for shifted as well. The same effect has been ob-
this model at a frequency of 1000 hz and for served in scale model experiments (Gaur et al,
two background resistivities: 100 and 306 1972). However, this enhancement of response
ohm-m. In-phase (R) response is shown at the with decreasing background resistivity does not
top, and quadrature (I) response is shown at occur for a two-dimensional body exicitcd by an
infinite line source (Hohmann, 1971).

CONCLUDING REhfARKS

The examples given above illustrate some of

the problems that can be solved with the
numerical modeling technique described in this
paper. Both the IP and EM responses of
realistic-sized, three-dimensional bodies can be
calculated in a reasonable amount of computer
time The source and receiver are arbitrary.

FIG. 16. Peak horizontal magnetic field as a func- FIG. 17. Geometry for modeling horizontal loop
tion of frequency for the geometry of Figure 14. EM. Strike length of body = 120 m.
324 Hohmann

a mesh probably are preferable for modeling

T lo R (%I
complex geologic structures, although no thrce-
dimensional solutions have yet been reported.
Integral equations are most useful for modeling
a series of simple bodies, because the matrices
are small and it is not necesynry to change the
mesh between models.

ACKNOWLEDG\IENTS

I wish to thank Kennccott Copper Corp. for

supporting this research and for permitting the
publication of this paper.

REFERENCES

Coggon, J. H., 1973, A comparison of IP electrode

arrays: Geophysics, v. 38, p. 737-761.
Gnur, V. Ii., Verma, 0. P., and Gupta, C. P., 1972,
Enhancement of electromagnetic anomalies br a
conducting overburden : Geophys. Prosp., v. ‘26,
p. 580-604.
Hallof, P. G., 1967, Theoretical induced polariza-
tion and resistivity studies-Scale model cases :
MrPhar Geophysics.
Harrington, R. F.. 1968, Field computation by
moment methods: New York, MacMillan Co.
Hohmann, G. W.! 1971. Electromagnetic scattering
by conductors in the earth near a line source of
FIN. 18. Horizontal loop EM response for the current : Geophysics. v. 36. p. 101-131.
model in Figure 17; frequency = 1606 hz. Ralston, Anthony. 1965, -1 first course in numerical
analysis: New York, McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
Inc.
Siegel, H. O., 1959,. Mathematical formulation and
Although the examples are for single homogene- fypr curves for mduced polarization : Gcophys-
its, v. 24. p. 547-565.
ous bodies, the solution allows for multiple Snyder. D. D., and Mrrkel. R. M., 1973, Analytic
bodies and for variable conductivity within a models for the intrrprctation of electrical sur-
body. I\/loreover, it is easy to include an over- veys using huricd current &&odes : Geophys-
ips, 1.. 38. p. 513-529.
burden layer by modifying the Green’s func- Tai. Chen-To, 1971, Dyadic Green’s functions in
tions. rlectromapnet,ic throry: Scranton, International
Textbook Co.
Numerical solution of the integral equation Van Bladel. J.. 1961. Some remarks on Green’s
results in full matrices that are smaller than dyadic for infinite space: IRE Trans. Antennas
the large banded matrices encountered with Propagation. v. 9, p. X3-566.
-- 1964, Elertromagnetic fields: Nrw York,
finite element or finite difference techniques. MrGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc.
However, more theoretical work is required to Van Voorhis. G. D., Nelson, P. H.. and Drake.
T. I,.. 1973. Complex resistivity spectra of
set, up the integra! equation solution. Tcch- porphyry copper mineralization : Geophysics, v.
niques which divide t!ie entire half-space into 38, p. 49-60.
GEOPHYSICS. VOL. 49, NO. 3 (MARCH 1984). P. 291-296. 12 FIGS.

Induced polarization time-domain equipment and some model studies over

thin dikes of finite strike extent

R. K. Majumdar* and S. DuttaS

General operations
ABSTRACT
Current pulses for energizing the model body are derived
An induced polarization unit designed for model
from a 100 V power source through a constant current gener-
studies with multiple choices of current pulse widths
ator circuit, and the duration of the rectangular current pulses
and constant current is described. The percentage po-
is governed by a set of flip-flops. This device is capable of
larizibility is estimated from the recorded decay poten-
yielding positive and negative rectangular current pulses of
tial. Model results with different arrays are presented
equal duration, and each set of pulses is separated by a no-
and discussed over a plate-like body for various depths
current interval of the same duration. This is achieved through
and inclinations. Field cases are presented for support-
the following steps.
ing the model results.
(1) Square waves generated by a free running or an
unstable multivibrator are fed to a flip flop circuit
INTRODUCTION after differentiation as shown in Figure 3.
(2) Its output pulses may be tapped off by switch and are
Induced polarization (IP) model studies in the time domain amplified by power amplifier to operate to a relay
with horizontal polarizable layers have been carried out by which switches the on/off relay for energizing current.
Vacquier et al (1957) and Roussel (1967). Vacquier et al carried At the same time pulses are fed to a monostable
out IP soundings over a polarizable volcanic alluvium underly- multivibrator which produces the delay pulse.
ing a sand layer and showed that the IP response abruptly (3) The output energizes a relay through a power ampli-
decreases to a minimum when the electrode spacing of the fier which generates the reversal of the polarity of the
Wenner array is more than the thickness of the polarizable current fed to the energizing electrodes. Thus the
layer. Roussel carried out laboratory measurements with polarity changes during the current off period so that
broken galena as the horizontal polarizable layer. The overbur- there is no surge.
den was simulated by sand with NaCl electrolyte. He found the
On the receiver side, the signals received at the potential
IP response is maximum when the depth of the polarizable
electrodes are recorded by a servo controlled pen recorder
layer is one-fourth of the current electrode separation. In the
during the no-current period. The percentage polarization fac-
present setup, the IP response of a dike-like polarizable body
tors are calculated from recorded decay potential. A balancing
has been studied for various depths with different configura-
network is also provided in the recording side to eliminate self
tions and spacings.
potential, if any, between the potential electrodes. This device
For laboratory and field studies of IP effects, instruments
has been made fully automatic for current on and off and
have been designed by several authors (Bleil, 1953; Collet,
permits a choice of three different frequencies for the same. The
1959; Anderson and Keller, 1964; Datta and Dey, 1970). Here
transistor constant current generator is incorporated in the
an’ instrument designed and constructed in the Geophysical
unit.
Division of the Geological Survey of India with constants
current and multiple choices of current pulse widths is de-
scribed for model studies.
MATHEMATICAL CALCULATIONS OF IP PARAMETERS
INSTRUMENTATION
Percentage polarization factor (PPF)
A block diagram of the designed control unit for model
measurements is shown in Figure 1 and the circuital details are Percentage polarization factor of a decaying potential is
presented in Figure 2. given by

Manuscript received by the Editor February 11, 1983; revised manuscript received August 22, 1983.
*Geophysics Lab, Dept. of Geological Science, Jadavpur University, Calcutta 700 032, India; UNDP Visiting Lecturer, Asmara University,
Ethiopia.
$Dept. of Applied Geophysics, Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad, Bihar, India.
(: 1984 Society of Exploration Geophysicists. All rights reserved.

291
 Majumdar and Dutta

Flipflop

k-7
2

.
/Monostable 1 ,

To the current
electrodes

FIG. 1. Block diagram of the control unit.

R2

+T2 -25875
ToReloy-2
RI-12OKR
R2-22K-Q
R3-10 KR 33K

R4-lKS_
R5-39KQ
Q-L 7 KR
R7-30KR
R&7 K S-L
Rg-68K A lo current electrodes
Cl-5OIJF
C2-0.05uF
C3-o-01uF
QhD2-IN68
Fj’F$-0C26

FIG. 2. Circuit diagram of the control unit.

 IP Model Studies 293

PPF=_x
II 100,
Fabrication of polarizable model
“0
A model body of definite shape (7.2 x 6 x 1.2 cm) was pre-
where k’(t) is the decay potential at a time t after the current off pared by thoroughly mixing graphite in a liquid synthetic resin
instant and V, is the normal potential. while stirring the mixture thoroughly and casting the mixture
in a mold of required shape. The setting process was acceler-
Chargeability (m) ated by adding an organic catalyst just before the casting. The
resultant resistivity of the mold can be controlled by changing
Chargeability may be calculated from the period as the proportion of graphite to resin, and the uniformity of the
12 resistivity can be checked by measuring the resistivities in dif-
1
m=- v(r) dr, ferent directions.
V0 s11 The resistivity contrast
where (t2 - tl) is the time for which the area under the decay
K = P2 - Pl
curve is calculated.
P2 + Pl

EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS between the body and the surrounding medium is made -0.95
where p2 and pr are the resistivities of the body and the
surrounding medium.
Simulation of host medium

In the model tank investigation, the host medium was simu- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
lated by water with nonpolarizable fine-grained quartz CuSO,
was added to the water in the tank. After filling the tank with Figures 4 to 6 show the PPF over the polarizable body for
the electrolyte, it was left standing for several days to permit the inclinations 90,60,45, and 30 degrees at depths 0, 1 cm, and 1.5
water to reach a uniform temperature and stability. cm, respectively, for a Wenner array of 2 cm electrode separa-

Output of Ast.Mult.

Trigg. to Flipflopl

Collector Voltage of Ff. 1

1 I 1 I L Collector Voltage of Ff. 2

I I Collector Voltage of Ff. 3

Trigg. to Monostable Mult

Collector Voltage of TI of
Monostable Mult.
Collector Voltage of T2 of
Monostable Mult.
h h Trigg. to Flipf lop 4

Collector Voltage of 1 of Ff 4

I I Collector Voltage of T2 of Ff.4

ONJ OFF 1 ON 1 OFF Current in the Relay Coil1

ON ] OFF (Reverse) 1ON( Forward)

Current in the Relay Coil 2
ONI OFF OFF Output current pulse of both
Forward 1 ON(Reverse) J
polarity

FIG. 3. Output waveform of the energizing current.

 Majumdar and Dutta

WENNER ARRAY WE NNER ARRAY

SPACING = 2Cm
SPAC’YG = 2Cm
CURRET
ZURREN- = LmA

INCLINATION SO”
------INCLINATION 6d = Loom sei

-lNClINATlONLS~ INCLINAT!ON SO’

-------INCLINATION 60’
-INCLINATION 30’
- INCLINATION LS’
- INCL’NATION 30’

FIG. 5. PPF at 0.75 cm depth for different inclinations

FIG. 4. PPF at zero cm depth for different inclinations by Wenner array of 2 cm electrode separation.
Wenner array of 2 cm electrode separation.

tion. For a vertical body the PPF curve is symmetrical and it Figures 7 to 9 show the gradient array PPF curves over the
undergoes considerable changes in shape when the inclinations same vertical body when the potential electrode separations are
decrease from 90 to 30 degrees gradually. 1, 2, and 3 cm at depths 0.5, 1, and 1.5 cm, respectively. Figure 7
These changes consist of reduction in the peak response, shows that maximum PPF at depth 0.5 cm is obtained for 1 cm
broadening of the anomaly curve in the downdip side, and separation. Increased potential electrode separations lead to
steeping of the anomaly curve in the updip side. As the depths reduction in the peak IP response and broadening of the anom-
increase, the magnitudes of the PPF values are reduced and the aly curve.
anomaly persists for longer distances in the downdip side. As shown in the Figure 8, when the depth is increased to 1

WENNER ARRAY
GRADIENT ARRAY
SPACING =2Cm
CURRENT= LmA
c, c2 = 2Lcm

= LOOm iec CURRENT-LmA

INCLINATION 90’ DEPTH =05cm

------- INCLINATION 60’
7 - INCLINATION L5’ SPACINGS ~ P, P2=3cm
------- p, p2 ;*crn
- PI P2 =lcm

FIG. 6. PPF at 1.5 cm depth for different inclinations by FIG. 7. PPF at 0.5 cm depth for different potential electrode
Wenner array of 2 cm electrode separation. separations in gradient array.
 IP Model Studies 295

GRADIENT ARRAY GRADIENT ARRAY

PPF PPF
C(C2=2Lcm Cl C2:2Lcm
tn
I”
-20 CURRENT= LmA CURRENT-LmA
-18 DEPTH = lcm 9 DEPTH = 15cm
DELAY = LOOmsec 3ELAY = LOOm SK
-16 8
SPACINGS __ P, P2= 3cm 7 SPACINGS - 7 P2=3cm

f,’ tt ------ P, P2= 2cm ------- q qz2cm

-+-e-P, P2= lcm +C yF$=lcm

,I

/;

ii’

,,,,,/ ./lb
6 SL321?123L56 765L321

FIG. 8. PPF at I cm depth for different potential electrode FIG. 9. PPF at 1.5 cm depth for different potential electrode
separations in gradient array. separations in gradient array.

cm, the maximum response is obtained with 2 cm separation; the effects observed on the edge of the polarizable body or away
and 1 cm potential electrode separation shows minimum peak from it are much less than over the body. The changes in
response. response from the center to the edge or a point outside of a
As shown in Figure 9, when the depth is further increased to plate-like body are more sharp in the case of a shallow body
1.5 cm, the maximum response is obtained with 3 cm separa- than a deeper one. However, it should be noted that Hohmann
tion. Hence in gradient array arrangement, the peak response (1975) theoretically calculated the percentage frequency effect
for a vertical polarizable target, as shown in Figure 10, depends of a plate-like body and showed that moving survey lines away
upon the potential electrode separations. In all three cases, the from the center of the body produces an effect similar to that of
maximum PPF is obtained when the depth of the top of the increasing the depth of the body. For an inclined body the
polarizable dike-like body is at a distance of half of the poten- anomaly obtained with the Wenner array is asymmetric and
tial electrode separation.

FIELD CASES

An IP time domain gradient array survey was carried out in

the Kesarpur area of Mayurbanj district, Orissa using Scintrex
instruments; the significant IP anomalies as shown in Figures
11 and 12 were obtained over the mineralized zone where the
lithoiogy was known from the borehole data (Nayak and
Chakraborty, 1975). The absence of electromagnetic and self-
potential anomaly over the mineralized zone is due to the
dissemination where the sulfides are dispersed in schists. The
mineralizing zone would probably not be detected if the IP
surveys were not carried out. The asymmetric nature of the
anomaly is due to the inclination of the mineralized schist, and
the anomaly is broadened in the downdip side. The maximum
anomaly is obtained over the top of the body which is at 6 m
depth.
1 2 3 L
CONCLUSIONS --Potential Electrode Spacing

These model experiments, while serving to test the ef- FIG. 10. PPF for various potential electrode spacings and
fectiveness of the time-domain instrument, demonstrate that depths.
296 Majumdar and Dutta

0 LO 80 1OOm
I I INDEX
ms scale
r -%--X--x- ChargeabIlIty
Self Potential
10
EM Inphase components
EMquadrature(%)components
t
Surface Soli
0 w
Grant te
-10 k Mlnerallsed Schist

-20mv
L m DolerIte

FIG. 11. Geophysical anomalies over mineralized zone in Kesarpur area.

the peak is shifted toward the downdip side for deep-seated REFERENCES
bodies. In a gradient array the peak response for a vertical
Anderson, L. A., and Keller, G. V., 1964, A study in induced polariza-
polarizable body at a fixed depth depends upon the spacing tion: Geophysics, v. 29, p. 848-864.
between the potential electrodes, and the maximum response is Bleil, D. F., 1953, Induced polarization-A method of geophysical
obtained when the depth of the top of the body is at a distance prospecting: Geophysics, v. 18, p. 636-661.
Collet, L. S., 1959, Laboratory investigations of overvoltage, in Over
of half of the electrode separation. voltage research and geophysical applications: J. R. Wait, Ed., Per-
gamon, New York, p. 50-69.
Datta, S., and Dey, S. S., 1970, An equipment for induced polarization
ACKNOWLEDGMENT measurements and some field results: Geoexpl., v. 9, p. 87-96.
Hohmann, G. W., 1975, Three-dimensional induced polarization and
The authors thank Director General, Geological Survey of electromagnetic modeling: Geophysics, v. 40, p. 3099321.
India for his kind permission to publish the paper. The authors Nayak, P. N., and Chakraborty, A., 1975, Geophysical indications and
also wish to thank Dr. S. H. Rao, Assistant Prof., Dept. of type of copper ores: Indian Minerals, v. 29, no. 2, p. 83-88.
Roussel, J., 1967, Application de la technique transitoire de polariza-
Geology and Geophysics, Indian Institute of Technology, tion provoquee a la recherche des gites metalliferes a faible teneur:
Kharagpur and S. S. Dey, Sr. Geophysicist, Geological Survey Annal. de Geophys., Tome 23, Fascicule 3,
Vacquier, V., Holmes, C. R., Kintzinger, P. R., and Lavergne, K., 1957,
of India for their suggestions in modeling and instrumentation- Prospecting for groundwater by induced electrical polarization:
al works. Geophysics, v. 22, p. 660-687.

INDEX
0 40 1OOm
I 1 I 1
scale ohm-m
000 -x-*x- ChargeabIlIty

1 -*-X--K--

LZ%J
resistivity

Surface Soil

I
m
1
1400
[x

[_

k-

pq
Granite

Schist

Mlnerallsed

Dolerite
Schist

E 0
B Quartz1 te

FE. 12. Geophysical anomalies over mineralized zone near Kesarpur area.
GEOPHYSICS. VOL. 50, NO. 12 (DECEMBER 1985); P. 2492-2503, 20 FIGS

Low-frequency electrical properties

G. R. Olhoeft*

category of reactions has been studied in detail by elec-

ABSTRACT trochemists and metallurgists (Peters, 1977; Woods, 1981).
Less well-studied are the ion exchange reactions. These
In the interpretation of induced polarization data, it
commonly involve the clay and zeolite minerals, but may also
is commonly assumed that metallic mineral polarization
include other hydrated minerals at higher temperatures. The
dominantly or solely causes the observed response.
most common example is the exchange of one salt cation for
However, at low frequencies, there is a variety of ac-
another in water softeners. For a recent review, see Talibudeen
tive chemical processes which involve the movement
(1981).
or transfer of electrical charge. Measurements of elec-
Even less studied than the above two inorganic reactions
trical properties at low frequencies (such as induced po-
are those involving organic materials. Clay-organic reactions
larization) observe such movement of charge and thus
are particularly important in controlling the properties of
monitor many geochemical processes at a distance. Ex-
drilling muds (van Olphen, 1977) emplacement of certain
amples in which this has been done include oxidation-
types of mineral deposits (Saxby, 1976) and the occurrence of
reduction of metallic minerals such as sulfides, cation
petroleum reservoirs (Johns, 1979, 1982). The most common
exchange on clays, and a variety of clay-organic reac-
examples are in clarifying alcoholic beverages and catalyzing
tions relevant to problems in toxic waste disposal and
petroleum into gasoline in cracking towers. Organic electro-
petroleum exploration. By using both the frequency de-
chemistry was recently reviewed by Baizer and Lund (1983)
pendence and nonlinear character of the complex resis-
and Rudd and Conway (1983). Clay-organic reactions were
tivity spectrum, these reactions may be distinguished
reviewed by Theng (1974, 1979, 1982) and Yariv and Cross
from each other and from barren or reactionless materi-
(1979).
als.
In this paper I use laboratory measurements to illustrate the
variety of chemical processes observed with low-frequency
electrical measurements,
INTRODUCTION

Conrad Schlumberger is reported (Allaud and Martin, 1977) EXPERIMENTAL

to have made the first induced polarization measurements in
1913. However, spectral induced polarization (IP) and com- The experimental equipment used to acquire the measure-
plex resistivity (CR) measurements of low-frequency electrical ments presented is schematically shown in Figure 1 using the
properties have only seriously been used for research and ex- sample holders in Figures 10 through 12 of Olhoeft (1979a).
ploration in various forms since the late 1940s. These tech- (Trade names are used for illustrative purposes only and do
niques measure the electrical properties of water-rock interac- not imply U.S. Government endorsement.) The measurement
tions at frequencies generally below 1 000 Hz. Higher- system operates as a transfer function analyzer or stimulus-
frequency electrical properties are determined more by physi- response analyzer. A stimulus current is applied to the sample
cal interactions than chemical reactions. The collection of at a given frequency. Both the stimulus to the sample and the
papers edited by Wait (1959) is still a landmark review of IP voltage response of the sample are digitized as a function of
phenomena. More recent reviews include Sumner (1976), time for one or more periods of the measurement frequency.
Wong (1979), and Klein et al. (1984). The resultant digital waveforms are processed through a linear
There are three principal types of water-mineral chemical inversion analysis algorithm as described in Olhoeft (1979a).
reaction that are observed in low-frequency electrical proper- The low-frequency part of the system (1 uHz to 1 kHz)
ties. Oxidation-reduction reactions result from the corrosion exhibits a statistical accuracy from regression analysis of
of metallic minerals such as pyrite or magnetite. The most f0.03 percent in amplitude, kO.2 mrad in phase, and k 0.04
common example is the oxidation of iron to hematite and percent total harmonic distortion (THD). THD is the root-
reduction of water through the process called rusting. This mean-square (rms) difference between the deconvolved har-

Manuscriptreviewed by W. R. Sill.
Manuscript received by the Editor March 12, 1985; revised manuscript received April 30, 1985.
*U. S. Geological Survey, P. 0. Box 25046, Denver Federal Center, MS 964, Denver, CO 80225.
This paper was prepared by an agency of the U. S. government.

2492
 Low-Frequency Electrical Properties 2493

manic content of stimulus and response. At frequencies above and k2.0 mrad in phase. Above the solid line, the errors
100 Hz, Hewlett-Packard 4274A (0.1 to 100 kHz) and 4275A rapidly exceed 100 percent. The dashed line exhibits the limit
(10 kHz to 1 MHz) digital ICR (inductance-capacitance- of the General Radio 1433H standard precision decade re-
resistance) meters are used with kO.25 percent amplitude and sistor used in the reported measurements. The region labeled
f 1 mrad phase accuracy (the latter instruments do not mea- NR requires individually calibrated precision resistors for the
sure THD). current reference resistor R in Figure 1. The amplitude accu-
The accuracy of measurement represented as deviation from racy of the system measurement is mostly dependent upon the
a standard resistor is shown in Figure 2. The accuracy of the accuracy of the current resistor calibration. The phase and
system measurement on water-saturated rock samples varies THD accuracy are mostly dependent upon the system fre-
with factors other than just the accuracy of the electronics. quency relative to the timebase accuracy and jitter (minimized
Figure 3 illustrates the effects of input impedance and noise by phase-locking frequency source to timebase).
current on accuracy due to sample source impedance (the im- Figure 4 illustrates the effects of electrode geometry upon
pedance observed by the measurement apparatus). Any measurement accuracy. The solid lines in Figure 4 are the
measurement of samples with source impedances below the known behavior of the electrical properties of an aqueous salt
dashed line stays within an error of +0.2 percent amplitude solution versus frequency. At low frequencies in the two-
electrode system, the water against the metallic electrode gen-
erates an interfacial impedance that is in series with the
sample impedance. This produces the apparent increase in
impedance with decreasing frequency. In Figure 4 this appears
as the increasing resistivity and phase angle with decreasing
frequency, becoming most noticeable in the phase below 100
DMA kHz.
In the four-electrode system, such interfacial impedance is
clock no longer in series, but the nonideal nature of the metallic
I

sample holder

FIG.. 1. Schematic diagram of the low-frequency transfer func-

tion analyzer. The sample holder is switched from one instru-
ment to another with a matrix switch. The outside pair of
electrodes carry current to the sample, while the inner pair
(nearest the sample faces) monitor the voltage drop across the
sample. Frequencies above 100 Hz are measured by HP4274A
and HP4275A digital LCR meters. Frequencies below 100 Hz
are measured by digitizing the current and voltage waveforms. -3 -2 -I 0 I 2 3 4 5 6
LOG FREQUENCY (HZ)
The stimulus comes from an HP3325A frequency synthesizer
driving a Crown DC-300A power amplifier through a refer-
ence current resistor R. The resultant voltage response across FIG. 2. Difference between measured and known impedance,
the sample and across the reference current resistor are mea- phase, and total harmonic distortion for a standard resistor.
sured by matched high-input impedance, low-noise current The excursions in the data near 100 Hz are caused by imper-
preamplifiers and simultaneously digitized by a custom built fect preamplifiers and near 1 MHz by imperfect removal of
two-channel, 1Zbit A/D convertor. The A/D clock is a second cable coupling. The multiple data at several frequencies are
HP3325A phase-locked to the first. The digitized data are caused by overlapping frequency ranges among the three in-
read into the HP9845 memory by direct memory access struments. Above 100 Hz, the HP digital LCR meters do not
(DMA) and processed according to Olhoeft (1979a). measure THD.
2494 Olhoefl

electrode material produces an equivalent capacitance in error bars are smaller than the plotting symbol. All of the
parallel at high frequencies. This causes the increasing phase examples shown are of materials with electrical properties re-
error which occurs above a few tens of hertz. The examples peatable to within the error shown.
shown are for polished platinum electrodes and are further The remaining plotted quantities are derived from the Hil-
discussed in Olhoeft (1980a, b) and Vinegar and Waxman bert transform test of nonlinearity described by Olhoeft
(1984a, b). The frequency at which the four-electrode systems (I 979a, b) (see the Appendix). In Figure 5, between the resistiv-
begin to cause significant polarization error may be increased ity/phase plot and the THD plot are the deviation for Hilbert
by using better nonpolarizable electrodes such as Ag-AgC1 or linearity for the resistivity (dot-dash line) and phase (solid
platinized platinum (platinum black). However, such elec- line), with the axes labeled on right and left with the values of
trodes do not work well at high temperatures, are easily con- the mean Hilbert nonlinearity for each. Across the bottom of
taminated, and are difficult to clean. When contaminated, the figure are plotted the absolute value of the normalized
such electrodes are no better than bright platinum which is Faradaic time constant distribution (in frequency space)
easy to clean. With the few exceptions noted below, all of the derived by inverting the complex resistivity spectrum, and the
measurements were made using polished platinum, four- values for the dc resistivity p0 in R.m, the volume
electrode sample holders at current densities between 100 and chargeability m, the Faradaic time constant distribution nor-
200 A/m’. malization factor F, the high-frequency relative dielectric per-
Figure 5 illustrates the measurement of a typical barren mittivity K 4 , and the sample name.
rock saturated with 0.05 Q. m aqueous KC1 solution. This In the resistivity-phase portion of the diagram are plotted
sample exhibits few frequency-dependent electrical properties the Faradaic model (see the Appendix) of the resistivity (dot-
and both THD and Hilbert nonlinearities are very small. Note dash line) and of the phase (solid line).
that the resistivity over the entire frequency spectrum is within
2 percent of the mean resistivity value. WATER AND REACTIONLESS ROCKS
Figure 5 and all similar figures referred to in the text follow
a common format. Sample characteristics are given in the cap- The electrical properties of water are relatively well-
tions. The closed symbols are the real part of the complex understood and were reviewed in Olhoeft (1980a). Pure water
resistivity and the open symbols are the phase. These and the
THD are the only three measured electrical properties. Error
bars are plotted for these three quantities except when the

fro~::_r::;z,
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3’ 4 5 6
LOG Frequency/Hz
0 PO =2.3, m= 0.000. F= 0.000, k=77.6
D PO =2.3. m= 0.000, F= 0.000. K_=77.6

-4 -3 -2 -I 0 I 2 3 4 5 6
FIG. 4. Measurements of electrode effects for two- and four-
LOG FREQUENCY (Hi!)
electrode sample holders using bright platinum electrodes in
natural ground water composed of 0.03 mol/L equivalent
FIG. 3. Systematic measurement error as a function of fre- NaCl solution. The solid lines are the expected, known
quency and source impedance. The circles are the measured properties of water (see text). The two-electrode measurement
input impedance of the system. Below the dashed line, has mean errors of 37 percent in resistivity and 282 mrad in
measurement errors are less than 0.2 percent in impedance phase. The four-electrode measurement has mean errors of 1.3
and 2.0 mrad using a GR1433H precision decade for the cur- percent and 17.9 mrad. However, note the frequency depen-
rent resistor. Above the solid line, errors exceed 100 percent. dence of the errors. The upper half of the figure shows the
In between (the region labeled NR), the accuracy depends resistivity at two scales to better compare the two measure-
upon the characteristics of the current resistor used. ments.
 Low-Frequency Electrical Properties 2495

is an insulating dielectric material with dielectric permittivity electrical resistivity of such mixtures of materials with differing
and conductivity that are strongly temperature-dependent but electrical properties (Madden, 1976; Garland and Tanner,
independent of frequency below several gigahertz. Most domi- 1978; Deutscher et al., 1983; Bussian, 1983). Similar formulas
nantly silicate rocks are also insulating dielectric materials exist for the dielectric properties (van Beek, 1967; Bergman,
with dielectric permittivity and conductivity independent of 1978, 1980; Shen et al.. 1985).
frequency in the absence of water. Small quantities of impu- In addition, mixing two materials of differing electrical
rities in water dramatically increase the conductivity while properties produces frequency dependence from the Maxwell-
barely altering the dielectric permittivity. Small quantities of Wagner effect. This effect results from electrical charge
water in dry silicate rocks dramatically alter both conductivity trapped in the energy differences at the interfaces between two
and permittivity (Olhoeft, 1980a, 1981). different materials. Even though the two materials may each
When water enters the pore system of a rock, the higher have electrical properties independent of frequency, the com-
dielectric permittivity and higher electrical conductivity of the posite electrical properties will exhibit a frequency depen-
water dominate the composite electrical properties of the dence. Figure 6 illustrates the electrical properties of a tuff in
water-rock system. In the absence of chemical reactions be- which the frequency dependence observed is caused by the
tween the water and the rock minerals, there is still a physical Maxwell-Wagner effect from the water-filled pore structure in
interaction. The electrical conductivity of the composite ma- the absence of any chemical reactions. Note the low THD and
terial will be determined by the electrical conductivity of the Hilbert distortion nonlinearities.
water filling the pore system in the rock and ‘the pore size, The Maxwell-Wagner effect exists because there can be no
shape, and connectivity. For a homogeneous (compared to the permanent, nonuniform distribution of free charge within a
electromagnetic wavelength) mixture with highly conductive material of finite conductivity. When a force perturbs the
pore-filling solutions or broad distributions of pore size and charge to create a nonuniform distribution, charge will ac-
shape, the frequency dependence of the system is as illustrated cumulate at material discontinuities such as grain boundaries
in Figure 5. There are many formulas purported to predict the or particle edges. When the force is removed, the charge will
relax back to its original distribution by diffusion. The diffu-
sion process creates the observed frequency dependence in
1.3 6
electrical properties. The equations describing the Maxwell-
Wagner effect assume the charge accumulates at interfaces in
1.37
very thin layers compared to the scale of inhomogeneity (e.g.,
compared to the grain or pore size). For a review of this
1.36 phenomenon, see Dukhin (1971) and Hasted (1973).

1.35
472
3

1.3 4

1.33
_----------__, /-.J _
+0x4 x- +0.05 mrad
-_-

-0.64 X- ) (-G mrad

0.47

wo.oe
b?

to.91 mrad

-0.91 mrad

I -5
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
LOG Frequency/Hz
P. =1.38, m= 0.1 16. F= 0.034. &,=794
COFRl 7 Barren Rock

FIG. 5. The complex resistivity spectrum of a barren rock

saturated with 0.05 n. m KC1 solution. The top portion of the
figure is resistivity and phase versus frequency with their Fara-
daic model curves. The next portion shows the deviation be- I : I I : : : : :
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
tween the data and the model, illustrating the Hilbert distor- LOG Frequency/Hz
tion nonlinearity. The following portion shows the measured P. =465, m= 0.862. F= 0.1 66, l&,=33.5
total harmonic distortion. The bottom portion shows the 2076 Tuff
Faradaic time constant distribution inverted from the data
and used to generate the model curves (see text). The sample
was provided by A. E. Worthington of Chevron Oil Field FIG. 6. The complex resistivity spectrum of tuff from Calico
Research Co. Hills, NV measured with its natural water content intact.
 Olhoeft

1 If the thickness of the interfacial region (space-charge or

3
double layer, see Bockris and Reddy, 1970; van Olphen, 1977)
approaches or exceeds the scale of inhomogeneity, then sur-
face conduction, ion exchange, and the independent polariza-
tion of the interphase region may become important. In such
cases as colloidal clays the effective low-frequency dielectric
permittivity will be greatly enhanced (see reviews in Dukhin,
1971; Pethig, 1979).
The Maxwell-Wagner effect and other physical effects are
usually negligible in rocks which contain highly conductive
water or the much stronger and dominant water-rock chemi-
0
cal processes.The biggest difference between frequency depen-
4.6 mrad dence in electrical properties caused by physical effects and
those caused by chemical effects is the nonlinear behavior of
-4.6 mrad the chemical systems, most easily observed in the total har-
monic distortion and Hilbert distortion (Olhoeft, 1979b).
2.5
Figure 7 illustrates the electrical properties of a finely lay-
0
z
ered silty-sandstone containing carbonaceous matter and
H shale. The layering produces the frequency dependence ob-
0.0 0 served in the phase between 1 and 100 Hz strictly from the

-3

307
-2

P. =32.5.
15
-1

DMD72
m=
0
LOG
0.458,
1 2
Frequency/Hz
F=
Carbonaceous
3

0.533,
4 5

K_=39
Silt/Sandstone
1
s

6
-2

-4
6
0
5
physical charge trapping of the Maxwell-Wagner effect. The
high THD and large Hilbert distortion nonlinearities indicate
chemical as well as physical processes are active. The increas-
ing THD and frequency-independent, high-phase angle below
1 Hz are caused by diffusion-limited oxidation-reduction reac-
tions between the water and carbonaceous (or graphitic)
matter in this sample. The 18 percent offset between the mea-
FIG. 7. The complex resistivity spectrum of a finely layered sured real part of the complex resistivity and the dot-dash line
silty sandstone containing carbonaceous matter and shale predicted by the Hilbert transform from the imaginary part of
from Baggs, WY measured with its natural water content the resistivity is the Hilbert distortion nonlinearity caused by
the ion exchange process in the shaly matter in the sample.
The increasing phase angle above 10 kHz is caused by the
dielectric properties of water and the four-electrode polariza-
tion noted earlier.

OXIDATION-REDUCTION REACTIONS

Figure 8 illustrates the electrical properties of a mineralized

sandstone. Without chemically reactive minerals, the electrical
properties would be like those in Figures 5 or 6. Note the two
peaks in the THD and phase near 0.003 and a more broad
peak around 1 Hz. The 0.003 Hz response is caused by the ion
exchange process due to the presence of less than a few weight
percent clay in the sample (marginally detected by infrared
reflectance spectroscopy but undetected by X-ray diffraction).
-9.5 mrad
The 1 Hz response is caused by the diffusion-limited
oxidation-reduction reactions between the water and the less
--9.5 mrad
than 2 percent hematite and pyrite minerals in the sample.
6.5-c P-Y I As electrical current flows through the rock, the bulk of the
current is flowing through the aqueous solution filling the
pore system. In the vicinity of a metallic mineral grain, the
electrical current dow is distorted to cause more current to
flow near and through the highly conductive mineral grain.
Such current flow brings to and takes away from the water-
mineral interface charged particles in solution (including ions
I I I I I I I 1-3 and water molecules). At the water-mineral interface,
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
LOG Frequency/Hz oxidation-reduction reactions may occur transferring electrons
p. =l 2.8, m= 0.995, F= 8.1 40, K_=6430 between solution and the metallic mineral. The transfer of
6-l 06WY Mineralized Sandstone electrons involves crossing energy barriers and appears as an
FIG. 8. The complex resistivity spectrum of mineralized sand- impedance. If the speed of the reactions is limited, the inter-
stone from the Powder River Basin near Pumkin Buttes, WY facial impedance will bc frequency-dependent. The slowest, or
measured saturated with 0.001 mol/L KC1 solution. rate-limited, step for this process is either the speed of the
 Low-Frequency Electrical Properties 2497

chemical reaction or the speed of transfer of charged particles dependence of the electrical properties of kinetics-limited reac-
to and from the interface. If the reaction speed is the rate- tions is dependent upon the chemistry and is independent of
limiting step, the process is kinetics-limited. If the movement the particle and pore size distributions. For further details, see
to and from the interface is the rate-limiting step, the process Sluyters-Rehbach and Sluyters (1970).
is diffusion-limited. Further discussion may be found in Most metallic minerals involve several water-mineral reac-
Bockris and Reddy (1970) and Bard and Faulkner (1980). tions and exhibit neither pure dilfusion- nor kinetics-limited
Diffusion-limited processes are characterized by interfacial behavior but a mixture of the two. Further examples are given
impedances which follow a square-root frequency dependence in Angoran and Madden (1977) Klein and Shuey (1979a, b),
and are called Warburg impedances. Figure 9 illustrates the Fink (1981) and Klein et al. (1984). The only mineral that
interfacial impedance of graphite measured in a commercial consistently exhibits pure Warburg behavior is graphite, inde-
three-electrode corrosion cell (Figure 5 of Dean, 1977; Mc- pendent of current density, solution chemistry, and mineral
donald and McKubre, 1981; Epelboin et al., 1981). The solid occurrence. Figures 12 and 13 illustrate similar low-frequency,
lines are the behavior of a pure Warburg impedance (1 153 high-phase. high-nonlinearity behavior despite the fact that
fl. cm’/Hzi’*) and the dashed lines are a Randle’s circuit Figure 12 is massive graphite and Figure 13 is disseminated
(Sluyters-Rehbach and Sluyters, 1970) including 3.1 x 10m6 graphite. Neither example exhibits the square-root frequency
F/cm’ of double-layer capacitance with a Warburg impedance dependence of a pure Warburg impedance because the pore
of 1 335 R. cm*/Hz I‘2 In the right half of Figure 9, the same structure and surface roughness of natural samples decrease
data are replotted on a diagram of equal axes imaginary the frequency dependence.
versus real interfacial impedance. The straight line with a
slope of 45 degrees is a pure Warburg impedance. Thus, ION EXCHANGE
graphite exhibits diffusion-limited behavior.
Because cations are the dominant current carrier in aqueous The processes of ion exchange are less understood than
solution and their diffusion is roughly a constant (dependent those of oxidation-reduction. Olhoeft (1979b) and Olhoeft and
mainly upon temperature), the frequency dependence of elec- Scott (1980) demonstrated that low-frequency, nonlinear com-
trical properties in diffusion-limited systems can be shown to plex resistivity measurements can distinguish ion exchange
be controlled by the metallic particle size distribution (Wong, reactions from oxidation-reduction reactions. The ion ex-
1979; Wong and Strangway, 1981) or the pore size distri- change systems exhibit kinetics-limited, highly asymmetric
bution (Rangarajan, 1969). Thus, the 1 Hz peak in Figure 8 voltage-current waveforms at low frequencies and high Hilbert
exhibits a frequency dependence controlled by the particle or distortion compared to oxidation-reduction systems (Olhoeft,
pore size distribution, and the magnitude of the frequency 1979b).
dependence is determined by the amount of metallic mineral Figures 14 and 15 illustrate the complex resistivity spectra
present. Figure 10 illustrates the dependence of the time con- for montmorillonite and kaolinite clays. The reason why these
stant of relaxation versus particle size for a diffusion-limited materials give high Hilbert distortion is unknown, though it
system from theory and experiment. Note that colloidal size appears to be related to cation exchange capacity (higher in
particles such as clays relax in the megahertz to gigahertz montmorillonite than kaolinite). Also unknown is why clays
frequencies. can exhibit high Hilbert distortion with low THD (this is also
Not all systems are diffusion-limited. Figure 11 illustrates seen in synthetic ion exchange resins, Olhoeft, 1979b).
the interfacial impedance of niccolite (NiAs) in the same way Further, many clays exhibit small but measurable negative
the graphite was shown in Figure 9. Neither a pure 1 314 IP response (the phase angle changes sign at low frequencies
D~cm*/Hz”* Warburg impedance (solid line) nor a 7 616 as shown in Figure 15). The reason for this is unknown,
R. cm2/Hz’!* Warburg impedance plus a 15.0 x 10m6 F/cm* though similar behavior has been observed in other electro-
double-layer capacitance (dashed line) adequately fits the data. chemical systems (Epelboin et al., 198 1).
In the right half of Figure 11, the data can be fit by two Many types of natural organic matter also have high ion
semicircles. The left semicircle represents the double-layer ca- exchange capacity and exhibit high Hilbert distortion as
pacitance, the right one (at lower frequencies) represents the shown in Figure 16. Note, however, the Hilbert distortion of
kinetjcs-limited corrosion of niccolite in water. The frequency the clays in Figures 14 and 15 exhibits a constant offset in the

Graphde W26 1.46E-06 A/cm-Z

25

r,aiiz 0

0-3 -2 -1 0 0‘ 4 6 12 16
LOG Frequency/Hz
Real Ukohm-cm-2

FIG. 9. The interfacial impedance spectrum of graphite in a three-electrode corrosion cell with 0.001 mol/L KC1
solution. The solid curve is the fit to a pure Warburg impedance. The dashed curve is the fit to a Randle’s circuit
containing a Warburg impedance and a double-layer capacitance (see text).
2499 Olhoefl

50 mrad

1
c -50 mrad

g -9.
J
3
-10.
-/ 18
-II -- /
/ -1 y

-12 / x
-3
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6.
I I I I , , , LOG Frequency/Hz
-13-
-9 -6 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 - P. =634, m= 0.998. F=34.900,, K_=4660
LOG RADIUS (ml 60-027 Massive Amorphous Graphite

I I
COLLOIDS

FIG. 10. time constant of relaxation for diffusion-limited pro- FIG. 12. The complex resistivity spectrum of massive amor-
cessesversus radius of particle. The “C” are data from Collett phous graphite from Wadi Bidah, Saudi Arabia saturated in
(1959) and the “G” are data from Grisseman (1971) after 0.001 mol/L KC1 solution.
Pelton et al. (1978). The line labeled “W” is predicted by the
Wong (1979) model and that labeled “T” is predicted by the
Trukhin (1962) model (see Pethig, 1979). The dashed line is
time constant = (radius)2/3.4 x 10m6s.

Niccolitd 21 5.6 4.05E-06 A/cm-P

o-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3’ 0‘ 6 1218243
LOG Frequency/Hz
Real Z/kohm-cm-2

FIG. 11. The interfacial impedance spectrum of niccolite in a corrosion cell in the same way as the graphite of Figure 9
(see text).
 2.46 A’- A.\.
----

././’ -y.
2.42
t

NeglP = 8.1 mrad

1 10 6 mrad 2.5 x-
t
-1 6 mrad

0.6

?
n
2 0.0 0

5
00
5

-4 -3 -2 -1
LOG
0 1 2
Frequency/Hz
3 4 5 -A -2 I
-3 -‘2
8
21
’
b
LOG
u ’
i t
Frequency/Hz
3
I 8
4
a
k
-4

f’. =l 100000, m= 0.994, F=41.700&,=1 14 P. =2.38, m= 0.1 60. F= -.024, k&=839

W63 Graphite Schist API-7 Kaolinite

FIG. 13. The complex resistivity spectrum of graphite bearing FIG. 15. The complex resistivity spectrum of API-7 kaolinite
Dixon schist from near Ticonderoga, NY saturated in 0.001 from Bath, SC composed of 1 part 0.1 mol/L KC1 solution to
mol/l KC1 solution. The missing data points between 10 and 2 parts dry clay by weight.
200 Hz are where the sample impedance exceeds the capabili-
ties of the measurement system (above the solid line in Figure
3).
1.45 -l
me.0 . . . 0.. ‘0. .e
.
l*
1.36 ’ .
l. .
l *e

7 xG__________--________

-2.8 mrad

-1 ;

-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
-3
-3
c -‘2
a6
-‘l
:
0 1
:
2
:
3
: :
4
:
5
I
6
-3

LOG Frequency/Hz LOG Frequency/Hz

p. =1.43. m= 0.778, F= 0.409, L=“lO p. =1.65. m= 0.669, F= 0.349. L=5490

API-26 Montmorillonite Humic Matter

FIG. 14. The complex resistivity spectrum of American Petro-

leum Institute standard bentonite API-26 from Clay Spur, FIG. 16. The complex resistivity spectrum of humic materials
WY composed of 3 parts 0.1 mol/L KC1 solution to 2 parts derived from decomposing organic matter at the bottom of a
dry clay by weight. compost pile measured in its natural state.
2500 Olhoefl

resistivity, whereas the humic matter in Figure 16 exhibits exchange process, the organic molecule must be an organic
convergence at high and low frequencies. cation.
Figure 18 illustrates the effects of organic waste leaking
ORGANIC5 from a landfill into soil that is dominantly smectite in Calcas-
ieu Parrish, Louisiana. The uncontaminated sample (circles)
As noted earlier, organic electrochemistry is less well under- exhibits few of the electrical properties expected from clay
stood than the ion exchange systems. However, several promi- because the natural humic matter of the bayou environment
nent effects have been observed in low-frequency electrical has destroyed the ability of the clay to experience ion ex-
properties such as the organic humic matter of Figure 16. The change, much like the effect discussed for Figure 17. The
most significant effects result when organic materials react organic pollutants have attacked the natural clay-organic
with clay minerals (Harter, 1977; Theng, 1974, 1979, 1982; system and introduced a new process characterized by the
Yariv and Cross, 1979). large phase response near 30 Hz (triangles). Note the accom-
Figure 17 illustrates the electrical properties of core samples panying slight increase in THD and Hilbert distortion nonhn-
that are dominantly montmorillonite with and without earities.
organic pollution from a leaking industrial facility in Hender- The chemistry of organic pollutants frequently involves
son, Nevada (see Olhoeft, 1984, for the borehole log at this dozens to hundreds of chemical compounds, not all of which
site). The uncontaminated sample (circles) exhibits high phase may be identified unambiguously. Thus, it is unlikely that the
at low frequencies and high Hilbert distortion characteristic of full nature of the reactions causing the effects in Figures 17
ion exchange. The contaminated sample (triangles) exhibits and 18 will ever be known. However, the noninvasive nature
reduced Hilbert distortion and shift of the low-frequency of the complex resistivity technique and its ability to observe
phase response to lower frequencies. This is interpreted as such reactions at a distance will be useful in mapping fre-
organic molecules preferentially attaching to the surfaces of quently dangerous organic contaminants. Further, the process
the clay and inhibiting the cation exchange process (some- of organic materials interfering with clay cation exchange has
times called peptization, van Olphen, 1977). DeSilva and Toth been correlated with increasing hydraulic conductivity in clays
(1964) found that the adsorption of high cation exchange ca- (Kutilek and Slangerova, 1966; Anderson et al., 1982). This
pacity organic materials onto smectite causes up to a 94 per- may allow complex resistivity to be used as a monitor for
cent reduction in the cation exchange capacity of the mixture. organic leakage through clay liners at waste disposal sites.
In order to reach the surface of the clay, the organic molecule Figure 19 illustrates the resistivity spectra of a shaly sand
must be water soluble. In order to interfere with the cation from the petroleum producing zone of an oil well. The sample

(
,
,
. ,
, i

Uncontaminated 643+00 5/20-22 0

Contaminated 643+00 3/l O-l 2 b

L, I I I I

I I I:: :-: I I
-‘2 -1 b i 1 3 4 5
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
LOG Frequency/Hz
LOG Frequency/Hz
C f’o =5.61, m= 0.566, F= 0.1 20. K_=749
0 P. =2.32, m= 0.647, F= 0.302, &=2250
D f% =6.1 6. rn= 0.669, F= 0.526. K_=697
D f& =2.1 5. tn= 0.759, F- 0.656, K_=3140

FIG. 17. The complex resistivity spectrum of uncontaminated FIG. 18. The complex resistivity spectrum of uncontaminated
and organic waste contaminated montmorillonitic soil from and organic waste contaminated smectitic soil from the BFI
the EPA Pittman lateral site, Henderson, NV measured with landfill in Calcasieu Parrish, LA measured with its volatile
its volatile content intact. content intact.
 Low-Frequency Electrical Properties 2501
was acquired in a polyvinyl-chloride (PVC) lined core barrel reaction is catalysis of petroleum compounds on clay. How-
and sealed on arrival out of the well. The core barrel was ever, Chevron Oil Field Research Laboratories would not
transported to the laboratory and measured reproducibly in a allow the sample to be analyzed, and the sample provenance
100 percent relative humidity nitrogen glove box with the and treatment are unknown, but the effect was repeatable and
results shown as triangles. Over a period of two hours after very interesting.
exposure to 100 percent relative humidity air, the electrical
properties changed to the smaller phase response (circles). The CONCLUSIONS
change did not reverse upon subsequent remeasurement under
nitrogen. There are a wide variety of geochemical processes that are
An oil well is normally an oxygen-free, reducing environ- observable at a distance with the geophysical techniques of
ment. The Figure 19 triangle data clearly show chemical reac- induced polarization. Commonly, interpretation of IP data
tivity which is destroyed upon exposure to oxygen. Chemical has assumed any response to be caused by pyrite, graphite,
analysis of the sample shows neither present bacterial activity and similar materials which only fall into one class of the
nor evidence of biodegradation of the hydrocarbons (Lisa possible observable reactions. The frequency dependence and
Pratt, pers. comm., 1985), thus ruling out oxygen killing of nonlinear character of complex resistivity spectra are suf-
anaerobic bacteria as an explanation for the observations. The ficiently different to allow oxidation-reduction, cation ex-
reactivity is presumed to be a clay-organic reaction because change, and clay-organic reactions to be distinguished from
the frequency dependence does not fit the expected behavior each other and from barren or reactionless material.
of either clay ion exchange or metallic mineral corrosion. Fur- The identification of these geochemical processes at a dis-
ther, the change was not observed in samples containing clay tance in the ground is useful. Oxidation-reduction reactions
without oil. This raises questions about standard core hand- can be mapped to locate economic mineral deposits. Cation-
ling procedures and of previously reported measurements in exchange processes may be mapped to locate or avoid clays
the literature. For example, had the oil field samples of Vin- and zeolites. Clay-organic processes may be mapped to moni-
egar and Waxman (1984a, b) never been exposed to air, would tor the movement of toxic wastes or locate petroleum reser-
they have seen higher polarizations? voirs.
Last, Figure 20 illustrates an extreme example of negative While more than 50 years of inorganic electrochemistry has
IP. The material is core from an oil well, and the presumed built the necessary background for understanding and ex-
ploitation of oxidation-reduction reactions, much more re-
search is needed to understand fully and utilize the ion ex-
: 47 change and clay-organic processes.
E
s 44
2 1.08
L
b 41 -._.- -.
.?? 0.98
. .e. l . . . .
a
LL 38 0.88

0.7 8

0.68

0.56

NeQlP = 96.2 mrad

0.9
Air 1 OOXRH 7291( 5.3 x- L2.3 mrad
1 OOXRH 7291 I -_- _‘ I 4 1 I
--_-_---s _2.3 mrad
-5.3 x- ,Y

1 1.9 ! .i I
0
I
i- F
*

0
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5
LOG Frequency/Hz
0 Po =43.2. m= 0.403. F= 0.055, l&.=1 81 00
D f’o =46.6. m= 0.670, F= 0.242, ~=151000

FIG. 19. The complex resistivity spectrum of shaly sandstone

from the producing zone of an Amoco Production Co. oil well LOG Frequency/Hz

in the Dakota formation, San Juan Basin, NM measured in P. =.Qi 4. m= 0.500, F= -.077, l&,=324

nitrogen without exposure to air and after exposure to air, COFRl

both with natural volatile content intact. The sample has less
than 2 percent pyrite and 10 percent total clay (equal parts of FIG. 20. The complex resistivity spectrum of a core sample
kaolinite, chlorite, illite, and mixed-layer illite-smectite). The saturated with 0.05 R. m KC1 solution from an unknown oil
sample and mineralogy were provided by Ralph Wiley of well exhibiting strong natural negative IP provided by A. E.
Amoco Production Co. Worthington of Chevron Oil Field Research Co.
2502 Olhoefl

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 Low-Frequency Electrical Properties 2503

APPENDIX

The inversion of the complex resistivity data to acquire the conductivity and the matrix T contains the imaginary part
Faradaic time constant distribution and the determination of such that
Hilbert distortion nonlinearities are both accomplished at the
si = a;-(wi)
same time The total conductivity of a material is given by

a; + io; = crdc
( I + m
s iohF(h)
1 + (ioh)( 1 - m)

a K(r) &
dh
! with

1
T = c$(Wi)

+iw&,K, l+k - xi, =

:Ii 0 1 + ior > 1 + (oirj)l’

where pj = 61iTjXij,

xj = CII~T~~‘&~,
o dc -- dc conductivity = l/p,, ,
Dii=o, and D,j=O,i#j,
occ - Ode
m = volume chargeability = ~ ci= 1,
o, ’
as defined by Siegel (1959) and Pelton et al. (1978), Fj = & with h, = tj(l - m),
F(hJ
F(h) = Faradaic time constant distribution
CC and
with F(h) dh = 1,
.i0 K, = GK(rj).
h = Faradaic time constant, By letting the data point measured at the highest frequency
Eg = vacuum permittivity = 8.854 x 10-r’ F/m, determine E,, and the lowest frequency determine odC, there
exist two matrix equations with two unknown matrices, & and
K, = high-frequency limiting relative dielectric F. However, Fuller and Ward (1970) showed that the Faradaic
permittivity, and dielectric time constant representations are indistinguish-
K, = low-frequency limiting relative dielectric able in a linear system (see also Shuey and Johnson, 1973).
permittivity, Solving the above equation for both I: and & together, and
independently with one arbitrarily set to zero, showed that
s, = Km%> they are also indistinguishable fits to the data shown in the
figures. Since Faradaic mechanisms are more common than
K0 - K,
5 = dielectric chargeability = dielectric mechanisms at low frequencies, assume !$ is zero,
KC4 ’ and solve for the Faradaic time constant distribution
K(T) = dielectric time constant distribution 1p- 1\1y)-‘(o,‘S-
F = (y - CTdCE, &;‘JI-‘T),
,r,
with K(r) d? = 1, and then
I0
and
r = dielectric time constant.
Further, since the real and imaginary parts of the complex
This equation may be rewritten in matrix form as conductivity equation are Hilbert transforms of each other,
the tit of the solution to the data is a test of the Hilbert
transform linearity. Note that this test requires the system to
s: = o& + U!?) + s,, QWK be transformable, linear. and causal but does not require it to
meet the characteristics of minimum phase as is commonly
T = odcW!! + &, D(c + ?%I
assumed. The dielectric solution (instead of the Faradaic solu-
where S is the matrix containing the real part of the complex tion presented here) is given in Olhoeft (1979a).