Statistics for Management

and Research

Chapter 3

Numerical Descriptive Measures

Copyright ©2011 Pearson Education 3-1

 Learning Objectives

In this chapter, you learn:

 To describe the properties of central tendency,
variation, and shape in numerical data
 To calculate descriptive summary measures for a
population
 To construct and interpret a boxplot
 To calculate the covariance and the coefficient of
correlation

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 Summary Definitions
DCOVA
 The central tendency is the extent to which all the
data values group around a typical or central value.
 Measured by a “measure of central tendency”.
 The variation is the amount of dispersion or
scattering of values
 Measured by a “measure of variation”
 The shape is the pattern of the distribution of values
from the lowest value to the highest value.
 Measured by a “measure of shape”

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 Measures of Central Tendency:
The Mean
DCOVA
 The arithmetic mean (often just called the “mean”)
is the most common measure of central tendency

 For a sample of size n:

The ith value
Pronounced x-bar
n

X i
X1  X 2    Xn
X i1

n n
Sample size Observed values
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 Measures of Central Tendency:
The Mean DCOVA
(continued)

 The most common measure of central tendency

 Mean = sum of values divided by the number of values
 Affected by extreme values (outliers)

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Mean = 13 Mean = 14

11  12  13  14  15 65 11  12  13  14  20 70
  13   14
5 5 5 5

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 Measures of Central Tendency:
The Median
DCOVA

 In an ordered array, the median is the “middle”

number (50% above, 50% below)

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Median = 13 Median = 13

 Not affected by extreme values

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 Measures of Central Tendency:
Locating the Median
DCOVA
 The location of the median when the values are in numerical order
(smallest to largest):

n 1
Median position  position in the ordered data
2
 If the number of values is odd, the median is the middle number

 If the number of values is even, the median is the average of the

two middle numbers

Note that
n  1 is not the value of the median, only the position of
2
the median in the ranked data

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 Measures of Central Tendency:
The Mode
DCOVA
 Value that occurs most often
 Not affected by extreme values
 Used for either numerical or categorical (nominal)
data
 There may may be no mode
 There may be several modes

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

No Mode
Mode = 9
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 Measures of Central Tendency:
Review Example
DCOVA
House Prices:  Mean: ($3,000,000/5)
$2,000,000 = $600,000
$ 500,000
$ 300,000
 Median: middle value of ranked
$ 100,000 data
$ 100,000 = $300,000
Sum $ 3,000,000  Mode: most frequent value
= $100,000

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 Measures of Central Tendency:
Which Measure to Choose?
DCOVA

 The mean is generally used, unless extreme values

(outliers) exist.
 The median is often used, since the median is not
sensitive to extreme values. For example, median
home prices may be reported for a region; it is less
sensitive to outliers.
 In some situations it makes sense to report both the
mean and the median.

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 Measures of Central Tendency:
Summary
DCOVA
Central Tendency

Arithmetic Median Mode

Mean
n

X i
X i1
n Middle value Most
in the ordered frequently
array observed
value

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 Measures of Variation
DCOVA
Variation

Range Variance Standard Coefficient

Deviation of Variation

 Measures of variation give

information on the spread
or variability or
dispersion of the data
values.
Same center,
different variation
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 Measures of Variation:
The Range
DCOVA
 Simplest measure of variation
 Difference between the largest and the smallest values:

Range = Xlargest – Xsmallest

Example:

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Range = 13 - 1 = 12

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 Measures of Variation:
Why The Range Can Be Misleading
DCOVA
 Ignores the way in which data are distributed

7 8 9 10 11 12 7 8 9 10 11 12
Range = 12 - 7 = 5 Range = 12 - 7 = 5

 Sensitive to outliers
1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,2,2,2,2,2,2,2,2,3,3,3,3,4,5
Range = 5 - 1 = 4

1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,2,2,2,2,2,2,2,2,3,3,3,3,4,120
Range = 120 - 1 = 119

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 Measures of Variation:
The Sample Variance
DCOVA
 Average (approximately) of squared deviations
of values from the mean
n
 Sample variance:
 (X  X) i
2

S 2 i1
n -1
Where X = arithmetic mean
n = sample size
Xi = ith value of the variable X
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 Measures of Variation:
The Sample Standard Deviation
DCOVA
 Most commonly used measure of variation
 Shows variation about the mean
 Is the square root of the variance
 Has the same units as the original data

n
 Sample standard deviation:  (X  X)
i
2

S i1
n -1

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 Measures of Variation:
Sample Standard Deviation:
Calculation Example
DCOVA
Sample
Data (Xi) : 10 12 14 15 17 18 18 24
n=8 Mean = X = 16

(10  X)2  (12  X)2  (14  X)2    (24  X)2

S
n 1

(10  16)2  (12  16)2  (14  16)2    (24  16)2


8 1

130 A measure of the “average”

  4.3095
7 scatter around the mean
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 Measures of Variation:
Comparing Standard Deviations
DCOVA
Data A
Mean = 15.5
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 S = 3.338

Data B Mean = 15.5

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
S = 0.926
21

Data C Mean = 15.5

S = 4.570
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

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 Measures of Variation:
Comparing Standard Deviations
DCOVA

Smaller standard deviation

Larger standard deviation

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 Measures of Variation:
Summary Characteristics
DCOVA
 The more the data are spread out, the greater the
range, variance, and standard deviation.

 The more the data are concentrated, the smaller the

range, variance, and standard deviation.

 If the values are all the same (no variation), all these
measures will be zero.

 None of these measures are ever negative.

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 Measures of Variation:
The Coefficient of Variation
DCOVA
 Measures relative variation
 Always in percentage (%)
 Shows variation relative to mean
 Can be used to compare the variability of two or
more sets of data measured in different units

 S
CV     100%

X 
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 Locating Extreme Outliers:
Z-Score
DCOVA
 To compute the Z-score of a data value, subtract the
mean and divide by the standard deviation.

 The Z-score is the number of standard deviations a

data value is from the mean.

 A data value is considered an extreme outlier if its

Z-score is less than -3.0 or greater than +3.0.

 The larger the absolute value of the Z-score, the

farther the data value is from the mean.

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 Locating Extreme Outliers:
Z-Score
DCOVA
XX
Z
S

where X represents the data value

X is the sample mean
S is the sample standard deviation

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 Locating Extreme Outliers:
Z-Score
DCOVA
 Suppose the mean math SAT score is 490, with a
standard deviation of 100.
 Compute the Z-score for a test score of 620.

X  X 620  490 130

Z    1.3
S 100 100

A score of 620 is 1.3 standard deviations above the

mean and would not be considered an outlier.

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 Shape of a Distribution
DCOVA

 Describes how data are distributed

 Two useful shape related statistics are:
 Skewness
 Measures the amount of asymmetry in a distribution
 Kurtosis
 Measures the relative concentration of values in the center
of a distribution as compared with the tails

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 Shape of a Distribution
(Skewness)
DCOVA

 Describes the amount of asymmetry in distribution

 Symmetric or skewed

Left-Skewed Symmetric Right-Skewed

Mean < Median Mean = Median Median < Mean

Skewness
Statistic < 0 0 >0
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 Shape of a Distribution
(Kurtosis)
DCOVA

 Describes relative concentration of values in the

center as compared to the tails
Flatter Than Bell-Shaped Sharper Peak
Bell-Shaped Than Bell-Shaped

Kurtosis
Statistic < 0 0 >0
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 Quartile Measures
DCOVA
 Quartiles split the ranked data into 4 segments with
an equal number of values per segment

25% 25% 25% 25%

Q1 Q2 Q3

 The first quartile, Q1, is the value for which 25% of the
observations are smaller and 75% are larger
 Q2 is the same as the median (50% of the observations
are smaller and 50% are larger)
 Only 25% of the observations are greater than the third
quartile

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 Quartile Measures:
Locating Quartiles
DCOVA
Find a quartile by determining the value in the
appropriate position in the ranked data, where

First quartile position: Q1 = (n+1)/4 ranked value

Second quartile position: Q2 = (n+1)/2 ranked value

Third quartile position: Q3 = 3(n+1)/4 ranked value

where n is the number of observed values

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 Quartile Measures:
Calculation Rules
DCOVA
 When calculating the ranked position use the
following rules
 If the result is a whole number then it is the ranked
position to use

 If the result is a fractional half (e.g. 2.5, 7.5, 8.5, etc.)

then average the two corresponding data values.

 If the result is not a whole number or a fractional half

then round the result to the nearest integer to find the
ranked position.

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 Quartile Measures:
Locating Quartiles
DCOVA
Sample Data in Ordered Array: 11 12 13 16 16 17 18 21 22

(n = 9)
Q1 is in the (9+1)/4 = 2.5 position of the ranked data
so use the value half way between the 2nd and 3rd values,

so Q1 = 12.5

Q1 and Q3 are measures of non-central location

Q2 = median, is a measure of central tendency
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 Quartile Measures
Calculating The Quartiles: Example
DCOVA
Sample Data in Ordered Array: 11 12 13 16 16 17 18 21 22

(n = 9)
Q1 is in the (9+1)/4 = 2.5 position of the ranked data,
so Q1 = (12+13)/2 = 12.5

Q2 is in the (9+1)/2 = 5th position of the ranked data,

so Q2 = median = 16

Q3 is in the 3(9+1)/4 = 7.5 position of the ranked data,

so Q3 = (18+21)/2 = 19.5
Q1 and Q3 are measures of non-central location
Q2 = median, is a measure of central tendency
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 Five Number Summary and
The Boxplot
DCOVA

 The Boxplot: A Graphical display of the data

based on the five-number summary:
Xsmallest -- Q1 -- Median -- Q3 -- Xlargest
Example:

25% of data 25% 25% 25% of data

of data of data

Xsmallest Q1 Median Q3 Xlargest

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 Five Number Summary:
Shape of Boxplots
DCOVA
 If data are symmetric around the median then the box
and central line are centered between the endpoints

Xsmallest Q1 Median Q3 Xlargest

 A Boxplot can be shown in either a vertical or horizontal

orientation

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 Distribution Shape and
The Boxplot
DCOVA

Left-Skewed Symmetric Right-Skewed

Q1 Q2 Q3 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q1 Q2 Q3

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 Boxplot Example
DCOVA

 Below is a Boxplot for the following data:

Xsmallest Q1 Q2 Q3 Xlargest
0 2 2 2 3 3 4 5 5 9 27

00 22 33 55 27
27

 The data are right skewed, as the plot depicts

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 Numerical Descriptive
Measures for a Population
DCOVA
 Descriptive statistics discussed previously described a
sample, not the population.

 Summary measures describing a population, called

parameters, are denoted with Greek letters.

 Important population parameters are the population mean,

variance, and standard deviation.

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 Numerical Descriptive Measures
for a Population: The mean µ
DCOVA
 The population mean is the sum of the values in
the population divided by the population size, N

X i
X1  X 2    XN
 i1

N N
Where μ = population mean
N = population size
Xi = ith value of the variable X
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 Numerical Descriptive Measures
For A Population: The Variance σ2
DCOVA
 Average of squared deviations of values from
the mean
N
 Population variance:  (X  μ)
i
2

σ2  i1
N

Where μ = population mean

N = population size
Xi = ith value of the variable X
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 Numerical Descriptive Measures For A
Population: The Standard Deviation σ
DCOVA
 Most commonly used measure of variation
 Shows variation about the mean
 Is the square root of the population variance
 Has the same units as the original data

N
 Population standard deviation:
 i
(X  μ) 2

σ i1
N

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 Sample statistics versus
population parameters
DCOVA

Measure Population Sample

Parameter Statistic
Mean
 X
Variance
2 S2
Standard
 S
Deviation

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 The Empirical Rule
DCOVA
 The empirical rule approximates the variation of
data in a bell-shaped distribution
 Approximately 68% of the data in a bell shaped
distribution is within 1 standard deviation of the
mean or μ  1σ

68%

μ
μ  1σ
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 The Empirical Rule
 Approximately 95% of the data in a bell-shaped
DCOVA
distribution lies within two standard deviations of the
mean, or µ ± 2σ

 Approximately 99.7% of the data in a bell-shaped

distribution lies within three standard deviations of the
mean, or µ ± 3σ

95% 99.7%

μ  2σ μ  3σ
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 Using the Empirical Rule
DCOVA
 Suppose that the variable Math SAT scores is bell-
shaped with a mean of 500 and a standard deviation
of 90. Then,
 68% of all test takers scored between 410 and 590
(500 ± 90).

 95% of all test takers scored between 320 and 680

(500 ± 180).

 99.7% of all test takers scored between 230 and 770

(500 ± 270).

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 Chebyshev Rule
DCOVA
 Regardless of how the data are distributed,
at least (1 - 1/k2) x 100% of the values will
fall within k standard deviations of the mean
(for k > 1)
 Examples:

At least within

(1 - 1/22) x 100% = 75% …........ k=2 (μ ± 2σ)

(1 - 1/32) x 100% = 89% ………. k=3 (μ ± 3σ)

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 The Covariance
DCOVA
 The covariance measures the strength of the linear
relationship between two numerical variables (X & Y)

 The sample covariance:

n

 ( X  X)(Y  Y )
i i
cov ( X , Y )  i1
n 1
 Only concerned with the strength of the relationship
 No causal effect is implied
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 Interpreting Covariance
DCOVA
 Covariance between two variables:
cov(X,Y) > 0 X and Y tend to move in the same direction
cov(X,Y) < 0 X and Y tend to move in opposite directions

cov(X,Y) = 0 X and Y are independent

 The covariance has a major flaw:

 It is not possible to determine the relative strength of the
relationship from the size of the covariance

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 Coefficient of Correlation
DCOVA
 Measures the relative strength of the linear
relationship between two numerical variables
 Sample coefficient of correlation:

cov (X, Y)
r
SX SY
where
n

 (X  X)(Y  Y)
n n
i i  (X  X)
i
2
 (Y  Y)
i
2

cov (X, Y)  i1

SX  i1
SY  i1
n 1 n 1 n 1
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 Features of the
Coefficient of Correlation
DCOVA
 The population coefficient of correlation is referred as ρ.
 The sample coefficient of correlation is referred to as r.
 Either ρ or r have the following features:
 Unit free
 Ranges between –1 and 1
 The closer to –1, the stronger the negative linear relationship
 The closer to 1, the stronger the positive linear relationship
 The closer to 0, the weaker the linear relationship

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 Scatter Plots of Sample Data with
Various Coefficients of Correlation
Y DCOVA
Y

X X
r = -1 r = -.6
Y
Y Y

X X X
r = +1 r = +.3 r=0
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 Ethical Considerations
DCOVA
Numerical descriptive measures:

 Should document both good and bad results

 Should be presented in a fair, objective and
neutral manner
 Should not use inappropriate summary
measures to distort facts

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